Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Study provides major update on Plutonium Isotope Fission
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Prompt Fission Neutron Spectrum (PFNS), India’s 3-stage Nuclear Power Program, Plutonium.
Why in the News?
Recently a study was conducted on Prompt Fission Neutron Spectrum (PFNS) by the US. This study holds significance for design updates in India’s second stage of its nuclear power programme.
India’s Progress in Nuclear EnergyOn March 4, India advanced to the second stage of its nuclear power programme by beginning the core-loading process of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at the Madras Atomic Power Station in Kalpakkam. India’s 3-stage Nuclear Power Program:
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What is Prompt Fission Neutron Spectrum (PFNS)?
- Definition: PFNS refers to neutrons emitted right after a Pu-240 nucleus captures a neutron but before it reaches a stable state.
- Previous Studies: To date, only one study has investigated PFNS for Pu-240-induced fission at 0.85 mega-electron-volt (MeV). Recently, researchers in the U.S. conducted a second study with neutrons of higher energy than 0.85 MeV.
- New Findings: The findings reveal significant differences between predicted and measured PFNS, aiding reactor designers and nuclear medicine practitioners.
About Plutonium-240 and its Fission
- Neutron Capture: When a Pu-239 nucleus captures a neutron, it can either undergo fission or become Pu-240.
- Pu-240 is common in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapon test fallout.
- Pu-240 Behavior: Pu-240 capturing a neutron typically turns into Pu-241.
- If Pu-240 undergoes fission, there’s uncertainty about the energy of its fission products.
- Current models use complex calculations to estimate this output.
Do you know?
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Relevance of PFNS Study to India’s PFBR
- PFBR Use: The PFBR uses plutonium from CANDU (Canada Deuterium Uranium) reactor spent fuel, which contains Pu-240. Reprocessed PFBR spent fuel will also contain Pu-240.
- Importance of New Data: New data on Pu-240 behaviour is essential for improving reactor efficiency and safety.
Production and Characteristics of Pu-240
- Creation of Pu-239: Pu-239 is created when U-238 is exposed to neutrons in a reactor. As Pu-239 captures neutrons, it turns into Pu-240, which builds up over time.
- Spontaneous Fission: Pu-240 undergoes spontaneous fission, emitting alpha particles, and is considered a contaminant in weapons-grade plutonium, where its composition is kept below 7%.
- Reactor-Grade Plutonium: Plutonium with more than 19% Pu-240 is classified as reactor-grade.
Experimental Findings on PFNS
- Research at LANSCE: Researchers at Los Alamos Neutron Science Centre (LANSCE) conducted tests by bombarding a pure Pu-240 sample with neutrons of 0.01-800 MeV energy.
- Detection Setup: The setup included liquid scintillators to detect emitted particles, using a small Pu-240 sample to minimize alpha particle emission.
- Measurement Focus: They measured the energies of neutrons and other fission products, focusing on neutron-induced fission data.
PYQ:[2023] Consider the following statements:
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1 (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct |
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Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power is key to development, says study
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear Energy;
Mains level: Sustainable Development; Energy Sector;
Why in the news?
A recent report published by IIM-A suggested that India must prioritize investment in Nuclear energy sector and expand related infrastructure.
Why India must prioritize investment in the Nuclear energy sector?
India aims to be a developed country by 2047 and is on track to achieve net zero — or effectively zero-carbon dioxide emissions by 2070.
Key findings of the Report:
- Current Energy Mix: Solar energy constitutes 16% of India’s installed generation capacity, while coal comprises 49%. Nuclear energy currently comprises only 1.6% of India’s energy mix
- Significant increase in nuclear power: The best-case scenario shows emissions falling to 0.55 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide by 2070, achieving ‘net zero’. This scenario entails a significant increase in nuclear power capacity, reaching 30 GW by 2030 and 265 GW by 2050.
- Investment Requirements for Nuclear Energy: Achieving the proposed figures for nuclear energy would necessitate a doubling of investments. India would require an estimated ₹150-200 lakh crore between 2020-2070 to finance the necessary transitions in the energy sector
- Need technology-based solution: The authors emphasize that achieving net zero emissions requires a combination of technologies rather than a single solution.
- Transitioning away from coal: Coal is expected to remain a significant component of India’s energy system, serving as the “backbone”. However, transitioning away from coal would require substantial investment
What are the Challenges for India’s Goal of Net-Zero Emissions?
- Uranium Factor: Data by the Central Electricity Authority say solar energy accounts for 16% of India’s installed generation capacity. To achieve these idealistic figures for nuclear energy would require a doubling of investments as well as the assumption that uranium, a critical fuel but restricted by international embargo, is available in necessary quantities.
- Coal Factor: Coal accounts for 49% of India’s capacity. Coal would likely be the “backbone” of the Indian energy system and if the country has to phase down coal in the next three decades, it would need to build adequate infrastructure for alternative sources such as nuclear power, in addition to flexible grid infrastructure and storage to support the integration of renewable energy.
Suggested measures by the Report are:
- Research and Development: Invest in research and development to improve efficiency and reduce costs of renewable energy technologies, as well as advancements in nuclear energy technology.
- Policy Support: Implement supportive policies and regulations to encourage private sector investment in the energy sector, including streamlined approval processes, tax incentives, and renewable energy mandates.
- International Cooperation: Engage in diplomatic efforts to secure access to nuclear fuel and address international embargoes, while also collaborating with other countries on research and development in the energy sector.
Conclusion: India’s path to development by 2047 hinges on prioritizing energy sector investment, as per an IIM-A report. Achieving net zero emissions by 2070, India would need close to ₹150-200 lakh crore between 2020-2070 to finance these transitions.
Mains PYQ
Q With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Nuclear Energy
Onward to Thorium
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thorium-based Reactors
Mains level: Nuclear Energy, Government Initiatives
Why in the News?
Recently, at the start of March 2024, our 500-MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) began fuel-loading, marking the successful completion of commissioning trials and rectification of a range of first-of-its-kind equipment in the fast breeder reactor technology.
Context:
- Homi Bhabha’s spirit of self-reliance has enabled the autonomous pursuit of ‘Thorium Goals’.
- His proposed three-stage strategy aims to develop critical nuclear technologies, starting with modest uranium resources, and achieve a large-scale thorium-based energy program.
- The largest contributor to the climate change-related existential threat we face has created an immediate demand for large-scale deployment of nuclear power plants.
- BHAVINI, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) are responsible for building and operating the PFBR.
What is the significance of thorium in making India energy self-sufficiency?
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- Meeting Energy Demand:
- Boosting Domestic Market:
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- Given the size of India’s population and its economy, its energy demands would lead to serious challenges to energy security.
- For ‘Vikasit Bharat’, India needs around three-and-a-half times more energy, which can come only from nuclear energy, specifically thorium.
- Reducing Imports:
- India has been dependent on energy imports all along. Thorium presents us with a unique opportunity to become energy self-sufficient.
- Renewable energy, including large hydropower projects, can, at best, meet current energy needs.
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- Building Global Perspective:
- India’s long-term Energy security:
- Looking towards India’s level of nuclear energy deployment will, the PFBR is expected to become operational, paving India into the second stage of its three-stage nuclear power programme.
- It works as the gateway for meeting the country’s energy needs for a long time into the future, leveraging India’s vast thorium resources, which are the largest in the world.
- Further, there is no other clean energy source available on the Indian landmass that can cope with India’s energy needs.
- India’s long-term Energy security:
Future Scope:
- Transitioning to Better Fuel:
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- A high-assay, low-enriched uranium (LEU) and thorium fuel capable of delivering a seven-times larger fuel burn-up in the PHWR design is needed.
- ANEEL fuel has been designed and will be available shortly. The ANEEL fuel concept could also bring the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR300-LEU), a fully developed design immune to any severe accident-related anxiety, to reality.
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- Concurrent fuel Recycling Processes:
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- A Fast Reactor Fuel Cycle Facility (FRFCF) that would work alongside the PFBR is coming up.
- Once a sizeable inventory of uranium-233 accumulates, we must bring in reactors specifically designed for thorium and the related fuel-cycle facilities, constituting the third stage of our nuclear power program.
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- Advancement in Fast Reactor Technology:
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- The rapid deployment of PHWRs based on imported uranium allows for the advancement of thorium utilization in PHWRs, facilitating the deployment of third-stage thorium reactor systems, reducing spent fuel inventory, and proliferation resistance, and enhancing safety and economy.
- The fast reactor systems with faster growth based on inherently better breeding performance are needed.
- More reactors on the PFBR model must be constructed to consolidate sodium-cooled fast reactor technology, a key feature of the second stage of the nuclear program.
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- High-temperature reactor:
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- Thorium utilization can be improved in high-temperature reactors to produce low-cost hydrogen with minimal carbon footprint.
- Direct hydrogen production without electricity would make hydrogen production cheaper and less dependent on hydrogen electrolyzers.
Conclusion: The beginning of fuel-loading in PFBR is a significant step that must be celebrated to motivate our scientists and prepare them for the bigger tasks ahead. Sustained encouragement backed up by a demanding but conducive framework around them is the need of the hour. One must move on the thorium path, though it has no parallel anywhere else in the world.
Mains PYQ:
- With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (UPSC 2018)
- Give an account of the growth and development of nuclear science and technology in India. What is the advantage of a fast breeder reactor program in India? (UPSC 2017)
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Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Waste Management and India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear Wastes mentioned in the newscard, Nuclear Fission Reaction
Mains level: Nuclear Waste Management
In the news
- India recently achieved a significant milestone in its nuclear program with the loading of the core of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR).
- However, as India progresses towards energy independence, it faces the complex challenge of managing nuclear waste.
What is Nuclear Waste?
- Composition: Nuclear waste comprises radioactive by-products generated during the fission process in nuclear reactors.
- Radioactive Elements: These by-products include elements such as barium-144, krypton-89, and various isotopes of uranium and plutonium.
Nuclear Waste Handling Techniques
- Spent Fuel Storage: Spent fuel, initially stored underwater for cooling, is later transferred to dry casks for long-term storage. This process is critical due to the high radioactivity of spent fuel. Ex.: The U.S. had 69,682 tonnes of spent fuel (as of 2015), Canada had 54,000 tonnes (2016), and Russia had 21,362 tonnes (2014).
- Liquid Waste Treatment: Nuclear power plants have facilities to treat liquid waste, with some waste being discharged into the environment after treatment.
- Vitrification: Liquid high-level waste is vitrified to form a stable glass for long-term storage.
- Reprocessing: Reprocessing separates fissile material from non-fissile elements in spent fuel, allowing for the reuse of valuable materials. Ex.: India operates reprocessing plants in Trombay, Tarapur, and Kalpakkam.
- Geological Disposal: Some experts advocate for burying nuclear waste deep underground in stable geological formations. Waste is sealed in containers and buried in granite or clay formations, away from human activity.
Challenges and Concerns
- Environmental Risks: Improper waste management can lead to contamination of water resources and surrounding areas.
- Ex.: The Asse II salt mine in Germany faced contamination concerns due to nuclear waste storage.
- Safety Concerns: Accidents at nuclear waste storage sites highlight the need for stringent safety measures.
- Ex.: The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in the U.S. experienced an accident in 2014, releasing radioactive materials.
- Cost Implications: Waste management accounts for a significant portion of the overall cost of nuclear energy production.
- Cost Estimate: Waste management imposes a cost of $1.6-7.1 per MWh of nuclear energy.
India’s Nuclear Waste Management
- On-Site Storage: Low and intermediate-level nuclear waste generated at power stations is treated and stored on-site. India’s PFBR project aims to address waste management challenges by utilizing fast breeder reactor technology.
- IAEA Safeguards: India adheres to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, ensuring the safe and secure handling of nuclear materials and waste.
- Challenges Ahead: The delayed commissioning of the PFBR suggests potential complications in managing spent fuel with different compositions.
Way Forward
- Investment in Research: Continued investment in research and development of advanced waste treatment technologies can enhance efficiency and safety in nuclear waste management.
- International Collaboration: Collaborating with international organizations and sharing best practices can provide valuable insights and expertise in addressing nuclear waste challenges.
- Public Engagement: Engaging with stakeholders and the public to raise awareness about nuclear waste management and address concerns regarding safety and environmental impact is crucial.
- Regulatory Framework: Strengthening regulatory frameworks and implementing robust safety standards can ensure compliance with international guidelines and safeguard against potential hazards.
Conclusion
- As India advances its nuclear program, effective waste management strategies are crucial to mitigate environmental and safety risks.
Try this PYQ from CSE Prelims 2018:
Q.In the Indian context, what is the implication of ratifying the ‘Additional Protocol’ with the `International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)’?
(a) The civilian nuclear reactors come under IAEA safeguards.
(b) The military nuclear installations come under the inspection of IAEA.
(c) The country will have the privilege to buy uranium from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
(d) The country automatically becomes a member of the NSG.
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Nuclear Energy
Is India finally entering stage II of its nuclear programme?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 3-stage Nuclear Power Program, Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)
Mains level: Read the attached story
In the news
PM Modi marked a historic moment in India’s nuclear power journey by overseeing the commencement of core-loading at the indigenous Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) situated in Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. This event signifies a significant stride forward in India’s ambitious nuclear power program, heralding the onset of stage II.
Context:
- As of 2024, nuclear power contributes to around 3.11% of India’s total power generation.
- Nuclear power remains the fifth-largest source of electricity in India, following coal, gas, hydroelectricity, and wind power.
History of India’s Nuclear Power ProgramIndia’s journey in nuclear technology dates back to its independence in 1947. Here is a brief history of India’s Nuclear Power Program:
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About India’s 3-stage Nuclear Power Program
| Description | Timeline | |
| Stage 1 | Relies on pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium as fuel. | Initiated in the 1950s;
Operational since the 1960s |
| Stage 2 | Focuses on developing fast breeder reactors (FBRs) using plutonium-239 produced in Stage 1. | Initiated in the 1970s;
Development phase |
| Stage 3 | Involves the development of thorium-based reactors utilizing India’s significant thorium reserves. | Initiated in the late 1980s/early 1990s;
Research & Development phase |
Do you know?
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What is Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)?
- The PFBR is a machine that produces more nuclear fuel than it consumes. Its core-loading event is being hailed as a “milestone” because the operationalization of the PFBR will mark the start of stage II of India’s three-stage nuclear power program.
- Previously, India used Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and Natural Uranium-238 (U-238), which contain minuscule amounts of U-235, as the fissile material.
- It’s working:
- Basically, in the process of Nuclear Fission, the nucleus of an atom absorbs a neutron, destabilizes, and breaks into two while releasing some energy. If the destabilized nucleus releases more neutrons, the reactor’s facilities will attempt to use them to instigate more fission reactions.
- However, the heavy water in PHWR, the water molecules containing the deuterium isotope of hydrogen – slows neutrons released by one fission reaction enough to be captured by other U-238 and U-235 nuclei and cause new fission.
- This heavy water is then pressurized to keep it from boiling to produce plutonium-239 (Pu-239) and energy.
- Significance of using PFBR:
- Only U-235, not U-238, can sustain a chain reaction but it is consumed fully in stage I. In stage II, India will use Pu-239 together with U-238 in the PFBR to produce energy, U-233, and more Pu-239.
- Liquid sodium serves as the primary coolant, facilitating heat transfer and electricity generation through secondary circuits.
Why was the PFBR delayed?
- Prolonged delays: The PFBR project encountered prolonged delays and cost overruns, attributed to technical complexities and logistical hurdles. Sanctions imposed against India following the ‘Smiling Buddha’ nuclear test in 1974 disrupted the project, necessitating alterations in fuel type and operational parameters.
- Lack of Resources:
- The retirement of experienced personnel involved in the project, coupled with delays in decision-making processes, contributed to project setbacks.
- Escalating costs, reaching ₹6,800 crore by 2019, underscored the financial strain and administrative shortcomings plaguing the project.
- Procurement Issues: Audit reports revealed procurement inefficiencies, with delays averaging 158 days per order, exacerbating project timelines and costs.
- Regulatory Imperatives: Addressing concerns over safety and regulatory oversight remains imperative to ensure public confidence and operational integrity.
Way Forward and Future Prospects:
- Usage of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): SMR designs have a maximum capacity of 300 MW, require less land, and accommodate more safety features. Several countries are developing SMRs to complement conventional [facilities] since SMRs can be installed at reduced cost and time by repurposing.
- Stage II Expansion: The PFBR’s 500 MWe capacity sets the stage for future FBR projects, aligning with India’s energy diversification goals and decarbonization initiatives. Today nuclear power has a new lease of life thanks to the pressure on India to decarbonise, reduce its import of fossil fuels, and give its renewables sector some breathing space.
- In 2019, the DAE proposed building 4 more fast breeder reactors (FBRs) of 600 MWe capacity each – 2 in Kalpakkam in 2021 and two in 2025, with sites to be selected.
Conclusion
- As India navigates the complexities of nuclear power development, the PFBR stands as a testament to technological prowess and strategic foresight.
- While challenges persist, the trajectory of stage II underscores India’s commitment to leveraging nuclear energy for sustainable development and energy security.
- With continued innovation and regulatory reform, India is poised to realize its vision of a robust and self-reliant nuclear energy ecosystem.
Try this Question from CSE Mains 2018:
Q. With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (250 Words, 15 Marks)
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Nuclear Energy
Minimal Radioactive Discharges from Indian Nuclear Plants: Study
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Radioactive wastes mentioned
Mains level: Nuclear Pollution
Introduction
- A recent study conducted by researchers at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, analyzed 20 years of radiological data (2000-2020) from six nuclear power plants in India.
- The findings highlight the minimal impact of radioactive discharges from these plants on the environment.
- The study aims to reinforce India’s commitment to its nuclear power program, challenging unfounded beliefs and influencing public and policy perspectives.
Radiological Analysis and Plant Selection
- Twenty-Year Data: The analysis covered radiological data from 2000 to 2020 from seven nuclear power plants.
- Focus on Fission Products: The study focused on concentrations of fission products and neutron-activated nuclides within a 5 km radius of each nuclear plant, considering samples collected up to a maximum radius of 30 km.
Gaseous and Liquid Discharges
- Components of Gaseous Waste: The gaseous waste released into the atmosphere included fission product noble gases, Argon-41, radioiodine, and particulate radionuclides (cobalt-60, strontium-90, caesium-137, and tritium).
- Liquid Discharge Components: Liquid discharge consisted of fission product radionuclides (radioiodine, tritium, strontium-90, caesium-137) and activation products like cobalt-60.
- Strict Regulatory Compliance: The discharges underwent dilution and dispersion, adhering to strict radiological and environmental regulatory regimes.
Radiological Measurements and Concentrations
- Air Particulates: Average gross alpha activity in air particulates across all seven nuclear plants remained below 0.1 megabecquerel (mBq) per cubic meter.
- Specific Markers: Concentrations of iodine-131, caesium-137, and strontium-90 in air particulates were below 1 mBq per cubic meter for iodine-131, with caesium-137 and strontium-90 concentrations three orders lower and below 10 microbecquerel per cubic meter.
Water Bodies and Sediments
- Rivers, Lakes, and Sea Water: Caesium-137 and strontium-90 concentrations in rivers and lakes were below 5 mBq per liter, and sea water near the nuclear plants registered less than 50 megabecquerel per liter.
- Sediment Analysis: Sediment analysis revealed that caesium-137 concentration was highest at the Rajasthan Atomic Power Station, while strontium-90 concentration peaked at the Narora Atomic Power Station.
Tritium Detection and Total Doses
- Tritium Presence: Tritium was detectable at all sites except the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Station, where it was not detected during the study period.
- Total Doses: Though total doses remained below regulatory limits, Rajasthan, Madras, and Tarapur power plants showed relatively higher total doses. Efforts are being made to further limit doses at these sites to keep them as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
Conclusion
- The BARC study’s comprehensive analysis concludes that the environmental impact of Indian nuclear power plants, based on 20 years of radiological data, has been minimal.
- The findings not only emphasize the safe operation of these plants but also contribute to dispelling unwarranted beliefs, supporting India’s commitment to advancing its nuclear power program.
- The study’s insights are poised to shape public and policy perspectives on nuclear energy in the country.
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Nuclear Energy
In news: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IAEA
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Japan has begun discharging treated radioactive wastewater from the disabled Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station into the Pacific Ocean in a plan endorsed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
- IAEA is an international organization that plays a pivotal role in promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy while preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
- It was established in 1957 as an autonomous agency under the UN is headquartered in Vienna, Austria.
- It plays a crucial role in safeguarding the principles outlined in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1970.
- Despite its independent treaty, the IAEA remains accountable to both the UN General Assembly and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
What does it do?
- Promotion of Peaceful Nuclear Energy: Established amidst the Cold War’s geopolitical tension, the IAEA’s core mission centers on promoting the constructive application of nuclear energy.
- Prevention of Military Use: The agency’s fundamental role is to prevent the diversion of nuclear programs for military intentions, ensuring compliance with international agreements.
IAEA’s Tri-fold Missions
- Peaceful Utilization: Fostering member states’ constructive adoption of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes constitutes a pivotal aspect of IAEA’s mission.
- Safeguarding Measures: A cornerstone role of the IAEA involves implementing measures to verify the non-military use of nuclear energy, particularly through assessing declared nuclear activities and materials.
- Nuclear Safety: The IAEA takes an active stance in advocating stringent standards of nuclear safety to prevent accidents and ensure public and environmental protection.
Significant feature: IAEA’s Safeguards
- Purpose of Safeguards: IAEA’s safeguards are mechanisms designed to affirm that a nation adheres to its international commitment against exploiting nuclear programs for weaponry purposes.
- Verification Approach: Safeguards are founded on the meticulous examination of a state’s reported nuclear materials and activities, evaluating their accuracy and completeness.
- Varied Verification Measures: The agency employs a range of verification tools, including on-site inspections, visits, and ongoing monitoring, ensuring rigorous oversight.
Dual Dimensions of Safeguards
- Declared Nuclear Material Verification: Through the inspection of reported nuclear materials and activities, IAEA ensures that a state remains transparent in its nuclear endeavors.
- Non-Diversion Assurance: A significant facet is the assurance of the absence of undeclared nuclear materials or activities, thereby averting any unauthorized deviation from peaceful usage.
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Nuclear Energy
Fukushima Water Release: Facts and Controversies
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fukushima Disaster
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Japan’s decision to release cooling water from the Fukushima nuclear power plant into the Pacific Ocean has sparked a complex debate.
- Amidst concerns about radiation, environmental impact, and transparency, understanding the facts is vital.
About Fukushima Disaster
- The Fukushima disaster refers to a series of nuclear incidents that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Okuma, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan.
- It followed the powerful earthquake and tsunami that struck on March 11, 2011.
- The disaster resulted in the release of radioactive materials and had significant implications for both human health and the environment.
- It is considered one of the most severe nuclear accidents in history, alongside the Chernobyl disaster.
Why Fukushima Water is Being Released?
- Storage Constraints: The Fukushima facility’s storage tanks are at full capacity due to the need for constant cooling of damaged reactors since the 2011 tsunami disaster.
- Vast Water Volume: The plant requires 170 tons of cooling water daily, with rain and groundwater further exacerbating the issue. The site holds 1,343 million cubic meters of water across 1,046 storage tanks.
- Release Process: Filtered water undergoes a one-kilometre tunnel before entering the Pacific Ocean. This process is expected to span 30 years while the radioactive waste remains on land.
Regulatory Approval and Skepticism
- Regulatory Endorsement: Both Japan’s atomic agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have approved the release, stating negligible radiological impact.
- Skepticism and Concerns: Environmentalists, fishing experts, neighbouring states, and public sentiments accuse Japan of underplaying radiation levels. Concerns encompass ocean contamination, ecological harm, economic loss, and damage to reputation.
Water Preparation and Tritium
- Filter System: Contaminated water passes through the Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS), capable of filtering 62 radioactive elements but not tritium.
- Tritium Dilution: The plant agency intends to dilute tritium concentration to 1,500 Becquerel per liter, a fraction of the safety standard, before releasing it.
- Tritium Safety: Experts assert that tritium, a weak radioactive form of hydrogen, poses minimal risk as it emits weak beta particles, easily blocked by materials like plastic or skin.
Pacific Ocean’s Role and Controversy
- Dilution Principle: Experts stress that “the solution to pollution is dilution.” When water is sufficiently diluted, it becomes safe for both humans and the environment.
- Tritium Focus and Critique: Greenpeace accuses the government and plant agency of focusing on tritium to divert attention from other radioactive elements that won’t be filtered out.
- Alternatives and Considerations: Alternatives like additional tanks or evaporation exist. However, concerns over tank leaks and airborne radioactive releases complicate these options.
Conclusion
- The Fukushima water release debate presents a complex array of scientific, environmental, and geopolitical considerations.
- Striking a balance between environmental preservation, public safety, and responsible nuclear waste management remains a challenging task.
- As experts, activists, and governments deliberate, it’s essential to foster transparency, prioritize informed discussions, and seek solutions that minimize risks and promote global well-being.
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Nuclear Energy
Small Modular Reactors for India’s Clean Energy Transition
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
Mains level: Assessment of SMRs sustainability and viability
Central Idea
- As the world strives to decarbonize and meet U.N. Sustainable Development Goal 7, India stands at a crossroads in its pursuit of affordable, reliable, and sustainable energy.
- Fossil fuels still dominate 82% of the global energy supply, highlighting the pressing need for cleaner power sources.
- While solar and wind energy have gained traction, they alone might not guarantee grid stability and energy security.
What is the news?
- Small modular reactors (SMRs), a type of nuclear reactor, offer India a promising solution to overcome these challenges and achieve its ambitious clean energy goals.
What are Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)?
- Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are a type of nuclear reactor design that aims to offer several advantages over traditional large-scale nuclear reactors.
- They are characterized by their smaller size, modular construction, and potential for enhanced safety features.
- They are designed to be significantly smaller than conventional nuclear reactors, often with electrical outputs of up to 300 megawatts or less.
Decarbonization Challenges and the Role of SMRs
- Global Dependence on Fossil Fuels: The transition from coal-fired power to clean energy sources presents significant challenges worldwide, with solar and wind alone often falling short of ensuring reliability and affordability.
- Importance of Firm Power Generation: To achieve reliable grid operations and reduce costs in renewable energy-rich systems, the integration of at least one firm power-generating technology is crucial.
Advantages of general Nuclear Power Plans
- Contribution of Nuclear Power: Nuclear power plants (NPPs) generate 10% of global electricity, significantly reducing natural gas demand and CO2 emissions.
- Efficiency and Reliability: NPPs provide stable 24×7 power in all weather conditions, aiding grid stability more effectively than variable renewable energy sources.
- Job Creation and Co-benefits: Nuclear power offers high-skill jobs and benefits in technology, manufacturing, and operations.
How SMRs outpower NPPs?
- Addressing NPP Challenges: To counter challenges associated with conventional NPPs, many nations are developing SMRs with a capacity of up to 300 MW.
- Benefits of SMRs:
- Enhanced Safety: SMRs feature lower core damage frequency and radioactive contamination risks compared to conventional NPPs.
- Passive Safety Features: Simpler design and passive safety measures reduce the potential for uncontrolled radioactive releases.
- Reduced Spent Fuel Storage: SMRs produce less spent nuclear fuel, easing storage concerns.
- Brownfield Sites Utilization: SMRs can repurpose existing infrastructure, minimizing land acquisition and displacement issues.
Reasons for SMR’s immediate consideration
- Scalability: SMRs can be used individually or in combination to match varying energy needs, providing flexibility in deployment.
- Reduced Environmental Footprint: SMRs emit fewer greenhouse gases, require less land, and have a smaller visual impact compared to larger reactors.
- Flexibility: SMRs can power remote areas or off-grid communities, adapting to diverse energy requirements and locations.
- Grid Stability: Offering steady baseload power, SMRs contribute to grid stability and complement intermittent renewables.
- Waste Reduction: Some SMRs generate less nuclear waste due to efficient fuel use and smaller size, easing waste management.
- Local Development: Building, operating, and maintaining SMRs create jobs and boost local economies.
Economic and Environmental Aspects
- Sustainability: SMRs can operate for decades with high capacity factors exceeding 90%, contributing to sustainable energy generation.
- Cost Trends: Capital costs for SMRs in the U.S. are around $6,000 per MW, expected to decline further post-2030 with increasing deployment.
India’s Path to Net-Zero with SMRs
- Key Energy Goals: India aims to increase coal-based thermal power capacity and expand variable renewable energy sources to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.
- SMRs as a Catalyst: Integrating SMRs into thermal power plant sites can boost net-zero efforts and enhance energy security.
Harnessing SMRs
(1) Regulatory revamp
- Efficient Regulation: A robust regulatory regime akin to civil aviation’s safety standards is essential for SMRs’ role in decarbonization.
- Global Cooperation: International collaboration among regulators and organizations can streamline approvals and facilitate the safe deployment of SMRs.
(2) Legislative Changes and Collaboration:
- Amendments to Atomic Energy Act: Private sector involvement in SMR setup requires legislative amendments while retaining fuel and waste control under government oversight.
- Empowered Regulatory Board: Creating an independent regulatory board is crucial for overseeing the entire nuclear power generation cycle.
- Strategic Nuclear Fuel Reserve: India’s ‘123 agreement’ allows strategic fuel reserves and reprocessing facilities under IAEA safeguards, ensuring fuel security.
(3) Enhancing Public Perception:
- Public Engagement: The Department of Atomic Energy should disseminate comprehensive environmental and health data about civilian reactors to enhance public perception.
- Consulting people: Many regions of India are already witnessing protests from local residents fuming over the installation of nuclear reactors in their vicinity.
Conclusion
- Embracing small modular reactors presents India with an opportunity to accelerate its transition to clean energy, enhance grid stability, and achieve net-zero emissions.
- The strategic deployment of SMRs, bolstered by sound legislation, international cooperation, and efficient regulation, can play a pivotal role in India’s journey towards a sustainable and energy-secure future.
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Nuclear Energy
Small Modular Reactors
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Small modular reactors
Mains level: India's energy transition, Small modular reactors, advantages, challenges and way ahead
What’s the news?
- The rise of coal consumption in Europe, despite increased solar and wind power, underscores the need for reliable, low-carbon electricity sources.
Central idea
- The global pursuit of decarbonization aligns with UN Sustainable Development Goal 7, which aims to provide affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. With fossil fuels still accounting for 82% of the world’s energy supply, decarbonizing the power sector is imperative. SMRs, a form of nuclear reactor, hold promise for India’s energy landscape by offering a solution to this challenge.
What are Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)?
- Small Modular Reactors are a type of nuclear reactor design characterized by their smaller size, simplified construction, and modular nature.
- Unlike traditional large nuclear power plants, which have a single reactor with a high-power output, SMRs are designed to have a smaller power capacity, typically ranging from a few megawatts (MW) to around 300 MW.
- Their compact size and modular design allow for easier manufacturing, transport, and deployment.
What are the challenges of decarbonisation?
- Insufficient Solar and Wind Energy: Policymakers acknowledge that relying solely on solar and wind energy is inadequate for ensuring affordable energy access globally.
- Critical Minerals Demand Surge: The International Energy Agency predicts a potential 3.5-fold increase in demand for vital minerals (lithium, nickel, cobalt, rare earth elements) needed for clean-energy technologies by 2030.
- Capital Intensive Development: Significant capital investments are required to establish new mines and processing facilities to meet the surging demand for critical minerals.
- Environmental and Social Impacts: The rapid establishment of new mines and plants in regions like China, Indonesia, Africa, and South America carries potential environmental and social consequences.
- Geopolitical and Resource Control Risks: The dominance of a few nations in mineral production and processing (50-100% global capacity) introduces geopolitical vulnerabilities and control risks.
Issues with Nuclear Power
- Time and Cost Overruns: Conventional nuclear power plants often experience delays and cost overruns during construction.
- Resource Dependency: Nuclear power plants’ reliance on uranium creates concerns about resource dependency and supply chain vulnerabilities.
- Public Perception: Despite contributing 10% of global electricity and avoiding 180 billion cubic meters of natural gas demand and 1.5 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions annually, nuclear power faces public concerns related to accidents, waste disposal, and environmental impact.
- Waste Management: Radioactive waste generated by nuclear power requires safe and effective long-term management.
- Safety Risks: While nuclear power plants implement safety measures, events like Chernobyl and Fukushima underscore the potential for catastrophic accidents.
- Environmental Impact: The nuclear power lifecycle, including uranium mining and waste storage, poses various environmental impacts.
- Decommissioning Challenges: Properly decommissioning nuclear power plants presents technical and financial complexities.
Advantages of SMRs
- Enhanced Safety and Simplified Design:
- SMRs have a smaller core damage frequency and source term compared to conventional NPPs.
- Incorporate enhanced seismic isolation and passive safety features.
- Design simplicity reduces the potential for uncontrolled radioactive material release.
- Lower Environmental Impact:
- Due to their simplified design and improved safety features, SMRs have a reduced environmental impact.
- Lower risk of radioactive material release.
- Flexibility and Community Engagement:
- SMRs can be safely installed in brownfield sites, minimizing the need for land acquisition and community displacement.
- SMR projects foster better understanding and acceptance of nuclear power in local communities.
- Energy Security and Fuel Efficiency:
- SMRs contribute to energy security by diversifying energy sources and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
- Many land-based SMRs use low-enriched uranium, sourced from countries with uranium mines and enrichment facilities.
- Cost-Effectiveness and Long Operational Lifespan:
- The Projected levelized cost of electricity from SMRs is between $60-90 per MWh.
- Costs are expected to decrease as deployment and manufacturing efficiency improve.
- SMRs are designed for over 40 years of operation, providing stable, long-term, low-carbon electricity.
- Coal-to-Nuclear Transition:
- Deploying SMRs aids in transitioning from coal-based power generation to nuclear energy.
- Facilitates progress toward net-zero emissions
Integration of SMRs with the National Grid
- Energy Generation Enhancement:
- India’s Central Electricity Authority (CEA) projects a need to increase coal-based thermal power plants (TPPs) capacity from 212,000 MW to 259,000 MW by 2032.
- The Generation capacity of Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) sources is projected to grow from 130,000 MW to 486,000 MW.
- Energy Storage Requirement:
- Integration of power from VRE sources with the national grid requires additional energy storage: Battery storage: 47,000 MW/236 GWh and Hydroelectric facilities: 27,000 MW.
- Projected Energy Contribution by 2031-2032:
- TPPs are expected to provide more than 50% of India’s total electricity generation.
- VRE sources are projected to contribute around 35%.
- NPPs, including SMRs, are estimated to contribute 4.4%.
Way Forward
- Global Regulatory Alignment:
- Facilitate collaboration among countries adopting nuclear energy.
- Harmonize regulatory requirements under the guidance of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to expedite approvals for standardized Small Modular Reactors (SMRs).
- Energy Mix Optimization:
- Balancing coal-based thermal power plants (TPPs), Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) sources, and nuclear power, including SMRs.
- Prioritize capacity enhancement of TPPs and VRE sources to meet rising energy demands.
- Legal and Regulatory Adaptation:
- Amend the Atomic Energy Act to enable private sector involvement in SMRs.
- Maintain government control over nuclear fuel, waste, and security.
- Regulatory Empowerment:
- Enact a law to establish an independent regulatory board overseeing all nuclear power generation stages.
- Ensure compliance with safety, security, and safeguards measures.
- Secure SMR Operation: Retain government control over SMR security while facilitating private sector operation under appropriate supervision.
Conclusion
- Small modular reactors represent a promising avenue for India’s energy transition, offering enhanced safety, scalability, and alignment with decarbonization goals. Addressing regulatory, legal, and investment challenges can catalyze India’s shift towards a sustainable and secure energy future.
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Nuclear Energy
Private: Molybdenum-99
Nuclear Energy
Whether The Nuclear Power in India Should Be Phased Out?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear energy, applications and elements such as Uranium, Thorium,
Mains level: Nuclear power phasing down discussion
Central idea
- Germany has recently shut down its last nuclear power plant, and France, the nuclear powerhouse of the world, is struggling to replenish its stock of aging reactors. With solar and wind power becoming more popular globally, the question arises whether nuclear power, with its attendant concerns on cost and safety, remains a relevant option for a fossil-free future, particularly in India. The question here arises is that whether the nuclear power in India should be phased out?
Global outlook for nuclear power
- Nuclear power renaissance in Europe and US: A lot has happened in the last two years. Particularly after the Ukraine war, nuclear power is seeing a renaissance, even in Europe and the U.S.
- China: China has anyway been surging ahead on nuclear power.
- South Korea: South Korea’s new president has changed the energy policy and committed to increasing the share of nuclear power in the country’s energy mix to 30% by 2030.
- Japan: Japan, which should have completely shut down reactors after the Fukushima (accident), is restarting them, 10 have been restarted following years of inspection and upgrading safety systems, and I believe that the plan is to start 10 more. Japan had to do that because it was otherwise dependent either on expensive, imported coal or on natural gas (LNG).
- UK: Beyond Germany, the U.K. has said that without scaling up nuclear power, it won’t be possible to decarbonise the electricity sector.
Facts for prelims
| Element | Deposits in India | Applications | Advantages | Disadvantages |
| Uranium | Jaduguda, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Banduhurang, Mohuldih and Turamdih in Jharkhand; Lambapur-Peddagattu in Telangana; Gogi in Karnataka; and Tummalapalle in Andhra Pradesh | Electricity generation, nuclear weapons, nuclear medicine | Low carbon emissions, efficient energy production, cost-effective | Radioactive waste management, risk of nuclear accidents, non-renewable |
| Thorium | Kerala coast, Bihar, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and Rajasthan | Electricity generation, nuclear weapons, nuclear medicine | More abundant than uranium, low levels of radioactivity, more efficient energy production than uranium | Requires a breeder reactor, expensive, currently not widely used |
Why nuclear power is considered low-carbon or green energy?
- Low greenhouse gas emissions: Nuclear power plants do not produce carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases during their operation, unlike fossil fuel plants that emit large amounts of carbon dioxide and contribute to climate change.
- High energy density: Nuclear fuel contains a very high energy density, which means that a small amount of fuel can produce a large amount of energy. This makes nuclear power a very efficient and reliable source of energy.
- Energy security: Nuclear power plants provide a stable and reliable source of energy, which can help to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and improve energy security.
- Reduced air pollution: Nuclear power plants do not emit pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or particulate matter, which can have negative impacts on human health and the environment.
- Land use: Nuclear power plants require much less land than renewable energy sources such as wind or solar power, which can help to conserve land and natural habitats.
How Nuclear energy is also responsible for greenhouse gas emissions?
- Nuclear energy itself does not emit greenhouse gases during its operation, but it does produce greenhouse gas emissions during the lifecycle of the plant, including mining, processing, and transportation of nuclear fuel.
- The construction and decommissioning of nuclear power plants also produce greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, nuclear power plants rely on fossil fuels for the transportation of nuclear fuel and the operation of auxiliary systems.
- The greenhouse gas emissions associated with nuclear energy are significantly lower than those associated with fossil fuels, but they are not zero.
Why is there resistance to nuclear energy?
- Safety concerns: The risk of nuclear accidents, such as those that occurred at Chernobyl and Fukushima, have led to safety concerns about nuclear power plants. The potential for radioactive contamination and long-term health effects on the surrounding population have made many people wary of nuclear power.
- Nuclear proliferation: The possibility that nuclear power could be used to develop nuclear weapons is a concern for many countries, particularly those with nuclear weapons programs themselves.
- Waste disposal: The radioactive waste produced by nuclear power plants is dangerous and must be stored safely for hundreds of thousands of years. Finding a safe and secure method of storing this waste is a major challenge.
- Cost: Nuclear power plants are expensive to build and maintain. Cost overruns and delays are common, and the cost of decommissioning nuclear power plants at the end of their life can be significant.
- Public perception: Nuclear power has a negative public image in many countries, with many people associating it with danger and disaster.
Facts for Prelims
| Uranium | Thorium | |
| Atomic number | 92 | 90 |
| Natural isotopes | U-238, U-235, U-234 | Th-232 |
| Radioactivity | Highly radioactive | Weakly radioactive |
| Fissile | U-235 is fissile | Not fissile |
| Nuclear weapons | Can be used to create nuclear weapons | Cannot be used to create nuclear weapons |
| Nuclear power | Widely used for nuclear power | Not commonly used for nuclear power |
| Decay products | Produces many long-lived and dangerous decay products | Produces fewer and less dangerous decay products |
| Availability | Limited reserves | Abundant reserves |
| Waste disposal | Radioactive waste remains dangerous for thousands of years | Radioactive waste decays faster and becomes less dangerous |
| Environmental impact | Can have significant environmental impact | Considered less environmentally damaging than uranium mining |
| Health effects | Exposure can cause serious health effects, including cancer | Less harmful to human health than uranium |
What are the concerns over radioactivity from spent fuel?
- Long-term storage: Spent nuclear fuel remains radioactive for thousands of years and requires careful handling and storage to prevent any potential exposure to humans and the environment.
- Accidents: Accidents during transportation or storage of spent nuclear fuel can result in the release of radioactive material, which can cause severe environmental damage and health risks to humans and other living organisms.
- Nuclear proliferation: Spent nuclear fuel can also be used to create nuclear weapons, and there are concerns about the risk of nuclear proliferation and the potential use of these weapons.
- Disposal: The long-term disposal of spent nuclear fuel is also a major challenge, as it requires finding safe and secure locations to store the material for thousands of years.
Why India should never consider phasing out nuclear power?
- Limited growth potential for hydropower: India has limited growth potential for hydropower due to factors such as conserving biodiversity, rehabilitating and compensating landowners, and seismological factors in the Himalayas. Therefore, nuclear power is an alternative to coal-based power plants.
- Net-zero emissions goal: To achieve the goal of net-zero carbon emissions by 2070, India needs a combination of small modular reactors and large reactors. Therefore, multiple companies need to be allowed to operate nuclear reactors rather than a monopoly by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited.
- Firm, reliable and low-carbon power: Nuclear power is a source of firm, dispatchable power that is low carbon and reliable. It can provide a constant and stable source of electricity, especially when wind and solar energy are intermittent or variable.
- Access to nuclear fuel: India has limited access to enriched uranium, which is required to fuel nuclear reactors. However, the country’s nuclear program is based on working around its limited supply of enriched uranium, and it has not faced any significant issues in accessing nuclear fuel.
- Portfolio of technologies: A mix of supply-side and demand-side technologies is required to solve energy problems. Nuclear power can be a part of the portfolio of technologies that India needs to achieve its energy goals. Therefore, policy frameworks should be enabling rather than technology-specific.
Mains Question
Q. Do you agree with the statement that ‘Without scaling up nuclear power, it won’t be possible to decarbonise the electricity sector.
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Nuclear Energy
Ambiguities in India’s Nuclear Liability Law
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central idea: The article discusses how the issues regarding India’s nuclear liability law are holding up the plan to build six nuclear power reactors in Maharashtra’s Jaitapur, which is the world’s biggest nuclear power generation site under consideration at present.
Law governing nuclear liability in India
Ans. Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010
| Provision | Description |
| Purpose of CLNDA | To provide a speedy compensation mechanism for victims of a nuclear accident |
| Liability on operator | Strict and no-fault liability on the operator of the nuclear plant, where the operator will be held liable for damage regardless of any fault on its part |
| Amount of liability | In case of damage caused by an accident, the operator will have to pay ₹1,500 crore |
| Insurance or financial security for liability | The operator is required to cover liability through insurance or other financial security |
| Government liability in case of excessive claims | If the damage claims exceed ₹1,500 crore, the CLNDA expects the government to step in and has limited the government liability amount to the rupee equivalent of 300 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) or about ₹2,100 to ₹2,300 crore |
The concept of Supplier Liability
- The CLNDA introduced the concept of supplier liability in addition to operator liability in India’s civil nuclear liability law.
- The international legal framework on civil nuclear liability, including the annex of the CSC, is based on the exclusive liability of the operator of a nuclear installation.
- CLNDA Section 17(b) allows the operator of the nuclear plant to exercise the right of recourse against the supplier in case of a nuclear incident resulting from an act of the supplier or their employee, including the supply of defective equipment or materials.
Why is it the issue in Nuclear Deals?
- Undue liability: Foreign and domestic suppliers have been hesitant to enter into nuclear deals with India due to the country’s unique liability law, which allows suppliers to be held liable for damages.
- Lack of clarity: on how much insurance needs to be set aside in case of damage claims and the potential for unlimited liability have been major concerns for suppliers.
- Unlimited liability: Suppliers have taken issue with two specific provisions in the law – Section 17(b) and Section 46 – which expose them to liability beyond that of the operator of the nuclear plant. Section 46 potentially allows civil liability claims to be brought against both the operator and suppliers through other civil laws such as the law of tort, further exposing suppliers to unlimited amounts of liability.
Existing projects in India
- The Jaitapur nuclear project has been delayed for over a decade.
- India has signed civil nuclear deals with the US, France, and Japan, but the only foreign presence in India is that of Russia in Kudankulam, which predates the nuclear liability law.
- The government has stated that the Indian law is in line with the Convention on Supplementary Compensation (CSC).
Government’s stand
- The Indian law is in line with the Convention on Supplementary Compensation (CSC).
- However, legal experts have pointed out that suppliers can be sued if defective equipment is provided or if it can be established that the damage resulted from an act of intent.
- It would not be sound public policy if the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) waived its right to recourse in the contract, despite the law providing for such recourse.
Conclusion
- The issues regarding the liability law would be resolved before French President Emmanuel Macron’s visit to India, which was first scheduled for March but has been pushed to September.
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Nuclear Energy
Physicists discover new Uranium Isotope
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Uranium isotopes, Radioactivity
Mains level: NA
Physicists in Japan have discovered a new isotope of uranium, with atomic number 92 and mass number 241.
Uranium
- Uranium is a naturally occurring chemical element with the symbol U and atomic number 92.
- It is a heavy metal that is radioactive and found in small quantities in rocks and soils worldwide.
- Uranium has several isotopes, which are atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes of Uranium
The most common isotopes of uranium are uranium-238 and uranium-235.
- Uranium-238: It is the most abundant isotope of uranium, accounting for over 99% of natural uranium. It has 92 protons and 146 neutrons in its nucleus. It is not fissile, which means it cannot sustain a nuclear chain reaction. However, it is fertile, which means it can absorb neutrons and undergo radioactive decay to produce other isotopes such as plutonium-239, which is fissile.
- Uranium-235: It is the second most abundant isotope of uranium, accounting for less than 1% of natural uranium. It has 92 protons and 143 neutrons in its nucleus. Unlike uranium-238, it is fissile, which means it can sustain a nuclear chain reaction. It is used as fuel in nuclear reactors and as the primary material for nuclear weapons.
How are isotopes created?
- Isotopes can be created through natural processes or artificial processes in a laboratory.
- Isotopes are created through natural processes such as radioactive decay, cosmic ray interactions, and nuclear fusion reactions in stars.
- For example, carbon-14 is created in the Earth’s upper atmosphere when cosmic rays interact with nitrogen atoms.
- Isotopes can also be created artificially through nuclear reactions.
- This involves bombarding atoms with particles such as protons, neutrons, or alpha particles, which can change the number of protons and/or neutrons in the nucleus.
How uranium-241 was found?
- To find uranium-241, the researchers accelerated uranium-238 nuclei into plutonium-198 nuclei using the KEK Isotope Separation System (KISS).
- In a process called multinucleon transfer, the two isotopes exchanged protons and neutrons, resulting in nuclear fragments with different isotopes.
- The researchers identified uranium-241 and measured the mass of its nucleus using time-of-flight mass spectrometry.
- Theoretical calculations suggest that uranium-241 could have a half-life of 40 minutes.
Significance of the discovery
- The discovery is significant because it refines our understanding of nuclear physics, particularly the shapes of large nuclei of heavy elements and how often they occur.
- This information helps physicists to design models for nuclear power plants and exploding stars.
Also, what are Magic numbers?
- There is a particular interest in ‘magic number’ nuclei, which contain a certain number of protons or neutrons that result in a highly stable nucleus.
- Lead (82 protons) is the heaviest known ‘magic’ nucleus, and physicists have been trying to find the next element with magic numbers.
- The researchers hope to extend their systematic mass measurements towards many neutron-rich isotopes, at least to neutron number 152, where a new ‘magic number’ is expected.
Conclusion
- The discovery of the new neutron-rich uranium isotope is a major breakthrough in nuclear physics, as it provides essential information for understanding the behavior of heavy elements.
- The researchers’ aim to extend their measurements to other neutron-rich isotopes reflects their commitment to exploring the frontiers of nuclear science and to improve our understanding of the universe.
- Discovering new magic number nuclei through these measurements could have practical applications in designing safer and more efficient nuclear power plants and understanding the properties of exploding stars.
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Nuclear Energy
Background Radiation high in Kerala: Study
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Background Radiation
Mains level: Not Much
Central idea: The article discusses a pan-India study conducted by scientists at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) which found that background radiation levels in parts of Kerala are nearly three times more than what’s been assumed.
What is Background Radiation?
- Background radiation is a measure of the level of ionizing radiation present in the environment at a particular location which is not due to deliberate introduction of radiation sources.
- Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial.
Nuclear Radiation and its Types
There are three main types of nuclear radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. 1. Alpha particles are made up of two protons and two neutrons and are essentially helium nuclei. They have a positive charge and are relatively large and heavy, which means they can be stopped by a piece of paper or the outer layer of skin. 2. Beta particles are high-energy electrons that are emitted from the nucleus of an atom. They have a negative charge and are much smaller than alpha particles, which means they can penetrate through the skin and into the body. 3. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation, similar to X-rays. They are emitted from the nucleus of an atom and have no charge. They are extremely penetrating and can travel long distances through air and most materials, including the human body. |
How is it measured?
- The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) specifies maximum radiation exposure levels and this has also been adopted by India’s atomic energy establishment.
- Public exposure shouldn’t exceed 1 milli-Sievert every year, those who work in plants or are by virtue of their occupation shouldn’t be exposed to over 30 milli-Sievert every year.
- Generally it is measured in nanogray per second. A (nGy/s) is a decimal fraction of the SI-derived unit of ionizing radiation absorbed dose rate.
Natural sources-
- Cosmic radiation
- Environmental radioactivity from naturally occurring radioactive materials (such as radon and radium)
Man-made sources-
- Medical X-rays,
- Fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents.
Factors affecting such radiation
- Natural background radiation is all around us.
- Background radiation varies from place to place and over time, depending on the amount of naturally occurring radioactive elements in soil, water and air.
- Weather conditions also affect radiation levels, as snow cover may shield these elements, and radioactive particulates can wash out of the air during rain storms.
- Cosmic radiation from the sun, our galaxy, and beyond is constantly around us and contributes to natural background radiation.
- Altitude and latitude can also influence the level of background radiation at any one site.
How threatening is it?
- All rocks and soils contain some trace amount of natural radioactivity and can sometimes be ingested or inhaled if disturbed.
- Radon is a gas that can concentrate indoors and be inhaled, along with its decay products.
- We can also ingest radioactivity from the food we eat and the water we drink.
- A number of factors determine the annual dose you and your family receive from background radiation.
- Typically, Gamma rays are a type of such radiation that can pass through matter unobstructed, and are harmless in small doses, but can be dangerous in concentrated bursts.
Findings of the BARC Study
- The study found that the average natural background levels of gamma radiation in India was 94 nGy/hr (nano Gray per hour) (or roughly 0.8 millisievert/year).
- The last study conducted in 1986 computed such radiation to be 89 nGy/hr.
- The study found that the levels in Kollam district, Kerala were 9,562 nGy/hr, or about three times more than what was assumed.
- This computes to about 70 milliGray a year, or a little more than what a worker in a nuclear plant is exposed to.
- This however does not necessarily mean that those at Kollam are being exposed to dangerous levels of radiation, as past studies have not found any higher rates of cancer or mortality.
Reasons for Higher Radiation Levels in Kerala
- The higher radiation levels in Kollam are attributed to monazite sands that are high in thorium, which is part of India’s long-term plan to sustainably produce nuclear fuel.
- Southern India has higher levels of radiation due to the presence of granite and basaltic, volcanic rock, which contains uranium deposits.
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Nuclear Energy
A milestone in fusion energy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Basics- Fusion energy and applications
Mains level: Read the attached article
Context
- For more than nine decades scientists have tried to replicate the process that produces energy for the sun and the stars fusion. On Tuesday, researchers at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in California, USA, announced a milestone in this endeavor.
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What is the research?
- Merged two nuclei to produce a heavier nucleus: They merged two nuclei to produce a heavier nucleus. Their reactor produced about 1.5 times more energy than what was used in the process. In all the earlier attempts to harness the power of fusion, the reactors used up more energy than what was produced.
- It will take at least two decades to be pioneered: But scientists say that it will be at least two decades before the process pioneered in the California laboratory can be scaled up.
- Still a great leap where the world is in search of green technologies: Even then, in a world desperately searching for technologies that can power the developmental needs of nations without adding to the GHG load, the breakthrough at NIF has generated excitement.
What is Fusion?
- Fusion works by pressing hydrogen atoms into each other with such force that they combine into helium, releasing enormous amounts of energy and heat.
- This process occurs in our Sun and other stars.
- Creating conditions for fusion on Earth involves generating and sustaining a plasma.
- Plasmas are gases that are so hot that electrons are freed from atomic nuclei.
What is Fusion Energy?
- The process releases energy because the total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the mass of the two original nuclei.
- The leftover mass becomes energy.
Why is it perceived as energy of the future?
- Carbon free: Fusion Reactions could one day produce nearly limitless, carbon-free energy, displacing fossil fuels and other traditional energy sources.
- Efficient: Net energy gain has been an elusive goal because fusion happens at such high temperatures and pressures that it is incredibly difficult to control.
- Clean: Unlike other nuclear reactions, it doesn’t create radioactive waste.
Why it is considered as significant research, though it will take at least two decades to be commercialized?
- Countries are shifting towards renewable energies: Several countries are shifting to renewable energies to meet their international climate-related commitments. Yet, power generation currently is responsible for 25-30 per cent of global GHG emissions.
- Unstable nature of renewables: The inherently unstable nature of renewables means that countries find it very difficult to jettison fossil-fuel energy sources.
- Nuclear energy is relatively cleaner: Conventionally-produced nuclear energy that uses fission technology is relatively cleaner. But accidents at Chernobyl in 1986 and Fukushima in 2011 have raised serious questions over the safety of fission-powered plants. According to the IEA’s best-case scenario, the world’s nuclear energy generation capacity is likely to double by 2050 compared to 2020.
Conclusion
- The global body has repeatedly flagged concerns about the efficacy of the nuclear reactors by and large in the US and Europe given that about two-thirds of them have been in operation for more than 30 years. It has also maintained that the realisation of the best-case scenario would require significant investments in innovative nuclear technologies.
Mains question
Q. Recently researchers at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in USA tried to replicate the process that produces energy for the sun and the stars fusion, discuss the significance of this research.
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Nuclear Energy
US scientists announce breakthrough in Fusion Energy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fusion Energy
Mains level: Clean energy developments
US announced a “major scientific breakthrough” in the decades-long quest to harness fusion, the energy that powers the sun and stars.
What is Fusion?
- Fusion works by pressing hydrogen atoms into each other with such force that they combine into helium, releasing enormous amounts of energy and heat.
- This process occurs in our Sun and other stars.
- Creating conditions for fusion on Earth involves generating and sustaining a plasma.
- Plasmas are gases that are so hot that electrons are freed from atomic nuclei.
How is it carried out?
- Three conditions must be fulfilled to achieve fusion in a laboratory:
- Very high temperature (on the order of 150,000,000° Celsius);
- Sufficient plasma particle density (to increase the likelihood that collisions do occur); and
- Sufficient confinement time (to hold the plasma, which has a propensity to expand, within a defined volume).
- At extreme temperatures, electrons are separated from nuclei and a gas becomes a plasma—often referred to as the fourth state of matter.
- Fusion plasmas provide the environment in which light elements can fuse and yield energy.
Fusion Energy
- The process releases energy because the total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the mass of the two original nuclei.
- The leftover mass becomes energy.
What did the US achieve?
- The US experiment uses a process called inertial confinement fusion.
- It involved bombarding a tiny pellet of hydrogen plasma with the world’s biggest laser.
Why is it perceived as energy of the future?
- Carbon free: Fusion Reactions could one day produce nearly limitless, carbon-free energy, displacing fossil fuels and other traditional energy sources.
- Efficient: Net energy gain has been an elusive goal because fusion happens at such high temperatures and pressures that it is incredibly difficult to control.
- Clean: Unlike other nuclear reactions, it doesn’t create radioactive waste.
Fusion still far from reality. Why?
- Significant though the achievement is, it does little to bring the goal of producing electricity from fusion reactions any closer to reality.
- By all estimates, use of the fusion process for generating electricity at a commercial scale is still two to three decades away.
- The technology used in the US experiment might take even longer to get deployed.
India’s progress: ITER project
- International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is one of the most ambitious energy projects in the world today.
- The idea for an international joint experiment in fusion was first launched in 1985.
- In southern France, 35 nations* are collaborating to build the world’s largest tokamak, a magnetic fusion device that has been designed to prove the feasibility of fusion.
- ITER is funded and run by seven member parties: China, the European Union, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea and the United States.
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Nuclear Energy
Russia offers advanced nuclear fuel for Kudankulam Reactor
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear Enrichment
Mains level: Not Much
The Russian state-owned nuclear energy corporation Rosatom has offered a more advanced fuel option to India’s largest nuclear power station at Kudankulam, which will allow its reactors to run for an extended 2-year cycle without stopping to load fresh fuel.
What is the news?
- Rosatom’s nuclear fuel division, TVEL Fuel Company, is the current supplier of TVS – 2 M fuel for the two VVER 1,000 MWe reactors generating power in the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KKNPP).
- This fuel has an 18-month fuel cycle, meaning that the reactor has to be stopped for fresh fuel loading every one-and-a-half years.
- TVEL has now offered the more modern Advanced Technology Fuel (ATF), whose fuel cycle is a whopping 24 months.
Benefits of the move
- This fuel will ensure more efficiency and additional power generation due to the prolonged operation of the reactor.
- It will result in sizable savings of the foreign exchange need to buy fresh fuel assemblies from Russia.
What is the Nuclear Fuel Cycle?
- The nuclear fuel cycle consists of front-end steps that prepare uranium for use in nuclear reactors and back-end steps to safely manage, prepare, and dispose of used—or spent—but still highly radioactive spent nuclear fuel.
- Uranium is the most widely used fuel by nuclear power plants for nuclear fission.
- Nuclear power plants use a certain type of uranium—U-235—as fuel because its atoms are easily split apart.
- Although uranium is about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare at just over 0.7% of natural uranium.
Steps involved in fuel enrichment
- Uranium concentrate is separated from uranium ore at uranium mills or from a slurry at in-situ leaching facilities.
- It is then processed in conversion and enrichment facilities, which increases the level of U-235 to 3%–5% for commercial nuclear reactors, and made into reactor fuel pellets and fuel rods in reactor fuel fabrication plants.
- Nuclear fuel is loaded into reactors and used until the fuel assemblies become highly radioactive and must be removed for temporary storage and eventual disposal.
- Chemical processing of spent fuel material to recover any remaining product that could undergo fission again in a new fuel assembly is technically feasible.
Back2Basics: Uranium Enrichment
- It is a process that is necessary to create an effective nuclear fuel out of mined uranium.
- It involves increasing the percentage of uranium-235 which undergoes fission with thermal neutrons.
- Nuclear fuel is mined from naturally occurring uranium ore deposits and then isolated through chemical reactions and separation processes.
- These chemical processes used to separate the uranium from the ore are not to be confused with the physical and chemical processes used to enrich the uranium.
Why is enrichment carried out?
- Uranium found in nature consists largely of two isotopes, U-235 and U-238.
- Natural uranium contains 0.7% of the U-235 isotope.
- The remaining 99.3% is mostly the U-238 isotope which does not contribute directly to the fission process (though it does so indirectly by the formation of fissile isotopes of plutonium).
- The production of energy in nuclear reactors is from the ‘fission’ or splitting of the U-235 atoms since it is the main fissile isotope of uranium.
- Naturally occurring uranium does not have a high enough concentration of Uranium-235 at only about 0.72% with the remainder being Uranium-238.
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Nuclear Energy
What is TVS-2M Nuclear Fuel?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: TVS-2M Nuclear Fuel
Mains level: Not Much
Russia has supplied the first batches of more reliable and cost-efficient nuclear fuel over the existing one, the TVS-2M nuclear fuel, to India for the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KNPP).
What is TVS-2M Nuclear Fuel?
- The TVS-2M FAs contain gadolinium-oxide which is mixed with U-235 enrichments.
- The core does not contain BARs (Burnable Absorbers Rods).
How are they prepared?
- Once the uranium is enriched, it is ready to be converted into nuclear fuel.
- At a nuclear fuel fabrication facility, the UF6, in solid form, is heated to gaseous form, and then the UF6 gas is chemically processed to form uranium dioxide (UO2) powder.
- The powder is then compressed and formed into small ceramic fuel pellets.
- The pellets are stacked and sealed into long metal tubes that are about 1 centimetre in diameter to form fuel rods.
- The fuel rods are then bundled together to make up a fuel assembly.
- Depending on the reactor type, each fuel assembly has about 179 to 264 fuel rods.
- A typical reactor core holds 121 to 193 fuel assemblies.
Benefits offered
- TVS-2M fuel assemblies have a number of advantages making them more reliable and cost-efficient.
- The new fuel has increased uranium capacity – one TVS-2M assembly contains 7.6% more fuel material as compared to UTVS.
- Besides, the special feature of the Kudankulam fuel in particular is the new generation anti-debris filter ADF-2, efficiently protecting fuel assemblies.
- Once the new TVS-2 M fuel is used in the next refuelling, the reactor will start operations with an 18-month fuel cycle.
- It means the reactor, which has to be stopped for every 12 months for removing the spent fuel and inserting the fresh fuel bundles and allied maintenance, will have to be stopped for every 18 months.
Back2Basics: India-Russia Energy Cooperation
- The Soviet Union supplied India with nuclear reactors and fuel when India was denied technologies and was hit with sanctions from the West for its refusal to sign the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (NPT).
- In 1988, the Soviet Union agreed, allegedly without an official deal, to build two nuclear reactors at Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu. The deal was made official in 1992.
- In 2000, Russia and India signed another secret MoU, to cooperate on “peaceful uses” of nuclear energy, and for Russia to supply India with low-enriched uranium fuel for the Tarapur reactor in Maharashtra.
- In 2009, the two countries entered into a major nuclear deal, with Russia agreeing to install four nuclear reactors at Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu, and one in West Bengal.
- Two units at Kudankulam are currently operational, and the third and fourth units are being prepared for installation.
- Russia is also aiding with the ongoing construction of the fifth and sixth units.
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Nuclear Energy
Why India must cancel its nuclear expansion plans
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: EPR design
Mains level: Paper 3- Issues with the nuclear energy
Context
A fire broke out near the Zaporizhzhia nuclear plant in Ukraine (Europe’s largest) during the course of a military battle. Had the fire affected the cooling system, the plant’s power supply, or its spent fuel pool, a major disaster could have occurred.
Issues with India’s nuclear expansion plans
- On December 15, 2021, the Indian government informed Parliament that it plans to build “10 indigenous reactors… in fleet mode” and had granted “in principle approval” for 28 additional reactors, including 24 to be imported from France, the U.S. and Russia.
- Capital intensive: Nuclear power plants are capital intensive and recent nuclear builds have suffered major cost overruns.
- Decreasing cost of renewable: In contrast, renewable energy technologies have become cheaper.
- The Wall Street company, Lazard, estimated that the cost of electricity from solar photovoltaics and wind turbines in the U.S. declined by 90% and 72%, respectively, between 2009-21.
- Recent low bids are of ₹2.14 per unit for solar power, and ₹2.34 for solar-wind hybrid projects; even in projects coupled with storage, bids are around ₹4.30 per unit.
- Global trend suggests declining use of nuclear energy: In 1996, 17.5% of the world’s electricity came from nuclear power plants; by 2020, this figure had declined to just around 10%.
- Safety concerns: In a densely populated country such as India, land is at a premium and emergency health care is far from uniformly available.
- Local citizens understand that a nuclear disaster might leave large swathes of land uninhabitable — as in Chernobyl — or require a prohibitively expensive clean-up — as in Fukushima, where the final costs may eventually exceed $600 billion.
- Indemnity clause: Concerns about safety have been accentuated by the insistence of multinational nuclear suppliers that they be indemnified of liability for the consequence of any accident in India.
- India’s liability law already largely protects them.
- But the industry objects to the small window of opportunity available for the Indian government to hold them to account.
- Climate concerns: Climate change will increase the risk of nuclear reactor accidents.
- Recently, a wildfire approached the Hanul nuclear power plant in South Korea and President Moon Jae-in ordered “all-out efforts” to avoid an accident at the reactors there.
- In 2020, a windstorm caused the Duane Arnold nuclear plant in the U.S. to cease operations.
- The frequency of such extreme weather events is likely to increase in the future.
Consider the question “What are the concerns with the nuclear energy expansion plans of India? Suggest the way forward.”
Conclusion
Given the inherent vulnerabilities of nuclear reactors and their high costs, it would be best for the Government to unambiguously cancel its plans for a nuclear expansion.
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Back2Basics: What is EPR (nuclear reactor)
- The EPR is a third generation pressurised water reactor design.
- It has been designed and developed mainly by Framatome (part of Areva between 2001 and 2017) and Électricité de France (EDF) in France, and Siemens in Germany.
- In Europe this reactor design was called European Pressurised Reactor, and the internationalised name was Evolutionary Power Reactor, but it is now simply named EPR.
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Nuclear Energy
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear Fusion Reaction, ITER
Mains level: NA
Scientists in the United Kingdom have achieved a new milestone in producing nuclear fusion energy or imitating the way energy is produced in the Sun. The record and scientific data from these crucial experiments are a major boost for ITER.
ITER Project
- ITER is international nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject, which will be the world’s largest magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment.
- The goal of ITER is to demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of fusion energy for peaceful use.
Project details
- The project is funded and run by seven member entities—the European Union, India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea and the United States.
- The EU, as host party for the ITER complex, is contributing about 45 per cent of the cost, with the other six parties contributing approximately 9 per cent each.
- Construction of the ITER Tokamak (doughnut-shaped apparatus) complex started in 2013 and the building costs were over US$14 billion by June 2015.
How does it work?
- Hydrogen plasma will be heated to 150 million degrees Celsius, ten times hotter than the core of the Sun, to enable the fusion reaction.
- The process happens in a doughnut-shaped reactor, called a tokamak, which is surrounded by giant magnets that confine and circulate the superheated, ionized plasma, away from the metal walls.
- The superconducting magnets must be cooled to -269°C (-398°F), as cold as interstellar space.
- Scientists have long sought to mimic the process of nuclear fusion that occurs inside the sun, arguing that it could provide an almost limitless source of cheap, safe and clean electricity.
- Unlike in existing fission reactors, which split plutonium or uranium atoms, there’s no risk of an uncontrolled chain reaction with fusion and it doesn’t produce long-lived radioactive waste.
Back2Basics: Nuclear Fusion
- Nuclear fusion is the process of making a single heavy nucleus (part of an atom) from two lighter nuclei. This process is called a nuclear reaction.
- The nucleus made by fusion is heavier than either of the starting nuclei. It releases a large amount of energy.
- Fusion is what powers the sun. Atoms of Tritium and Deuterium (isotopes of hydrogen, Hydrogen-3 and Hydrogen-2, respectively) unite under extreme pressure and temperature to produce a neutron and a helium isotope.
- Along with this, an enormous amount of energy is released, which is several times the amount produced by fission.
- Scientists continue to work on controlling nuclear fusion in an effort to make a fusion reactor to produce electricity.
How it is different from nuclear fission?
- Simply put, fission is the division of one atom into two (by neutron bombardment), and fusion is the combination of two lighter atoms into a larger one (at a very high temperature).
- Nuclear fission takes place when a large, somewhat unstable isotope (atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons) is bombarded by high-speed particles, usually neutrons.
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Nuclear Energy
Emission caused by Nuclear Energy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear Projects in India
Mains level: Carbo feasibility of Nuclear Energy
Supporters of the Nuclear Energy source say that it is a climate-friendly way to generate electricity. However, this is subjected to various considerations often not discussed.
Why focus on Nuclear Energy?
- The main factors for its choice were reliability and security of supply.
- The latest figures on global carbon dioxide emissions call into question the world’s efforts to tackle the climate crisis.
Soaring CO2 emissions
- CO2 emissions are set to soar 4.9% in 2021, compared with the previous year, according to a study published earlier this month by the Global Carbon Project (GCP), a group of scientists that track emissions.
- In 2020, emissions dropped 5.4% due to the COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdowns.
- The energy sector continues to be the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, with a share of 40% — and rising.
Is nuclear power a zero-emissions energy source?
No. Nuclear energy is also responsible for greenhouse gas emissions.
- Uranium mining: Uranium extraction, transport and processing produces emissions.
- Construction of power plants: The long and complex construction process of nuclear power plants also releases CO2, as does the demolition of decommissioned sites.
- Nuclear waste and its transportation: This also has to be transported and stored under strict conditions — here, too, emissions must be taken into account.
- Water consumption: Power plants depend on nearby water sources to cool their reactors, and with many rivers drying up, those sources of water are no longer guaranteed.
How much CO2 does nuclear power produce?
- Results vary significantly, depending on whether we only consider the process of electricity generation, or take into account the entire life cycle of a nuclear power plant.
- A report released in 2014 by the IPCC estimated a range of 3.7 to 110 grams of CO2 equivalent per kilowatt-hour (kWh).
- It’s long been assumed that nuclear plants generate an average of 66 grams of CO2/kWh.
How climate-friendly is nuclear compared to other energies?
- If the entire life cycle, nuclear energy certainly comes out ahead of fossil fuels like coal or natural gas.
- But the picture is drastically different when compared with renewable energy.
- Nuclear power releases 3.5 times more CO2 per kilowatt-hour than photovoltaic solar panel systems.
- Compared with onshore wind power, that figure jumps to 13 times more CO2.
- When up against electricity from hydropower installations, nuclear generates 29 times more carbon.
Can we rely on nuclear energy to help stop global warming?
- Around the world, nuclear energy representatives, as well as some politicians, have called for the expansion of atomic power.
- Other countries have also supported plans to build new nuclear plants, arguing that the energy sector will be even more damaging for the climate without it.
Feasibility of Nuclear Energy
- High cost of construction: Due to the high costs associated with nuclear energy, it also blocks important financial resources that could instead be used to develop renewable energy.
- Renewables are better: Those renewables would provide more energy that is both faster and cheaper than nuclear.
- High water consumption: During the world’s increasingly hot summers, several nuclear power plants have already had to be temporarily shut down due to water scarcity.
Conclusion
- Taking into account the current overall energy system, nuclear energy is by no means CO2 neutral.
- The contribution of nuclear energy is viewed too optimistically.
- In reality construction, times are too long and the costs too high to have a noticeable effect on climate change. It takes too long for nuclear energy to become available.
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Nuclear Energy
Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear Projects in India
Mains level: Nuclear Energy
If built on time, Jaitapur Project in Maharashtra would be the largest nuclear power generating station in the world by net generation capacity, at 9,900 MW.
Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project
- Jaitapur Project is a proposed nuclear power plant in India.
- The power project is proposed by Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) and would be built at Madban village of Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra.
- It is being built with technical cooperation from France.
Project description
- It is proposed to construct 6 European Pressurized Reactors designed and developed by Framatome (former Areva) of France, each of 1650 MW, thus totaling 9900 MW.
- These are the third generation pressurized water reactors (PWR).
- The cost of building the plant is about ₹20 crore (US$2.7 million) per MW electric power compared with ₹5 crore (US$660,000) per MW electric power for a coal power station.
- A consortium of French financial institutions will finance this project as a loan. Both French and Indian government will give sovereign guarantee for this loan.
Issues with the project
(I) Liability for nuclear damage
- The lack of clarity on the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Bill 2010 passed in Indian Parliament in August 2010 is a hurdle in finalizing deal.
- This Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Bill 2010 has a clause that deals with the legal binding of the culpable groups in case of a nuclear accident.
- It allows only the operator (NPCIL) to sue the manufacturers and suppliers. Victims will not be able to sue anyone.
(II) Clearance issue
- Environmental effects of nuclear power and geological issues have been raised by anti-nuclear activists of India against this power project.
- Even though the Maharashtra state govt completed land acquisition in 2010, only few people had accepted compensation cheques.
(III) Seismicity of the area
- Since Jaitapur is a seismically sensitive area, the danger of an earthquake has been foremost on the minds of people.
- According to the Earthquake hazard zoning of India, Jaitapur comes under Zone III. This zone is called the moderate Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII.
- The presence of two major creeks on the proposed site has been ignored while clearing the site.
(IV) Nuclear waste disposal
- It is not clear where the nuclear waste from the site will be shipped for recycling or removed for disposal.
- The plant is estimated to generate 300 tonnes of used nuclear fuel each year.
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Nuclear Energy
Iran has enriched over 210 kg of Uranium to 20%
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Uranium enrichment
Mains level: Not Much
Iran’s atomic agency has said that its stockpile of 20% enriched uranium has reached over 210 kilograms, the latest defiant move ahead of upcoming nuclear talks with the West.
What is Uranium Enrichment?
- It is a process that is necessary to create an effective nuclear fuel out of mined uranium.
- It involves increasing the percentage of uranium-235 which undergoes fission with thermal neutrons.
- Nuclear fuel is mined from naturally occurring uranium ore deposits and then isolated through chemical reactions and separation processes.
- These chemical processes used to separate the uranium from the ore are not to be confused with the physical and chemical processes used to enrich the uranium.
Why is enrichment carried out?
- Uranium found in nature consists largely of two isotopes, U-235 and U-238.
- Natural uranium contains 0.7% of the U-235 isotope.
- The remaining 99.3% is mostly the U-238 isotope which does not contribute directly to the fission process (though it does so indirectly by the formation of fissile isotopes of plutonium).
- The production of energy in nuclear reactors is from the ‘fission’ or splitting of the U-235 atoms since it is the main fissile isotope of uranium.
- Naturally occurring uranium does not have a high enough concentration of Uranium-235 at only about 0.72% with the remainder being Uranium-238.
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Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Fusion and the recent breakthrough
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear Fusion Reaction
Mains level: Cleaner energy resources
California based researchers have announced that their experiment has made a breakthrough in nuclear fusion research.
What exactly is Nuclear Fusion?
- Nuclear fusion is defined as the combining of several small nuclei into one large nucleus with the subsequent release of huge amounts of energy.
- The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or the absorption of energy.
- Nuclear fusion powers our sun and harnessing this fusion energy could provide an unlimited amount of renewable energy.
- An example of nuclear fusion is the process of four hydrogens coming together to form helium.
What was the experiment?
- In the experiment, lasers were used to heat a small target or fuel pellets.
- These pellets containing deuterium and tritium fused and produced more energy.
- The team noted that they were able to achieve a yield of more than 1.3 megajoules of heat energy.
- This megajoule of energy released in the experiment is indeed impressive in fusion terms.
How was the new breakthrough achieved?
- The team used new diagnostics, improved laser precision, and even made changes to the design.
- They applied laser energy on fuel pellets to heat and pressurize them at conditions similar to that at the center of our Sun. This triggered the fusion reactions.
- These reactions released positively charged particles called alpha particles, which in turn heated the surrounding plasma.
- At high temperatures, electrons are ripped from an atom’s nuclei and become a plasma or an ionized state of matter. Plasma is also known as the fourth state of matter.
- The heated plasma also released alpha particles and a self-sustaining reaction called ignition took place.
Future prospects: Benefits
- It is expected that fusion could meet humanity’s energy needs for millions of years.
- Fusion fuel is plentiful and easily accessible: deuterium can be extracted inexpensively from seawater, and tritium can be produced from naturally abundant lithium.
- Future fusion reactors will not produce high activity, long-lived nuclear waste, and a meltdown at a fusion reactor is practically impossible.
- Importantly, nuclear fusion does not emit carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, and so along with nuclear fission could play a future climate change mitigating role as a low carbon energy source.
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Nuclear Energy
The future of nuclear energy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fast reactors vs thermal reactor
Mains level: Paper 3- future of nuclear
Context
Bill Gates recently announced the decision to launch his own nuclear reactor with an eye on the possibility of exporting fast breeder reactors to power-hungry nations.
About the Gates plan
- TerraPower, the nuclear company founded by Mr. Gates, has just announced an agreement with private funders, including Warren Buffett, and the State of Wyoming, U.S. to site its Natrium fast reactor demonstration project there.
- Moreover, since it falls within the “advanced” small modular reactor project of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the Department will subsidise the project to the extent of $80 million this year.
- Mr. Gates believes that the fast breeder reactors will replace the current reactors.
- The DOE and other nuclear enthusiasts also believe that small, factory-built, modular reactors will be cheaper and safer, and will be so attractive to foreign buyers.
The impact of Fukushima Daiichi accident on nuclear power situation
- The Fukushima Daiichi accident in Japan on March 11, 2011 completely transformed the nuclear power situation.
- Countries phased out nuclear power: As the global community turned its attention to strengthening nuclear safety, several countries opted to phase out nuclear power.
- The nuclear industry was at a standstill except in Russia, China and India.
- Liability clause in India: Even in India, the expected installation of imported reactors did not materialise because of our liability law and the anti-nuclear protests in proposed locations.
- India had to go in for more indigenous reactors to increase the nuclear component of its energy mix.
Regaining place as a climate-friendly energy option
- Two factors have contributed to the emergence of nuclear power as a climate-friendly energy option once again after the Fukushima Daiichi accident:-
- 1) Intensive efforts to strengthen nuclear safety, and
- 2) Threat of global warming is becoming ever more apparent.
- Countries such as Japan and Germany reopened their reactors to produce energy.
- Organisations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the International Energy Agency (IEA) recognise the ability of nuclear power to address major global challenges.
Challenges ahead
- Delay in adoption: Even as IPCC and IEA recognise the importance of nuclear power, it remains uncertain whether the value of this clean, reliable and sustainable source of energy will achieve its full potential any time soon.
- Policy and financing framework issue: In some major markets, nuclear power lacks a favourable policy and financing framework that recognise its contributions to climate change mitigation and sustainable development.
- Without such a framework, nuclear power will struggle to deliver on its full potential, even as the world remains as dependent on fossil fuels.
Concerns with Gates plan
- Proliferation risk: TerraPower announced in March that Natrium would be fuelled with uranium enriched to 20% U-235 rather than explosive plutonium.
- The critics believe that there will be a rush to make 20% enriched uranium world wide.
- The main objection to nuclear enrichment beyond a point in Iran arises from the fact that it would lead to weapon-grade uranium being available for them.
- Facilitates the production of material used as nuclear explosives: The other objection being raised against is that the principal reason for preferring fast reactors is to gain the ability to breed plutonium.
- That is surely what foreign customers will want.
- The way it is configured, the reactor would make and reuse massive quantities of material that could also be used as nuclear explosives in warheads.
- Focus on India and China: The opponents of TerraPower believe that India and China will be encouraged in their efforts to develop fast breeder reactors and may even want to buy them from Mr. Gates.
- India’s fast breeder reactor, which is not subject to international inspections, is seen as capable of feeding the nuclear weapons capability of India.
Conclusion
With the threat of global warming due to climate change amplifying with each coming day, the world needs to take a serious relook at the adoption of nuclear technology.
Back2Basics: What is a fast breeder reactor?
- This special type of reactor is designed to extend the nuclear fuel supply for electric power generation.
- Whereas a conventional nuclear reactor can use only the readily fissionable but more scarce isotope uranium-235 for fuel, a breeder reactor employs either uranium-238 or thorium, of which sizable quantities are available.
- Uranium-238, for example, accounts for more than 99 percent of all naturally occurring uranium.
- In breeders, approximately 70 percent of this isotope can be utilized for power production.
- Conventional reactors, in contrast, can extract less than one percent of its energy.
Natrium fast reactor demonstration project
- Natrium nuclear power plants represent a significant advance over the light water reactor plants in use today.
- The Natrium plant uses a sodium-cooled fast reactor as a heat source.
- This heat from the reactor is carried by molten salt from inside the nuclear island to heat storage tanks outside the reactor building, where it is utilized as needed for generating electricity or industrial processes.
- The net effect is that the overall plant can load follow, thus increasing the revenue and value of the plant while maintaining the optimum constant reactor power.
- At the same time the cost of the overall plant is reduced since many of the systems outside of the nuclear island need not be nuclear safety grade.
- The Natrium reactor enables these abilities because it operates in much higher temperature regimes than the light water reactor, thus pairing well to the temperature requirements of the molten salt heat transfer medium.
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Nuclear Energy
Baikal Gigaton Volume Detector
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GVD
Mains level: Paper 3- Baikal Gigaton Volume detector
Russian scientists have launched one of the world’s biggest underwater neutrino telescopes called the Baikal-GVD (Gigaton Volume Detector) in the waters of Lake Baikail, the world’s deepest lake situated in Siberia.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2020:
Q. The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of equilateral triangle that has sides one million km long, with lasers shining between the craft.” the experiment in the question refers to?
(a) Voyager-2
(b) New horizons
(c) LISA pathfinder
(d) Evolved LISA
Baikal GVD
- The Baikal-GVD is one of the three largest neutrino detectors in the world along with the IceCube at the South Pole and ANTARES in the Mediterranean Sea.
- The construction of this telescope, which started in 2016, is motivated by the mission to study in detail the elusive fundamental particles called neutrinos and to possibly determine their sources.
- It will help understanding the origins of the universe since some neutrinos were formed during the Big Bang while others continue to be formed as a result of supernova explosions or because of nuclear reactions in the Sun.
- An underwater telescope such as the GVD is designed to detect high-energy neutrinos that may have come from the Earth’s core, or could have been produced during nuclear reactions in the Sun.
What are fundamental particles?
- So far, the understanding is that the universe is made of some fundamental particles that are indivisible.
- Broadly, particles of matter that scientists know about as of now can be classified into quarks and leptons.
- Explorations has led to the discovery of over 12 such quarks and leptons, but three of these (protons, neutrons and electrons) is what everything in the world is made up of.
- Protons (carry a positive charge) and neutrons (no charge) are types of quarks, whereas electrons (carry a negative charge) are types of leptons.
- These three particles make what is referred to as the building block of life– the atom.
Why do scientists study fundamental particles?
- Studying what humans and everything around them is made up of gives scientists a window into understanding the universe a better way.
- This is one reason why scientists are so keen on studying neutrinos (not the same as neutrons), which are also a type of fundamental particle.
- Fundamental means that neutrinos, like electrons, protons and neutrons cannot be broken down further into smaller particles.
So where do neutrinos fit in?
- What makes neutrinos especially interesting is that they are abundant in nature, with about a thousand trillion of them passing through a human body every second.
- In fact, they are the second most abundant particles, after photons, which are particles of light.
- But while neutrinos are abundant, they are not easy to catch, this is because they do not carry a charge, as a result of which they do not interact with matter.
- One way of detecting neutrinos is in water or ice, where neutrinos leave a flash of light or a line of bubbles when they interact.
- To capture these signs, scientists have to build large detectors.
Back2Basics: Lake Baikal
- Lake Baikal is a rift lake located in southern Siberia, Russia, between Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Buryat Republic to the southeast.
- It is the largest freshwater lake by volume in the world, containing 22 to 23% of the world’s fresh surface water.
- With a maximum depth of 1,642 m it is the world’s deepest lake.
- It is among the world’s clearest lakes and is the world’s oldest lake, at 25–30 million years. It is the seventh-largest lake in the world by surface area.
- Lake Baikal formed as an ancient rift valley and has a long, crescent shape, with a surface area of 31,722 km2 (12,248 sq mi), slightly larger than Belgium.
- The region to the east of Lake Baikal is referred to as Transbaikalia or as the Transbaikal and the loosely defined region around the lake itself is sometimes known as Baikalia.
- UNESCO declared Lake Baikal a World Heritage Site in 1996.
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Nuclear Energy
Einsteinium: the mysterious element named after Albert Einstein
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Einsteinium
Mains level: Not Much
The University of California has reported some of the properties of element 99 in the periodic table called “Einsteinium”, named after Albert Einstein.
Try this PYQ:
Q.The known forces of nature can be divided into four classes, viz, gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force.
With reference to them, which one of the following statements is not correct? (CSP 2012)
(a) Gravity is the strongest of the four
(b) Electromagnetism act only on particles with an electric charge
(c) Weak nuclear force causes radioactivity
(d) Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons inside the nuclear of an atom.
Einsteinium
- It was discovered in 1952 in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb (the detonation of a thermonuclear device called “Ivy Mike” in the Pacific Ocean).
- Since its discovery, scientists have not been able to perform a lot of experiments with it because it is difficult to create and is highly radioactive.
- Therefore, very little is known about this element.
- With this new study published in the journal Nature last week, for the first time researchers have been able to characterize some of the properties of the element.
The discovery of the element
- Ivy Mike was detonated on November 1, 1952, as part of a test at a remote island location called Elugelab on the Eniwetok Atoll in the South Pacific.
- The blast produced an explosion that was about 500 times more destructive than the explosion that occurred at Nagasaki.
- Subsequently, the fallout material from this explosion was sent to Berkeley in California for analysis which identified over 200 atoms of the new element.
Properties of the element
- Einsteinium has a half-life of 20 days.
- Because of its high radioactivity and short half-life of all einsteinium isotopes, even if the element was present on Earth during its formation, it has most certainly decayed.
- This is the reason that it cannot be found in nature and needs to be manufactured using very precise and intense processes.
- Therefore, so far, the element has been produced in very small quantities and its usage is limited except for the purposes of scientific research.
- The element is also not visible to the naked eye and after it was discovered, it took over nine years to manufacture enough of it so that it could be seen with the naked eye.
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Nuclear Energy
HL-2M Tokamak: The Artificial Sun of China
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: HL-2M Tokamak, Nuclear fusion and fission
Mains level: Artificial Sun
China successfully powered up its “artificial sun” nuclear fusion reactor for the first time marking a great advance in the country’s nuclear power research capabilities.
Scratch your school basics to answer this PYQ:
Q.The known forces of nature can be divided into four classes, viz, gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force.
With reference to them, which one of the following statements is not correct? (CSP 2012)
(a) Gravity is the strongest of the four
(b) Electromagnetism act only on particles with an electric charge
(c) Weak nuclear force causes radioactivity
(d) Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons inside the nuclear of an atom.
HL-2M Tokamak
- The HL-2M Tokamak reactor is China’s largest and most advanced nuclear fusion experimental research device.
- The mission is named Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST).
- Located in Sichuan province and completed late last year, the reactor is often called an “artificial sun” on account of the enormous heat and power it produces.
- It uses a powerful magnetic field to fuse hot plasma and can reach temperatures of over 150 million degrees Celsius- approximately ten times hotter than the core of the sun.
- Scientists hope that the device can potentially unlock a powerful clean energy source.
Back2Basics: Nuclear Fusion
- Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons).
- Fusion is the process by which the sun and other stars generate light and heat. It is a nuclear process, where energy is produced by smashing together light atoms.
- It is the opposite reaction of fission, where heavy elements like Uranium and Thorium are split apart.
Nuclear Fusion Reaction
- For a nuclear fusion reaction to occur, it is necessary to bring two nuclei so close that nuclear forces become active and glue the nuclei together.
- Nuclear forces are small-distance forces and have to act against the electrostatic forces where positively charged nuclei repel each other.
- This is the reason nuclear fusion reactions occur mostly in high density, high-temperature environment (millions of degree Celsius) which is practically very difficult to achieve under laboratory conditions.
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Nuclear Energy
[pib] Kakrapar Atomic Power Project (KAPP-3) in Gujarat
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Criticality of the nuclear reactors
Mains level: India's nuclear energy policy
The indigenously designed 700 MWe reactor at the Kakrapar Atomic Power Project has achieved Criticality.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2013:
Q. The known forces of nature can be divided into four classes, viz, gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force. With reference to them, which one of the following statements is not correct?
(a) Gravity is the strongest of the four
(b) Electromagnetism act only on particles with an electric charge
(c) Weak nuclear force causes radioactivity
(d) Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons inside the nuclear of an atom.
What is ‘Criticality’ in Atomic/Nuclear Power Plants?
- Reactors are the heart of an atomic power plant, where a controlled nuclear fission reaction takes place that produces heat, which is used to generate steam that then spins a turbine to create electricity.
- Fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or smaller nuclei, and usually some by-product particles.
- When the nucleus splits, the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is transferred to other atoms in the fuel as heat energy, which is eventually used to produce steam to drive the turbines.
- For every fission event, if at least one of the emitted neutrons on average causes fission, a self-sustaining chain reaction will take place.
- A nuclear reactor achieves criticality when each fission event releases a sufficient number of neutrons to sustain an ongoing series of reactions.
Controlling Criticality
- When a reactor is starting up, the number of neutrons is increased slowly in a controlled manner. Neutron-absorbing control rods in the reactor core are used to calibrate neutron production.
- The control rods are made from neutron-absorbing elements such as cadmium, boron, or hafnium.
- The deeper the rods are lowered into the reactor core, the more neutrons the rods absorb and the less fission occurs.
- Technicians pull up or lower down the control rods into the reactor core depending on whether more or less fission, neutron production, and power are desired.
- If a malfunction occurs, technicians can remotely plunge control rods into the reactor core to quickly soak up neutrons and shut down the nuclear reaction.
Why is this achievement significant?
- It is the biggest indigenously developed variant of the Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR).
- The PHWRs, which use natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator, is the mainstay of India’s nuclear reactor fleet.
- Until now, the biggest reactor size of the indigenous design was the 540 MWe PHWR, two of which have been deployed in Tarapur, Maharashtra.
- India works to ramp up its existing nuclear power capacity of 6,780 MWe to 22,480 MWe by 2031.
- The 700MWe capacity constitutes the biggest component of the expansion plan.
Back2Basics: India’s PHWR technology
- PHWR technology started in India in the late 1960s with the construction of the first 220 MWe reactor, Rajasthan Atomic Power Station, RAPS-1 under the joint Indo-Canadian nuclear co-operation.
- Canada supplied all the main equipment for this first unit, while India retained responsibility for construction, installation, and commissioning.
- For the second unit (RAPS-2), import content was reduced considerably, and indigenization was undertaken for major equipment.
- Following the withdrawal of Canadian support in 1974 after Pokhran-1, Indian nuclear engineers completed the construction, and the plant was made operational with a majority of components being made in India.
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Nuclear Energy
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) Project
The heavy engineering division of L&T dispatched a giant Cryostat lid, to International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) site in France from its Hazira unit in Gujarat.
Try this MCQ:
Q.With reference to International science projects, consider the following:
- Large Hadron Collider (LHC)– The God Particle
- Thirty Metre Telescope (TMT) – The World’s Most Advanced Telescope
- International-Thermonuclear-Experimental-Reactor (ITER) – Fusion Energy
- Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR) – Antiproton and Ion Research
Which of the above projects have India’s active participation?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) All of them
ITER Project
- ITER is international nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject, which will be the world’s largest magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment.
- The goal of ITER is to demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of fusion energy for peaceful use.
Minutes of the project
- The project is funded and run by seven member entities—the European Union, India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea and the United States.
- The EU, as host party for the ITER complex, is contributing about 45 per cent of the cost, with the other six parties contributing approximately 9 per cent each.
- Construction of the ITER Tokamak complex started in 2013 and the building costs were over US$14 billion by June 2015.
How does it work?
- ITER is the most complex science project in human history. The ITER aims to use a strong electric current to trap plasma inside a doughnut-shaped enclosure long enough for fusion to take place.
- Hydrogen plasma will be heated to 150 million degrees Celsius, ten times hotter than the core of the Sun, to enable the fusion reaction.
- The process happens in a doughnut-shaped reactor, called a tokamak 1, which is surrounded by giant magnets that confine and circulate the superheated, ionized plasma, away from the metal walls.
- The superconducting magnets must be cooled to -269°C (-398°F), as cold as interstellar space.
- Scientists have long sought to mimic the process of nuclear fusion that occurs inside the sun, arguing that it could provide an almost limitless source of cheap, safe and clean electricity.
- Unlike in existing fission reactors, which split plutonium or uranium atoms, there’s no risk of an uncontrolled chain reaction with fusion and it doesn’t produce long-lived radioactive waste.
Back2Basics: Nuclear Fusion
- Nuclear fusion is the process of making a single heavy nucleus (part of an atom) from two lighter nuclei. This process is called a nuclear reaction.
- The nucleus made by fusion is heavier than either of the starting nuclei. It releases a large amount of energy.
- Fusion is what powers the sun. Atoms of Tritium and Deuterium (isotopes of hydrogen, Hydrogen-3 and Hydrogen-2, respectively) unite under extreme pressure and temperature to produce a neutron and a helium isotope.
- Along with this, an enormous amount of energy is released, which is several times the amount produced by fission.
- Scientists continue to work on controlling nuclear fusion in an effort to make a fusion reactor to produce electricity.
How it is different from nuclear fission?
- Simply put, fission is the division of one atom into two (by neutron bombardment), and fusion is the combination of two lighter atoms into a larger one (at a very high temperature).
- Nuclear fission takes place when a large, somewhat unstable isotope (atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons) is bombarded by high-speed particles, usually neutrons.
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Nuclear Energy
Pokhran-II nuclear tests
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NSG, NPT, Op Smiling Buddha
Mains level: India's nuclear policy
Yesterday, May 11 was celebrated as the National Technology Day. It marks the day on which India successfully test-fired its first nuclear bombs in 1998.
Practice question for mains
Q. India’s nuclear policy of ‘No First Use’ needs a revamp. Examine.
India and nuclear weapons
- India is currently among eight countries in the world that have a publicly known nuclear weapons program.
- At the time of our independence, leaders were opposed to fully embracing nuclear weapons.
- Just two years before in 1945, the world had witnessed the horrific nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
- Mahatma Gandhi called the use of nuclear weapons morally unacceptable.
Why India did equip itself with nuclear arms?
- Then PM Jawaharlal Nehru was sceptical but kept the door open for future consideration.
- This future beckoned early, as India’s defeat in the 1962 Sino-Indian War gave rise to legitimate fears about national security.
- Then in 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test, codenamed “Smiling Buddha”, at Pokhran in Rajasthan.
- Then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi called the test a peaceful nuclear explosion.
- India demonstrated to the world that the country could defend itself in an extreme situation and chose not to immediately weaponize the nuclear device it tested at Pokhran.
The Pokhran II tests
- India’s fence-sitting finally ended when it detonated another device in 1998, again at Pokhran.
- Assigned the code name Operation Shakti, the mission was initiated on May 11, 1998.
- The tests consisted of 5 detonations, the first being a fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs.
- One fusion and two fission bombs were tested on May 11, and two more fission bombs on May 13.
- With the tests, India achieved its objective of building fission and thermonuclear weapons with yields up to 200 kilotons.
Aftermath
- After Pokhran-II, Vajpayee had declared India a nuclear state — then the sixth country in the world to join this league.
- Unlike in 1974, India had this time chosen to actively develop its nuclear capabilities, and the tests followed economic sanctions by the United States and Japan. The sanctions were later lifted.
Back2Basics: India’s nuclear programme
- India started its own nuclear programme in 1944 when Homi Jehangir Bhabha founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.
- Physicist Raja Ramanna played an essential role in nuclear weapons technology research; he expanded and supervised scientific research on nuclear weapons and was the first directing officer of the small team of scientists that supervised and carried out the test.
- After independence, PM Nehru authorised the development of a nuclear programme headed by Homi Bhabha.
- The Atomic Energy Act of 1948 focused on peaceful development.
- India was heavily involved in the development of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty but ultimately opted not to sign it.
- In 1954, two important infrastructure projects were commissioned. The first established Trombay Atomic Energy Establishment at Mumbai (Bombay). The other created a governmental secretariat, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), of which Bhabha was the first secretary.
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
- The NSG is a multilateral export control regime and a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment and technology that can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons.
- The NSG was founded in response to the Indian nuclear test in May 1974 and first met in November 1975.
- It was solely aimed to deny advanced technology, and isolate and contain India.
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Nuclear Energy
Dumping of Radioactive Nuclear Waste
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heavy Water
Mains level: Nuclear pollution
In a controversial move, Japan has decided to dump the radioactive heavy water from the Fukushima nuclear power plant into the Sea. The dumping of nuclear waste is considered to be the easiest way to get rid of it.
What is Heavy Water?
- Heavy water (deuterium oxide) is a form of water that contains a larger than normal amount of the hydrogen isotope deuterium rather than the common hydrogen that makes up most of the hydrogen in normal water.
- Heavy water is used in certain types of nuclear reactors, where it acts as a neutron moderator to slow down neutrons.
- Slowed neutrons are more likely to react with the fissile uranium-235 than with uranium-238 which captures neutrons without fissioning.
Where is Fukushima waste?
- It is currently being stored in large tanks, but those are expected to be full by 2022.
- Almost 1.2 million liters of radioactive water from the Fukushima nuclear power plant is to be released into the ocean.
- The contaminated water has since been used to cool the destroyed reactor blocks to prevent further nuclear meltdowns.
Hazards of the nuclear contamination
- Radioactive pollution in the ocean has been increasing globally — and not just since the disaster at Fukushima.
- Radiation levels in the sea off Fukushima were millions of times higher than the government’s limit of 100 Becquerel.
- A single Becquerel that gets into our body is enough to damage a cell that will eventually become a cancer cell.
- Even the smallest possible dose, a photon passing through a cell nucleus, carries a cancer risk. Although this risk is extremely small, it is still a risk.
Who else dumped radioactive water into oceans?
The dumping of nuclear waste in drums was banned in 1993 by the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution. But discharging liquid contaminated with radiation into the ocean is still permitted internationally.
- The lion’s share of dumped nuclear waste came from Britain and the Soviet Union, figures from the IAEA show.
- By 1991, the US had dropped more than 90,000 barrels and at least 190,000 cubic meters of radioactive waste in the North Atlantic and Pacific.
- To this day, around 90% of the radiation in the ocean comes from barrels discarded in the North Atlantic, most of which lie north of Russia or off the coast of Western Europe.
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Nuclear Energy
Pushing the wrong energy buttons
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much.
Mains level: Paper 3- Nuclear energy-issues involved.
Context
For more than a decade, no major meeting between an Indian Prime Minister and a U.S. President has passed without a ritual reference to India’s promise made in 2008 to purchase American nuclear reactors.
Issues in the nuclear deal
- Construction of reactors: During president Trumps visit techno-commercial offer for the construction of six nuclear reactors in India at the earliest date was considered.
- More expensive: Indeed, it has been clear for years that electricity from American reactors would be more expensive than competing sources of energy.
- Prone to disasters: Moreover, nuclear reactors can undergo serious accidents, as shown by the 2011 Fukushima disaster.
- No liability for accidents: Westinghouse has insisted on a prior assurance that India would not hold it responsible for the consequences of a nuclear disaster.
- Which is effectively an admission that it is unable to guarantee the safety of its reactors.
Who will be benefited from the deal?
- The two beneficiaries: The main beneficiaries from India’s import of reactors would be Westinghouse and India’s atomic energy establishment that is struggling to retain its relevance given the rapid growth of renewables.
- Political implications: Mr Trump has reasons to press for the sale too. His re-election campaign for the U.S. presidential election in November.
- The election centrally involves the revival of U.S. manufacturing and he has been lobbied by several nuclear reactor vendors, including Westinghouse.
- Finally, he also has a conflict-of-interest.
Comparisons with the renewables
- The total cost of the reactors: The six reactors being offered to India by Westinghouse would cost almost ₹6 lakh crore.
- If India purchases these reactors, the economic burden will fall upon consumers and taxpayers.
- Per unit price: In 2013, it was estimated that even after reducing these prices by 30%, to account for lower construction costs in India, the first year tariff for electricity would be about ₹25 per unit.
- Comparison with solar energy: Recent solar energy bids in India are around ₹3 per unit.
- Lazard, the Wall Street firm, estimates that wind and solar energy costs have declined by around 70% to 90% in just the last 10 years and may decline further in the future.
Safety concern with nuclear energy
- Long term cost in case of disasters: Nuclear power can also impose long-term costs.
- Chernobyl accident: Large areas continue to be contaminated with radioactive materials from the 1986 Chernobyl accident and thousands of square kilometres remain closed off for human inhabitation.
- Fukushima accident: Nearly a decade after the 2011 disaster, the Fukushima prefecture retains radioactive hotspots.
- The cost of clean-up: the cost of clean-up has been variously estimated to range from $200-billion to over $600-billion.
- No liability towards company: The Fukushima accident was partly caused by weaknesses in the General Electric company’s Mark I nuclear reactor design.
- But that company paid nothing towards clean-up costs, or as compensation to the victims, due to an indemnity clause in Japanese law.
- What are the provisions in Indian laws: Westinghouse wants a similar arrangement with India. Although the Indian liability law is heavily skewed towards manufacturers, it still does not completely indemnify them.
- So nuclear vendors have tried to chip away at the law. Instead of resisting foreign suppliers, the Indian government has tacitly supported this process.
India’s experience with nuclear energy
- Starting with the Tarapur 1 and 2 reactors, in Maharashtra, India’s experiences with imported reactors have been poor.
- The Kudankulam 1 and 2 reactors, in Tamil Nadu, the only ones to have been imported and commissioned in the last decade, have been repeatedly shut down.
- Producing less than capacity: In 2018-19, these reactors produced just 32% and 38%, respectively, of the electricity they were designed to produce.
- These difficulties are illustrative of the dismal history of India’s nuclear establishment.
- Electricity generation stagnant at 3%: In spite of its tall claims, the fraction of electricity generated by nuclear power in India has remained stagnant at about 3% for decades.
Conclusion
The above factors indicate that the government should take the rational decision on the adoption of nuclear energy given its cost and the risk involved and the better alternative available in the form of solar and other renewable energies.
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