Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tax-to-GDP Ratio
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- India’s tax landscape is anticipated to witness significant growth in the coming fiscal year, with the tax-to-GDP ratio expected to reach a historic high of 11.7%.
- Revenue Secretary Sanjay Malhotra highlights the role of direct taxes in driving this uptick and emphasizes the government’s commitment to streamlining the tax regime for enhanced efficiency and reduced disputes.
Why ‘Tax-to-GDP’ Ratio matters?
- The tax-to-GDP ratio measures a nation’s tax revenue relative to the size of its economy.
- This ratio is used with other metrics to determine how well a nation’s government directs its economic resources via taxation.
- Developed nations typically have higher tax-to-GDP ratios than developing nations.
- Higher tax revenues mean a country can spend more on improving infrastructure, health, and education—keys to the long-term prospects for a country’s economy and people.
- According to the World Bank, tax revenues above 15% of a country’s gross domestic product (GDP) are a key ingredient for economic growth and poverty reduction.
Forecasted Rise in Tax-to-GDP Ratio
- Expected Surge: India’s tax-to-GDP ratio is projected to hit 11.7% in 2024-25, showcasing a steady increase from 11.6% in the preceding year and 11.2% in 2022-23.
- Dominance of Direct Taxes: The surge in the tax ratio is primarily attributed to the growth of direct taxes, which are deemed more equitable.
What led to this growth?
[A] Direct Tax Collection
- Optimistic Outlook: Revenue Secretary anticipates a rise in the adoption of the new tax regime, characterized by simplified tax structures and a higher tax-free income threshold.
- Growth in Personal Income Tax: Personal income tax collections have witnessed a substantial 28% growth, with a projected moderation to 20%-22% by the fiscal year-end.
[B] Rationalizing GST Rates
- Ongoing Review: A Group of Ministers (GoM) appointed by the GST Council is reviewing the rate structure, aiming to rationalize GST rates on various items.
- Quarterly Meetings: The GST Council is expected to convene regularly to address rate rationalization, although no fixed date has been announced yet.
[C] Projected Revenue Growth
- Modest Projections: Despite a buoyant revenue growth of 1.4% this year, projections for the following fiscal year aim for a 1.1% buoyancy, aligning with an anticipated nominal GDP growth of 10.5%.
- Corporate Tax Dynamics: The deadline for availing the reduced corporate tax rate ends in March 2023, with a significant proportion of companies already benefitting from it.
- Enforcement Measures: While the Department of Revenue focuses on tax administration, the Enforcement Directorate intervenes in cases related to money laundering, ensuring comprehensive enforcement mechanisms.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GST Appellate Tribunal
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- The Goods and Services Tax (GST) Appellate Tribunals, eagerly anticipated to address taxpayer disputes within the six-and-a-half-year-old indirect tax regime, are set to commence operations around July or August.
What is GST Appellate Tribunal?
- The GST Appellate Tribunal is a quasi-judicial body proposed to be established to resolve disputes related to the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India.
- It will function as an independent body to hear appeals against orders passed by the GST authorities or the Appellate Authority.
- The tribunal will be composed of a national bench and various regional benches, headed by a chairperson appointed by the central government.
- The proposed tribunal is expected to help expedite the resolution of disputes related to GST and reduce the burden on the judiciary.
Under GST, if a person is not satisfied with the decision passed by any lower court, an appeal can be raised to a higher court, the hierarchy for the same is as follows (from low to high):
- Adjudicating Authority
- Appellate Authority
- Appellate Tribunal
- High Court
- Supreme Court
Need for such Tribunal
- Unburden judiciary: GST Appellate Tribunal will help resolve the rising number of disputes under the 68-month-old indirect tax regime that are now clogging High Courts and other judicial fora.
- Improve efficiency of GST System: Overall, the establishment of the GST Appellate Tribunal is expected to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the GST system in India.
- Independent mechanism: The proposed Tribunal will provide an independent and efficient mechanism for resolving disputes related to GST.
- Avoid tax evasion: It will help to expedite the resolution of disputes, reduce the burden on the judiciary, and promote greater certainty and predictability in the GST system.
Issues with present litigation
- Compliance issues: The GST system is relatively new in India, having been implemented in 2017, and there have been several issues with compliance and interpretation of rules and regulations.
- Complex adjudication hierarchy: The current dispute resolution mechanism involves multiple layers of adjudication, starting with the GST officer and as mentioned above.
- Time-consuming process: This process can be time-consuming, costly, and burdensome for taxpayers, especially small and medium-sized enterprises.
Significance
- The creation of these tribunals had been in the pipeline since the implementation of the GST regime on July 1, 2017.
- The number of pending appeals by taxpayers related to central GST levies had surged to over 14,000 (June 2023).
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Multidimensional Poverty
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced in her Interim Budget speech that 25 crore Indians were lifted out of poverty over the past decade.
- This remarkable achievement reflects the government’s commitment to inclusivity.
Data from NITI Aayog’s Discussion Paper
- NITI Aayog’s Insight: The data comes from a discussion paper titled “Multidimensional Poverty in India Since 2005-06,” authored by Ramesh Chand and Yogesh Suri from NITI Aayog, with inputs from the UNDP and OPHI.
- Decline in Multidimensional Poverty: The paper reveals that multidimensional poverty in India reduced from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23, with around 24.82 crore individuals escaping poverty during this period.
- State-Level Impact: Uttar Pradesh topped the list with 5.94 crore individuals escaping poverty, followed by Bihar at 3.77 crore and Madhya Pradesh at 2.30 crore.
Understanding the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
- A Novel Approach: MPI differs from traditional poverty measures, incorporating health, education, and living standards. These three dimensions each hold one-third weight in the index.
- Indicators: MPI uses 10 indicators, including nutrition, child mortality, education, housing, and access to basic amenities, offering a comprehensive view of poverty.
- India’s Unique MPI: India’s MPI includes additional indicators focusing on maternal health and access to bank accounts, aligning it with national priorities.
Calculating MPI
- Identifying “MPI Poor”: If an individual is deprived in at least one-third of the 10 weighted indicators, they are considered “MPI poor.”
- Three Key Calculations: MPI requires three calculations:
-
- Incidence of Multidimensional Poverty (H): The proportion of MPI poor individuals in the population.
- Intensity of Poverty (A): The average proportion of deprivation experienced by MPI poor individuals.
- MPI Value: Obtained by multiplying H and A, revealing the share of weighted deprivations faced by MPI poor individuals.
Data Sources and Estimations
- Health Metrics: Data for health indicators relies on the National Family Health Survey (NFHS), conducted every five years. The last round covered the 2019-21 period.
- Calculating MPI for 2012-13 and 2022-23: The paper used interpolation for 2013-14 estimates and extrapolation for 2022-23, enabling a comparison of poverty and deprivation trends.
Conclusion
- The reduction in multidimensional poverty over the last decade signifies the government’s dedication to inclusive development, improving the lives of millions of Indians.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Criminal Defamation, Law Commission
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The 22nd Law Commission has recommended retaining criminal defamation as an offence in the new legal framework of Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita.
- The Law Commission’s report highlights the importance of protecting an individual’s reputation, grounded in Article 21 of the Constitution, which safeguards the right to life and personal liberty.
Key Recommendations: Upholding Reputation
- Invisible Asset: Reputation, a valuable asset, cannot be seen but is diligently built over a lifetime and can be tarnished in an instant.
- Essence of Protection: The jurisprudence around criminal defamation laws is rooted in the essence of safeguarding one’s reputation.
- Balancing Act: While acknowledging that criminal defamation might seem contradictory to freedom of speech and expression, the Law Commission suggests treading carefully.
- Harmful Speech: The Commission advises that speech should only be deemed illegal when it intends substantial harm, and when such harm becomes a reality.
What is Criminal Defamation?
- Defamation: Defamation entails the act of publishing damaging content that diminishes an individual’s or entity’s reputation, from the viewpoint of an ordinary person. In India, defamation is both a civil and criminal offense.
- Sections 499 and 500: These sections in the Indian Penal Code address criminal defamation. Section 499 defines the offense, while Section 500 outlines the associated punishment.
Arguments in Favor of Retaining Criminal Defamation
- Protection of Reputation: An individual’s reputation, an integral part of Article 21, is as vital as free speech.
- Balancing Act: The right to free speech (Article 19(1)(a)) must be balanced against the right to reputation (Article 21).
- Inadequate Compensation: Monetary compensation in civil defamation may not proportionately compensate for reputation harm.
- Editorial Responsibility: Editors bear the responsibility for published content, with significant consequences for individuals and the nation.
- Counteracting Online Defamation: In the absence of an effective internet censorship mechanism, criminalizing defamation is a necessary safeguard.
- State’s Interest: Criminalizing defamation is part of the state’s compelling interest to protect citizens’ dignity and reputation.
Arguments against Retaining
- Chilling Effect: Criminal defamation may have a chilling effect on free speech, with a lower threshold for prosecution than civil damages.
- Media Freedom: Freedom of speech and media expression is crucial for vibrant democracies, and the threat of prosecution can stifle truth.
- Misinterpretation of Dissent: Dissent may be misconstrued as unpalatable criticism, leading to imprisonment under Sections 499 and 500 of IPC.
- Collective Reputation: The right to reputation cannot extend to collectives like the government, which can rectify reputational damage.
- Redundancy: Since civil defamation remedies exist, retaining criminal defamation may serve little purpose except coercion and harassment.
- Global Trend: Many nations, including neighbouring Sri Lanka and the UK, have decriminalized defamation.
- International Perspective: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights urges states to abolish criminal defamation as it intimidates citizens and deters exposing wrongdoing.
Conclusion
- Criminal defamation cases have been used to suppress investigative journalism, hindering democratic accountability.
- Criminal defamation should not be misused by the state, especially as the Code of Criminal Procedure gives public servants an advantage.
- Interim measures can ensure fair proceedings and prevent excessive penalties.
Back2Basics: Law Commission of India
|
Details |
| Establishment |
An executive body established by the Government of India, with the first commission established in 1955. |
| Tenure |
Each Law Commission serves a term of three years. |
| Function |
Acts as an advisory body to the Ministry of Law and Justice for legal reforms in India. |
| Recommendations |
The recommendations made by the Law Commission are not binding. |
| Historical Background |
The first Law Commission was established during the British Raj in 1834 by the Charter Act of 1833. |
| First Chairman |
The first Chairman of the Law Commission was Macaulay, who recommended the codification of laws. |
| Composition |
Typically consists of a full-time Chairperson, full-time Members, ex-officio Members, and part-time Members. |
| Terms of Reference |
Undertakes research and reviews of existing laws, recommends reforms, and studies justice delivery systems. |
| Major Reforms |
The Law Commission played a pivotal role in suggesting key enactments like the Indian Penal Code and Criminal Procedure Code. |
| Role in Legal Reforms |
Serves as both an advisory and critical body, with its recommendations often influencing legal reforms in India. |
| Supreme Court References |
The Supreme Court has referred to the work of the Law Commission and followed its recommendations in various cases. |
| Promotion of Accountability |
Aims to promote an accountable and citizen-friendly government, transparency, and the right to information. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AISHE Survey
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) captures student enrollment across eight levels, including undergraduate, postgraduate, PhD, MPhil, diploma, PG diploma, certificate, and integrated programs.
- The survey received responses from 10,576 standalone institutions, 42,825 colleges, and 1,162 universities/university-level institutions.
About AISHE
- AISHE is a report published by the Ministry of Education since 2011.
- Aim: Portray the status of higher education in the country.
- Survey covers all institutions in India providing higher education.
- Data collected on parameters like teachers, student enrollment, programs, exam results, education finance, and infrastructure.
- Indicators calculated: Institution Density, Gross Enrolment Ratio, Pupil-teacher ratio, Gender Parity Index, Per Student Expenditure.
- Higher Education defined as education obtained after completing 12 years of schooling or equivalent.
Key Takeaways:
[1] Enrollment Trends: Female Dominance
- Rising Female Enrollment: The AISHE report reveals a consistent increase in female enrollment in higher education institutions.
- 2014-15 to 2021-22: Female enrollment grew by 32%, from 1.5 crore in 2014-15 to 2.07 crores in 2021-22. In the last five years, it increased by 18.7% from 1.74 crore in 2017-18.
- PhD Enrollment Surge: The most significant growth was observed at the PhD level, with 98,636 women enrolled in 2021-22, compared to only 47,717 eight years ago.
- Proportion of Women: Among the additional 91 lakh students joining higher education in 2021-22 compared to 2014-15, 55% were women. The postgraduate level saw the highest proportion of female students, with 55.4%.
[2] Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) and Gender Parity
- GER Insights: The estimated GER for the age group 18-23 years in India is 28.4, based on 2011 census data.
- State-wise GER: States with the highest GER include Chandigarh (64.8%), Puducherry (61.5%), Delhi (49%), and Tamil Nadu (47%).
- Gender Parity Index (GPI): GPI measures the ratio of female GER to male GER. In 26 states and Union Territories, GER favors women. At the national level, the GPI is 1.01, and for SC and ST categories, it is 1.01 and 0.98, respectively.
[3] Academic Discipline Enrollment
- UG Enrollment by Discipline: The Bachelor of Arts (BA) program holds the highest enrollment with 1.13 crore students, constituting 34.2% of total undergraduate enrollment. Overall, 3.41 crore students are enrolled in UG programs.
- UG Discipline Preferences: UG enrollment distribution in 2021-22 is led by Arts (34.2%), followed by Science (14.8%), Commerce (13.3%), and Engineering & Technology (11.8%). BA(Hons) accounts for 6.2%.
- PG Enrollment: Social science has the highest number of postgraduate students with 10.8 lakh. The Master of Arts (MA) program leads with 20.9 lakh students, constituting 40.7% of total postgraduate enrollment.
- PhD Discipline: In the PhD category, social sciences rank third after engineering and science. While 52,748 students pursue a PhD in engineering and 45,324 in science, 26,057 opt for PhD in social sciences.
[4] Preference for Government Institutions
- Government vs. Private: Surprisingly, 73.7% of all students attend government universities, which constitute only 58.6% of all universities.
- Government Sector Enrollment: State public universities hold the largest share of enrolment, accounting for around 31% of total university enrolment.
- Private Universities: In terms of numbers, government-owned universities enroll 71.06 lakh students, while privately managed universities enroll 25.32 lakh students. Students show a preference for government educational institutions.
[5] Demographics of Graduates
- Graduation Statistics: In the 2021-22 academic year, an estimated 1.07 crore students graduated from various programs, with 50.8% being women.
- Category-wise Graduates: Approximately 35% of graduates belong to Other Backward Classes (OBC), 13% are from Scheduled Caste (SC), and 5.7% are from Scheduled Tribe (ST) communities.
- Stream-wise Graduation: Arts and social sciences streams exhibit higher graduation rates. At the undergraduate level, BA degrees top the list with 24.16 lakh graduates. MA degrees dominate at the postgraduate level with 7.02 lakh graduates. In PhD programs, science leads with 7,408 graduates, followed by engineering and technology with 6,270 graduates.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme
Mains level: Farm Loan
Introduction
- In the first nine months of the current fiscal year, farm loan disbursals have exceeded 90 percent of the Budget estimate, prompting expectations of a significant hike in the Interim Budget for the next fiscal year (2024-25).
- Finance Minister had set a target of ₹20 lakh crore for agriculture credit during the previous fiscal year (2023-24).
Budget Promises and Performance
- Credit Target Increase: Finance Minister Sitharaman had announced an agriculture credit target of ₹20 lakh crore for FY 2023-24. The current disbursement data indicates that this target is likely to be exceeded.
- Sectoral Focus: The Ministry reported that credit disbursed to the Animal Husbandry and Fisheries sector in FY 2023-24 reached ₹1,91,412 crore, constituting 65 percent of the ₹2.93 lakh crore target.
- Working Capital and Term Loans: Disbursements included over ₹77,000 crore as working capital and over ₹1.13 lakh crore as term loans.
Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme Impact
- Significant Growth: Agricultural credit has witnessed substantial growth from ₹7.3 lakh crore in FY 2013-14 to ₹21.55 lakh crore in FY 2022-23, driven by the success of the KCC scheme.
- Operative KCC Accounts: The KCC scheme, facilitating timely and hassle-free credit, boasts over 7.36 crore operative accounts as of the end of 2023.
- Interest Subvention: Concessional interest rates, with a 7 percent lending rate and a 1.5 percent per annum interest subvention, were offered for short-term crop and allied activity loans up to ₹3 lakh through KCC.
About Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme
|
Details |
| Objective |
To provide timely and flexible credit support to farmers for various agricultural and related needs. |
| Launch |
Introduced in 1998 to issue KCC to farmers, facilitating the purchase of agricultural inputs and cash withdrawals for production needs. |
| Credit Support |
- Short-term credit for crop cultivation.
- Post-harvest expenses and produce marketing loans.
- Household consumption needs.
- Working capital for farm assets maintenance and allied activities.
- Investment credit for agriculture and allied activities.
|
| Implementing Agencies |
Commercial Banks, Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), Small Finance Banks, and Cooperatives. |
| Eligible Farmers |
- Individual and joint borrowers who are owner cultivators.
- Tenant farmers, oral lessees, and sharecroppers.
- Self Help Groups (SHGs) or Joint Liability Groups (JLGs) of farmers, including tenant farmers and sharecroppers.
|
| Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL) |
The short-term loan limit for the 5th year, plus the estimated long-term loan requirement, determines the KCC limit. |
Regulatory Framework and Initiatives
- RBI Mandate: RBI mandates a priority sector lending target for banks, with a specific allocation of 18 percent for agriculture and a 10 percent sub-target for Small and Marginal Farmers (SMFs) for FY 2023-24.
- Prompt Repayment Incentive (PRI): An additional 3 percent PRI is provided for prompt and timely repayment, effectively reducing the interest rate to 4 percent per annum.
- Collateral-Free Agriculture Loans: RBI is set to raise the limit for collateral-free agriculture loans to ₹1.6 lakh from ₹1 lakh, aiming to enhance the coverage of small and marginal farmers.
- Streamlined Lending Practices: Banks have streamlined lending by eliminating ‘no dues’ certificates for small loans up to ₹50,000 and accepting alternative documentation or affidavits for loans to specific categories of farmers.
Financial Inclusion and NABARD Initiatives
- Joint Liability Groups (JLGs): NABARD’s creation of ‘Joint Liability Groups’ has facilitated lending without collateral to tenant/landless farmers and non-farm workers, fostering trust between banks and JLG members.
- JLGs Performance: By March 31, 2023, a total of 257.9 lakh JLGs had been formed and linked to credit, contributing to the broader financial inclusion agenda.
Conclusion
- The surge in farm loan disbursals indicates the success of various government initiatives, particularly the KCC scheme, in promoting financial inclusion and supporting the agricultural sector.
- The likely increase in the agriculture credit target in the upcoming Interim Budget underscores the continued commitment to rural financing and development.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: K-Shaped Recovery
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Economic Research Department of the State Bank of India (SBI) recently released a study titled “Debunking K-shaped recovery,” addressing the ongoing debate about the post-pandemic recovery in India and its alleged K-shaped nature.
- This debate has significant implications for the country’s widening inequality.
What is K-Shaped Recovery?
- A K-shaped recovery occurs when, following a recession, different parts of the economy recover at different rates, times, or magnitudes.
- This is in contrast to an even, uniform recovery across sectors, industries, or groups of people.
- A K-shaped recovery leads to changes in the structure of the economy or the broader society as economic outcomes and relations are fundamentally changed before and after the recession.
- This type of recovery is called K-shaped because the path of different parts of the economy when charted together may diverge, resembling the two arms of the Roman letter “K.”
SBI Challenging Conventional Wisdom
- Controversial Message: The report’s key message suggests a potential “conspiracy” against India’s growth, raising eyebrows about the credibility and intent of the economic evaluation.
- Message Summary: It questions the validity of the K-shaped recovery concept, calling it “flawed” and driven by certain vested interests who are uncomfortable with India’s ascendancy on the global stage.
Re-evaluating Economic Well-Being
- Parameters under Scrutiny: The report challenges traditional parameters used to assess economic well-being.
- New Considerations: It highlights patterns in income, savings, consumption, expenditure, and policy measures designed to empower the masses through technology-driven solutions, questioning the reliance on outdated indicators like 2-wheeler sales or land holdings.
Shaping a Narrative
- Polarized Environment: In a time of heightened polarization and India’s emergence as a major economy, the report’s language, including phrases like “fanning interests” and “renaissance of the new global south,” appears to align with current political narratives.
- Narrative Shift: The report introduces a new narrative, emphasizing the reduction of inequality in India.
Claims on Inequality
- Inequality Reduction: The report asserts that income inequality has decreased, citing the Gini coefficient of taxable income, which fell from 0.472 to 0.402 between FY14 and FY22.
- Limited Sample: However, the research relies on “taxable income” from a small fraction (around 5%) of the population, primarily those paying income tax, making it less representative of the informal workforce and the broader economy.
- Food Orders as Proxy: The study also uses Zomato food orders, primarily from semi-urban areas, to challenge claims of economic distress.
Representativeness Concerns
- Focus on Formal Sector: The SBI research primarily centers on the formal sector, which represents a privileged minority within the Indian economy.
- Inequality Debate: This focus mirrors the crux of the inequality debate, where those excluded from economic growth continue to lag behind, while those already well-off experience significant growth.
A Different Perspective
- Contrasting Reports: In 2022, another report, “The State of Inequality in India,” commissioned by the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister, highlighted rising inequality in the country.
- Unimaginable Disparities: It noted that an individual earning a monthly wage of Rs 25,000 was among the top 10% of earners, underscoring the stark income disparities.
Conclusion
- While the SBI research provides a unique perspective on India’s economic recovery and inequality, its focus on a limited sample from the formal sector raises concerns about its representativeness.
- The broader discourse on inequality remains critical, emphasizing the need for a more comprehensive understanding of the diverse economic landscape in India.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ASER 2023 Key Findings
Mains level: Gender Equity in Education
Introduction
- Education is a cornerstone of societal development, and addressing gender-related issues within it is crucial for progress
- While ASER 2023 data on learning outcomes may suggest gender equity, a closer look reveals persistent gender discrimination.
Gender Equity: Learning Outcomes Parity
- Gender Equity in Learning: Analysis of learning outcomes, such as test scores, shows parity between boys and girls in elementary and secondary classes across India.
- Example: In Classes 3 and 5, girls and boys score equally in mathematics, both at 63 and 53, respectively.
- Subject Scores: Gender differences in subject scores rarely exceed one percentage point.
Widening Gender Gap
- Increased Education: Girls in India are receiving more education than ever before, with the mean years of schooling nearly tripling from 1.7 years in 1990 to 4.7 years in 2018.
- Boys’ Progress: Boys have also seen educational improvements, with the average attainment increasing from 4.1 to 8.2 years.
- Growing Gender Gap: Despite girls making significant strides in education, the gender gap, measured as the difference in attainment between males and females, has grown over time, from 2.4 years to 3.5 years.
- Global Trends: India’s divergence from global trends is notable, as many countries have seen equal improvements in education for both genders.
Barriers to Education
- Progressive Gender Gap: As education levels rise, barriers for girls become more significant, influenced by social norms, stereotypes, and adolescent-related factors.
- Class 1 to Class 8: Dropout rates shift dramatically, with nearly twice as many girls dropping out by Class 8 compared to boys.
Early Childhood Education (ECE)
- Gender Bias in ECE: Gender discrimination begins at the earliest stages of education, as revealed by the Annual Status of Education Report “Early Years.”
- Private vs. Government Schools: More boys are enrolled in private institutions, while girls are often sent to free government schools, reflecting societal biases.
- Age Correlation: A five percentage point gender difference in enrollment exists at the age of four, growing to eight percentage points by age eight.
- Impact of Gender Norms: Societies valuing male children’s education tend to withdraw more girls from school.
Focus on ECE
- Policy Shift Needed: Addressing the gender gap in education requires a shift towards Early Childhood Education (ECE) to tackle the roots of gender norms.
- Age of Influence: Children between three and seven are highly impressionable, forming biases about gender roles during this period.
- Challenges: Insufficient funding, poor quality, and the absence of legislation for universal ECE access pose challenges in India.
- Investment Returns: Longitudinal studies indicate that every dollar invested in ECE yields substantial returns, proving its cost-effectiveness.
- Government Initiatives: Programs like “Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao” and the Draft National Education Policy emphasize the importance of ECE.
Conclusion
- The gender gap in education, particularly in the early years, requires immediate attention and intervention. Establishing a regulatory framework, adequate funding, and quality standards for ECE is essential.
- By eliminating gender stereotypes in preschools, we can work towards erasing the gender gap in education.
- The benefits of investing in girls’ education are vast, ranging from reduced poverty and crime to improved economic development.
- It is time to prioritize early childhood education to create a brighter and more equal future for all.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gini Coefficient
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- A recent report by the State Bank of India (SBI) has illuminated a significant decline in income inequality in India over the past decade.
- This report, which analyzes taxpayer data, indicates a substantial reduction in the Gini coefficient, a widely accepted measure of income inequality.
What is the Gini Coefficient?
- The Gini Coefficient, often referred to as the Gini Index or Gini Ratio, is a measure of income or wealth inequality within a specific population, region, or country.
- It assigns a numerical value between 0 and 1.
- 0 represents perfect income or wealth equality (everyone has the same income or wealth), and 1 signifies perfect inequality (one person or household has all the income or wealth, and everyone else has none).
- To calculate the Gini Coefficient, income or wealth data is typically arranged in ascending order, from the poorest to the richest individuals or households.
- A Lorenz curve is plotted, which is a graphical representation of the actual income or wealth distribution. It compares the cumulative income or wealth of the population to the cumulative share of the population.
- The Gini Coefficient is calculated by measuring the area between the Lorenz curve and the line of perfect equality. This area is then divided by the total area under the line of perfect equality.
Gini Coefficient and Income Inequality
- Gini Coefficient: The Gini coefficient measures income inequality, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality).
- Reported Decline: The Gini coefficient has dropped from 0.472 in 2014-15 to 0.402 in 2022-23, marking a nearly 15% reduction in income inequality.
Examining Income Inequality across Employment Types
- Taxpayer Data Limitation: The SBI report focuses on taxpayer data, potentially excluding a significant portion of income earners.
- Significant Majority below Tax Threshold: Approximately 80% of income earners earn less than ₹2.5 lakh per annum, the minimum taxable amount.
A Closer Look at the Gini Coefficient
- Preliminary Analysis: Data from the 2017-18 and 2022-23 Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS) is analyzed to evaluate changes in income inequality among various employment categories.
- Gini Coefficient Trends: While the Gini coefficient decreases slightly from 0.4297 to 0.4197, the changes are minimal.
- Disaggregated Gini: The Gini coefficient falls for regular wage and casual wage workers but rises for the self-employed, though the shifts are modest.
Uncovering Income Polarization
- Beyond the Gini Coefficient: Income polarization becomes evident when examining the top 10% compared to the bottom 30% of income earners.
- Divergence in Income Growth: The top deciles witnesses’ faster income growth (around 7.23%) compared to the bottom 20% and even the third decile. In contrast, the bottom decile experiences the slowest growth (approximately 1.67%).
- The 90/10 Ratio: The ratio of incomes between the 90th percentile (top 10%) and the 10th percentile (bottom 10%) rises from 6.7 in 2017-18 to 6.9 in 2022-23, indicating increased income disparity.
- Variation among Employment Types: The 90/10 ratio falls for wage earners but significantly increases for the self-employed, particularly among top earners.
Analyzing the Changes
- Preliminary Assessment: While this analysis offers initial insights, further research is needed to comprehensively understand these trends.
- Impact of Women’s Participation: The rise in women’s labor force participation, primarily in low-paid self-employed roles, may explain the increased polarization among income earners.
- Tax Data Limitations: Taxpayer data might not capture the pace of inequality reduction among the broader population.
- Complex Inequality Dynamics: Reduction in the Gini coefficient conceals income divergence, and future growth may either mitigate or exacerbate this disparity.
Conclusion
- The SBI report’s revelation of declining income inequality in India is a positive development.
- However, a deeper examination of income distribution across employment types and deciles unveils a more complex picture.
- Income polarization, particularly among the self-employed, challenges the overarching narrative of reduced inequality.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ASER
Mains level: Foundational Skill Gaps
Introduction
- The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2023, titled ‘Beyond Basics,’ offers a comprehensive snapshot of the educational landscape for 14-to-18-year-olds in rural India.
About ASER
- The ASER report, managed by the Pratham Education Foundation since 2005, is crucial for policymakers.
- It helps them understand the status of schooling and basic learning in different areas.
- The report is published every two years and is important for shaping education policies.
- ASER 2023 covered 28 districts in 26 states and involved 34,745 youths aged 14-18.
- The survey looked at their reading, math, and English skills, how they use these skills in daily life, their ability to understand written instructions, and their proficiency in these subjects.
Positive outcomes identified
- Increased Secondary Education Transition: Contrary to concerns about economic distress due to the pandemic, ASER 2023 notes a positive trend of more children in India having more years of schooling than ever before. Many are successfully transitioning to secondary education.
- High Overall Enrolment Rate: The report highlights an encouraging 86.8% enrolment rate for 14-18-year-olds in educational institutions. This demonstrates a strong commitment to education in rural areas, fostering hope for the unlocking of India’s demographic dividend.
Challenges and Failings
- Foundational Skill Gaps: About 25% of the surveyed youths struggle to read Grade 2 text, and over 50% face difficulties with arithmetic skills expected by Grade 5. This underscores a significant deficit in foundational learning, impacting the quality of the country’s labor force.
- Underutilization of Digital Technology: Despite the high availability of smartphones in rural households (95%), their use for educational purposes remains limited. This raises concerns about the untapped potential of technology in enhancing learning outcomes.
- Gender Disparities: The report reveals disparities in reading, arithmetic, and digital skills between males and females. From performance in tasks to enrolment in STEM streams, gender gaps persist, highlighting the need for targeted interventions.
Reasons behind Low Foundational Skill Gaps
- Inadequate Teacher-Student Ratio and Training: Nearly 8% of India’s schools have only one teacher, impacting the quality of education. Teachers often lack training in modern pedagogical methods, hindering students’ understanding of basic concepts.
- Insufficient Learning Resources: Limited access to textbooks and learning materials outside the classroom affects students’ ability to practice and reinforce foundational skills.
- Socioeconomic Disparities: Students from lower-income families face challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, lack of educational support at home, and limited access to extracurricular activities.
Various Government Initiatives
Several government initiatives aim to address these challenges:
- Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA): Strives for Universal Elementary Education (UEE).
- NIPUN Bharat: Aims for universal foundational literacy and numeracy by 2025.
- PM-POSHAN Scheme/Mid-Day Meal Scheme: Addresses nutritional needs of school-age children.
- SWAYAM Programme: Focuses on access, equity, and quality in education.
- Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Abhiyan: Promotes girls’ education and transition at different levels.
Key Recommendations by ASER 2023
- Devolution of Grants: Disaggregate central and state grants to local bodies for direct transfer to schools.
- Community Management of Schools: Encourage community-managed schools, with the private sector adopting schools for improvement.
- Regular School-Parent Interactions: Build relationships with households to enhance parental involvement and improve learning outcomes.
- Smartphone Use for Learning: Leverage smartphones to deliver online modules and interactive tests to supplement classroom teaching.
- Innovative Learning Methods: Incorporate indoor and outdoor sports, cultural activities, play-way learning, video films, and sound boxes.
- Development of Public Libraries: Strengthen public libraries to address the scarcity of learning resources.
Conclusion
- The positive trends in enrolment coupled with the identified shortcomings underscore the need for targeted interventions, innovative approaches, and community involvement.
- As India aspires to harness its demographic dividend, addressing foundational skill gaps becomes imperative for fostering skilled and empowered youth capable of steering the nation towards progress and prosperity.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Multidimensional Poverty
Mains level: Poverty stats of India
Introduction
- The recent paper by Niti Aayog has highlighted a significant reduction in ‘multidimensional poverty’ among Indians between 2013-14 and 2022-23, an achievement acknowledged by PM Modi.
- To comprehend this data accurately, it is essential to grasp the concept of multidimensional poverty and evaluate the methodology used.
Understanding Multidimensional Poverty
- Traditional Poverty Metrics: Poverty is commonly measured monetarily, based on income or expenditure thresholds.
- Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): India employs a global MPI that assesses poverty by considering 12 life aspects beyond income. These aspects fall under categories like education, health, and living standards.
- Deprivation Assessment: Households are evaluated for deprivation across each of the 12 indicators. If they are deprived in several areas, they are labelled ‘multidimensionally poor’ (MDP).
Data Sources
- National Family Health Surveys (NFHS): Household-level data from NFHS serves as the raw material. Niti Aayog further processes this data to calculate MDP figures.
- NFHS Rounds: NFHS data is available for three rounds: 2005-06 (NFHS-3), 2015-16 (NFHS-4), and 2019-21 (NFHS-5).
- Share of MDP Indians: In 2005-06, it was 55%, which decreased to 25% in 2015-16. Assuming a consistent pace, the paper suggests it may have been 29% in 2013-14. Further extrapolation estimates it to be 11% by 2022-23.
Assessing the Assumptions
- Vague Starting Point: The choice of 2013-14 as a starting point may be open to interpretation and serves as a defining factor for evaluating nine years of Modi’s leadership.
- Uniform Pace Assumption: Assuming a uniform pace over such a long period can be challenging, as it may not account for variations in progress over different years.
- Neglecting Pandemic Impact: Extrapolating progress without considering the pandemic’s effects on data collection and welfare reversals may lead to inaccuracies.
Interpreting the Data
- Value of Indices: While indices like MPI offer a combined view of multiple indicators, they should not overshadow the importance of monetary poverty data.
- Not Equivalent to Poverty: Multidimensional poverty should not be equated with poverty itself, as they represent different aspects. It is essential to differentiate between the two.
- Selective Maths: The exercise of interpolation and extrapolation to align with a government’s tenure should be viewed critically and with consideration of potential limitations.
Conclusion
- The reduction in multidimensional poverty in India is a noteworthy achievement, as evidenced by NFHS data.
- However, it is crucial to approach such data with a nuanced understanding of the methodology, assumptions, and its implications.
- While multidimensional poverty indices provide valuable insights, they should complement, not replace, comprehensive poverty assessment methods.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Swachh Survekshan
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Surat in Gujarat and Indore in Madhya Pradesh have been jointly recognized as the cleanest cities in India at the Union Urban Affairs Ministry’s annual Clean City Awards 2023.
About Swachh Survekshan
- Swachh Survekshan, initiated by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) in 2016, serves as a competitive framework to promote urban sanitation improvements and citizen participation.
- Over time, Swachh Survekshan has grown to become the world’s largest urban sanitation survey.
- In the 2023 edition (SS 2023), emphasis is placed on source segregation of waste, increasing cities’ waste processing capacity, and reducing waste sent to dumpsites.
- SS 2023 introduces new indicators with added importance, focusing on phased plastic reduction, enhanced plastic waste management, “waste to wonder” parks, and zero-waste events.
- The ranking of wards within cities is encouraged through SS 2023.
- The survey assesses cities on dedicated indicators addressing issues such as ‘Open Urination’ (Yellow Spots) and ‘Open Spitting’ (Red Spots).
Highlights of the Clean City Awards 2023
- Top Rankings: Surat and Indore shared the top spot, with Navi Mumbai securing the third position in the cleanest cities category.
- Indore’s Continued Success: Remarkably, Indore has maintained its status as the cleanest city for the seventh consecutive year.
- Other Top Cities: The list of the top 10 cleanest cities also includes Greater Visakhapatnam, Bhopal, Vijayawada, New Delhi, Tirupati, Greater Hyderabad, and Pune.
State Rankings and Special Categories
- Maharashtra Leads: In the state rankings, Maharashtra emerged as the top performer, followed by Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
- Smaller Cities and Cantonnement Boards: In cities with a population of less than one lakh, Sasvad and Lonavala in Maharashtra, and Patan in Chhattisgarh, were top performers. Mhow Cantonment Board in Madhya Pradesh was recognized as the cleanest cantonment board.
- Cleanest Ganga Towns: Varanasi and Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh won awards for being the cleanest towns along the Ganga river.
Awards and Themes
- Swachh Survekshan Awards: Initiated by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) in 2016, these awards have become the world’s largest urban sanitation survey.
- Themes: The 2023 survey focused on the theme “Waste to Wealth,” while the upcoming 2024 survey will emphasize “Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle.”
Indore’s Journey to the Top
- Leap in Rankings: Indore’s remarkable journey from ranking 25th in 2016 to consistently holding the top position is noteworthy.
- Key Factors for Success: The city’s success is attributed to a sustainable system of garbage collection, processing, and disposal, along with citizen participation and innovative sanitation measures.
Indore’s Sanitation Initiatives
- Waste Segregation and Disposal: Indore revamped its sanitation and waste collection system, involving NGOs and changing routes for garbage disposal vehicles.
- Legacy Waste Management: The city efficiently cleared and treated large amounts of legacy waste at the Devguradiya ground.
- Infrastructure Development: Funds were allocated for constructing transfer stations and treatment plants for waste management.
- Community Engagement: Efforts were made to build sanitation habits among citizens, including the distribution of free dustbins and imposing fines for littering.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Supreme Court Legal Services Committee
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Justice BR Gavai has been appointed as the Chairman of the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee (SCLSC), succeeding Justice Sanjiv Khanna.
Understanding the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee
- Constitution and Purpose: The SCLSC, established under Section 3A of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, aims to provide free legal services to weaker sections of society in cases under the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction.
- Composition: Chaired by a sitting Supreme Court judge, the committee includes members with prescribed experience and qualifications, all nominated by the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
Composition and Functioning of the SCLSC
- Current Members: As of now, the SCLSC comprises Chairperson BR Gavai and nine other members appointed by the CJI.
- Staffing and Administration: The Committee can appoint officers and employees as per the Centre’s guidelines, in consultation with the CJI.
Need for Legal Services in India
- Constitutional Basis: The Indian Constitution, particularly Article 39A, emphasizes the state’s role in ensuring legal justice is accessible to all citizens, regardless of economic or other disabilities.
- Historical Development: The concept of legal aid in India evolved over decades, with significant progress marked by the establishment of a national committee under Justice PN Bhagwati in 1980.
Legal Services Authorities Act and Its Provisions
- Statutory Framework: The 1987 Act provides a legal basis for offering free and competent legal services to eligible groups, including women, children, SC/ST, EWS categories, and others.
- Establishment of NALSA: Formed in 1995, the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) oversees legal aid programs and formulates policies for legal services.
- Nationwide Network: The Act envisions a network across India for legal aid, with State Legal Services Authorities (SLSAs) and District Legal Services Authorities (DLSAs) implementing these services at state and district levels, respectively.
Role of State and District Legal Services Authorities
- State-Level Implementation: Each SLSA, led by the Chief Justice of the respective High Court, executes NALSA’s policies and provides free legal services.
- District and Taluk Committees: DLSAs and Taluk Legal Services Committees, chaired by district and senior civil judges respectively, conduct legal awareness programs and provide various legal services.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Slums rehabilitation in India
Central Idea
- Research Citation: Nipesh Narayanan’s research, published in the Economic & Political Weekly on October 21, 2023, delves into the changing conceptualization of slums in Indian parliamentary debates from 1953 to 2014.
- Policy on Slums: These shifting narratives have significantly influenced government policies and approaches towards slums.
Evolution of Discourses on Slums
- Parliamentary Debates Analysis: Narayanan analyzed 1,228 debates in the Rajya Sabha and various policy documents, including Five-Year Plans, to trace the evolution of discourses surrounding slums.
- Dynamic Definitions: The study highlights the fluid nature of slum definitions and the tendency to overlook urban disparity as a causal factor in slum formation.
Eras of Changing Perspectives
- 1950s-1960s: Initially, slums were seen as a by-product of partition and rapid urbanization. The focus was on eradication due to health concerns and spatial constraints, side-lining socio-economic factors like migration. The Slum Areas Act of 1956 marked a significant shift, allowing government intervention in slum areas.
- Early 1970s-Mid-1980s: The narrative shifted to viewing slums as necessary evils requiring development rather than eradication. Town planning emerged as a key tool, pushing slums to city peripheries and prioritizing basic amenities over demolition.
- Mid-1980s-Late 1990s: With the National Commission on Urbanisation’s report in 1985, cities and slums began to be seen as economic assets. This era saw a focus on housing policies and infrastructure development, with economic reasoning driving interventions.
- 2000s-2014: The 2001 Census provided comprehensive data on slums, leading to targeted schemes. Slums transitioned from social concerns to technical, economic objects. The focus was on upgradation strategies, legal rights, and property rights for slum dwellers.
Slum Formation and Government Response
- Causality and Complexity: The research identifies urban planning issues, population growth, land pressure, and housing affordability as key factors in slum formation.
- Government Role: The Union government’s role shifted to funding State governments for urban improvement, with a focus on data-driven policies.
Technocratic Solutions and Challenges
- Technological Reliance: The increasing dependence on technological solutions for urban issues is evident in current government policies.
- Critical Examination: The article warns against using slums merely as a tool for anti-poverty policies and emphasizes understanding slum formation beyond numerical data.
Conclusion
- Historical Insights: Narayanan’s analysis provides valuable insights into the historical shifts in government perceptions and actions towards slums.
- Significance for Urban Studies: This research contributes significantly to the understanding of urban dynamics, socio-economic inequalities, and the complexities of slum life in India.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Health Tax
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Public health researchers recommend a health tax of 20% to 30% on sugar, sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), and high-fat, salt, and sugar (HFSS) products, in addition to the existing GST.
- The recommendation stems from a UNICEF-funded project, aiming to influence policies to reduce sugar consumption.
Study Insights and Recommendations
- Targeting Bulk Consumers: The study suggests taxing bulk consumers like confectionery manufacturers, rather than household sugar purchases.
- Definition of Sugar: The study includes all forms of refined, unrefined sugar, and gur (brown cane sugar) used by manufacturers.
- Impact on Manufacturers: Manufacturers, who buy up to 55% of India’s annual sugar production, are expected to be more price-sensitive than households.
Tax Implications and Demand Reduction
- Niti Aayog’s Interest: Niti Aayog is exploring the impact of health taxes and warning labels on food products to promote healthy eating in India.
- Current and Proposed Tax Rates: Sugar is currently taxed at 18% GST. The proposed additional tax could raise the total tax to 38-48%.
- Price Elasticity Metric: The study uses ‘Price Elasticity’ to estimate demand reduction. A 10% price increase could lead to a 2% demand reduction for households and a 13-18% reduction for manufacturers.
- Health Tax on Beverages and HFSS Products: A 10-30% health tax on SSBs could decrease demand by 7-30%, while a similar tax on HFSS products might lead to a 5-24% decline.
Government Revenue and Public Health Impact
- Increase in Tax Revenues: Additional taxes could boost government revenues by 12-200% across different scenarios.
- Current Tax Rates on Products: Sugar attracts 18% GST, SSBs 28% GST plus 12% cess, and HFSS products 12% GST.
- Public Health Benefits: Higher taxes on unhealthy foods could reduce obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain cancers.
India’s Sugar Consumption and Health Risks
- India’s Sugar Intake: India is the world’s largest sugar consumer, with an average consumption of 25 kg per person per year, exceeding WHO recommendations.
- Rise in Sugar-Related Health Issues: There has been a significant increase in the sale of aerated drinks and HFSS food products, contributing to obesity and diabetes.
Taxation and Reformulation
- Encouraging Product Reformulation: The proposed tax rate is linked to sugar volume, encouraging manufacturers to reduce sugar content in products.
- Taxing Sugar Replacements: The study also recommends taxing artificial sweeteners to prevent manufacturers from switching to cheaper, unhealthy alternatives.
Global Precedents and Outcomes
- Health Tax Implementation Worldwide: Over 70 countries, including Mexico, Chile, and South Africa, have implemented health taxes on sugar and related products.
- Positive Outcomes in Mexico: In Mexico, the taxation on SSBs led to decreased consumption of taxed beverages and a reduction in mean BMI among younger age groups.
Conclusion
- Potential for Health Improvement: Imposing a health tax on sugar and related products could significantly contribute to public health improvement in India.
- Consideration of Economic Factors: The success of such a policy will depend on balancing health benefits with economic impacts on consumers and manufacturers.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Finance Commission
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The Centre has appointed Arvind Panagariya, a renowned trade economist and former Niti Aayog vice chairman, as the chairman of the Sixteenth Finance Commission.
Who is Arvind Panagariya?
- Panagariya is a professor at Columbia University.
- He served as the first vice chairman of the Niti Aayog from 2015 to 2017, succeeding the Planning Commission.
About Finance Commission
- Establishment: The Finance Commission (FC) of India was established by the President in 1951 under Article 280 of the Indian Constitution.
- Purpose: Its primary role is to define and regulate the financial relations between the central government and the individual state governments.
- Legislative Framework: The Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951, further outlines the qualifications, appointment, disqualification, term, eligibility, and powers of the Finance Commission.
- Composition: Appointed every five years, the FC comprises a chairman and four other members.
- Evolution: Since the First FC, changes in India’s macroeconomic landscape have significantly influenced the Commission’s recommendations.
Constitutional Provisions
- Article 268: Facilitates the levy of duties by the Centre, with collection and retention by the States.
- Article 280: Outlines the FC’s composition, qualifications for members, and its terms of reference. It mandates the FC to recommend the distribution of net tax proceeds between the Union and States and the allocation among States. It also addresses the financial relations between the Union and States and the devolution of unplanned revenue resources.
Key Functions of the Finance Commission
- Tax Devolution: Recommends how net tax proceeds should be distributed between the Center and States.
- Grants-in-Aid: Determines the principles governing these grants to States.
- Augmenting State Funds: Advises on measures to enhance the States’ Consolidated Funds to support local bodies and panchayats, based on State Finance Commissions’ recommendations.
- Other Financial Functions: Addresses any other financial matters referred by the President.
Members of the Finance Commission
- Structure and Standards: The Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951, provides a structured format and global standards for the FC.
- Qualifications and Powers: Specifies rules for members’ qualifications, disqualification, appointment, term, eligibility, and powers.
- Composition: The Chairman is chosen for their experience in public affairs. The other members are selected based on their judicial experience, knowledge of government finances, administrative and financial expertise, or special economic knowledge.
Challenges for the 16th Finance Commission
- Overlap with GST Council: The coexistence with the GST Council, a permanent constitutional body, presents a new challenge.
- Conflict of Interest: Decisions by the GST Council on tax rates could impact the FC’s revenue-sharing calculations.
- Feasibility of Recommendations: While the Centre often adopts the FC’s suggestions on tax devolution and fiscal targets, other recommendations may be overlooked.
Major Outstanding Recommendations
- Fiscal Council Creation: The 15th FC proposed a Fiscal Council for collective macro-fiscal management, but the government has shown reluctance.
- Non-Lapsable Fund for Internal Security: Though the Centre agreed ‘in principle’ to establish this fund, its implementation details are pending.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Core Sector
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- India’s eight core sectors experienced a significant slowdown, growing by 7.8% in November, down from 12% in October.
About Core Industries in India
- The main or key industries constitute the core sectors of an economy.
- In India, eight sectors are considered the core sectors.
- These sectors are in decreasing order of their weightage: Refinery Products> Electricity> Steel> Coal> Crude Oil> Natural Gas> Cement> Fertilizers.
About Index of Eight Core Industries
- The monthly Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI) is a production volume index.
- ICI measures the collective and individual performance of production in selected eight core industries viz. Coal, Crude Oil, Natural Gas, Refinery Products, Fertilizers, Steel, Cement and Electricity.
- Before the 2004-05 series six core industries namely Coal, Cement, Finished Steel, Electricity, Crude petroleum and Refinery products constituted the index basket.
- Two more industries i.e. Fertilizer and Natural Gas were added to the index basket in the 2004-05 series. The ICI series with base 2011-12 will continue to have eight core industries.
The components covered in these eight industries for compilation of the index are as follows:
- Coal – Coal Production excluding Coking coal.
- Crude Oil – Total Crude Oil Production.
- Natural Gas – Total Natural Gas Production.
- Refinery Products – Total Refinery Production (in terms of Crude Throughput).
- Fertilizer – Urea, Ammonium Sulphate (A/S), Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), Ammonium chloride (A/C), Diammonium Phosphate (DAP), Complex Grade Fertilizer and Single superphosphate (SSP).
- Steel – Production of Alloy and Non-Alloy Steel only.
- Cement – Production of Large Plants and Mini Plants.
- Electricity – Actual Electricity Generation of Thermal, Nuclear, Hydro, imports from Bhutan.
Recent data: Sector-Wise Growth Details
- Decline in ICI: The ICI witnessed a 3.34% drop from October, marking its lowest since March 2023.
- Sector-Specific Trends: Notably, only refinery products and coal showed month-on-month growth, with significant year-on-year increases.
- Steel Production: Growth in steel production hit a 13-month low at 9.1%.
- Crude Oil and Fertilizer: Crude oil saw a contraction, while fertilizer production growth decelerated.
- Natural Gas and Electricity: Both natural gas output and electricity generation growth slowed down considerably in November.
Comparative Analysis with Previous Year
- Year-on-Year Comparison: The core sectors had a 5.7% growth in November 2022.
- Influence of Base Effects: Last year’s high growth in certain sectors like cement significantly influenced this year’s comparative figures.
Economic Insights and Projections
- Bank of Baroda’s Perspective: The slowdown in fertilizer growth aligns with the end of the rabi sowing season, as per the bank’s chief economist.
- IIP Forecast: The core sectors are expected to contribute to an IIP growth of 7%-8%.
- Economists’ View: Experts predict a continued slowdown in core sector growth due to strong base effects from the previous fiscal year.
Future Expectations and Challenges
- India Ratings and Research Predictions: A slowdown in core sector growth is anticipated in the coming months, influenced by the strong base effect.
- Broader Economic Impact: This slowdown is indicative of larger economic challenges, potentially affecting future policy and market expectations.
Conclusion
- Economic Resilience Test: The trends in India’s core sectors underscore the challenges in sustaining growth amid diverse economic conditions.
- Need for Strategic Economic Planning: Addressing these slowdowns will require astute economic planning and possibly new strategies to boost growth in these key sectors.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Unemployment in India
Central Idea
- In 1932, M Visvesvaraya highlighted the issue of unemployment among educated individuals in India.
- Ninety years later, the issue of youth unemployment remains a significant concern, despite official data indicating a decrease in the overall unemployment rate.
Unemployment Trends: Data Analysis
- Official Statistics: According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), the unemployment rate decreased from 6.1% in 2017-18 to 3.2% in 2022-23.
- Disparities in Experience: Despite the overall reduction, young, highly educated workers face the highest unemployment rates, indicating a structural problem in the Indian economy.
Educational Attainment and Unemployment
- Higher Education and Unemployment: Individuals with higher education have consistently faced higher unemployment rates since the 1990s.
- Trends Over Time: Unemployment rates for graduates have fluctuated, reaching 17% in 2017-18 and then dropping to 13% in 2022-23.
Youth Unemployment
- Young Graduates: The unemployment rate for young workers (aged 18 to 29) with graduate degrees has been notably high, with significant long-term unemployment spells.
- Increasing Share of Graduates: The proportion of graduates in the labor force has risen from 5% in 1993-94 to around 15% in 2022-23, impacting overall unemployment rates.
Challenges and Implications
- Growing Concern: The increasing share of educated workers in the labor force, coupled with high unemployment rates among them, points to a deepening problem.
- Need for Analysis: Understanding the causes of unemployment among the highly educated is crucial, whether it’s the education system’s failure to impart relevant skills or the economy’s inability to create sufficient jobs.
Conclusion
- Serious Issue: Youth unemployment in India is a critical issue that needs comprehensive analysis and action.
- Harnessing Demographic Dividend: Effective measures are required to ensure that the aspirations of the youth are met and the potential of India’s demographic dividend is fully realized.
- Policy Focus: Addressing youth unemployment requires targeted policies that focus on skill development, job creation, and aligning education with market needs.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Longitudinal Studies
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Historical Surveys: Starting in 1916-17, Gilbert Slater initiated a series of surveys in five Tamil Nadu villages, marking the beginning of a century-long study of rural India.
- Unique Village Studies: Palakurichi and Palanpur stand out as unique Indian villages extensively studied over a century and decades, respectively.
Methodology and Evolution of Village Studies
- Initial Approach: Slater’s students, natives of the surveyed villages, used questionnaires to understand the socioeconomic conditions of rural households.
- Subsequent Surveys: These villages were revisited for studies in subsequent years, including 1936-37, 1964, 1983, 2004, and 2019, providing a longitudinal perspective.
Significance of Longitudinal Studies
- Contrast with Cross-Sectional Surveys: Unlike the National Sample Survey Office’s cross-sectional surveys, village studies are longitudinal, focusing on in-depth analysis over time.
- Objective: The aim is to trace changes in the specific village over time, providing micro-level insights that complement macro-level data.
Key Findings from Recent Surveys
- Economic Shifts: The 2019 survey of Palakurichi revealed a decline in agriculture’s dominance, with only 43.3% of the workforce engaged in farming, down from 85% in 1983.
- Diversification of Workforce: Similar trends were observed in Palanpur, with a significant shift from agriculture to non-farm jobs over the decades.
Changing Social Dynamics
- Diminished Dominance of Traditional Landholders: In both Palakurichi and Palanpur, traditional upper caste landholders’ power has declined, with middle castes and Dalits gaining more land ownership.
- Economic and Social Mobility: These changes reflect broader social and economic mobility within these rural communities.
Policy Implications and Challenges
- Land Leasing Practices: As some communities move away from agriculture, land leasing becomes common, often based on oral agreements to avoid legal complications.
- Need for Policy Reforms: There’s a need for policies that balance the interests of landowners and tenant farmers, encouraging investment in land improvement.
- Sustaining Agricultural Productivity: With rural India becoming less dependent on agriculture, ensuring continued or improved farming practices on existing agricultural lands is crucial.
Conclusion
- Insights from Micro-Level Studies: Longitudinal village studies offer valuable insights into the patterns of change in rural India, informing policy and understanding of rural dynamics.
- Balancing Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Growth: These studies highlight the need for balanced development policies that support both agricultural sustainability and non-farm employment opportunities.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LEADS Report
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The govt has released the LEADS (Logistics Ease across Different States) 2023 report, assessing logistics performance across Indian States and Union Territories (UTs).
- The report includes 11 States and two UTs, encompassing coastal, landlocked, North Eastern States, and UTs.
About LEADS Report
- The LEADS index was launched in 2018 by the Commerce and Industry Ministry and Deloitte.
- It was inspired by the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) of World Bank, and has evolved over time.
- It ranks states on the score of their logistics services and efficiency that are indicative of economic growth.
- States are ranked based on quality and capacity of key infrastructure such as road, rail and warehousing as well as on operational ease of logistics.
Key Highlights of the 2023 Report
- ‘Achievers’ Category: States like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Punjab, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim, Tripura, and UTs Chandigarh, Delhi are named as ‘Achievers’.
- Category Shifts: Maharashtra moved from ‘Achievers’ to ‘Fast Movers’, while Odisha shifted from ‘Achievers’ to ‘Aspirers’.
- ‘Fast Movers’: Kerala and Maharashtra among coastal States, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand among land-locked States, and Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland among North Eastern States are ‘Fast Movers’.
- ‘Aspirers’: Goa, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and UTs like Daman & Diu/Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh are categorized as ‘Aspirers’.
Policy perspectives
- Digital Initiatives: Digital reforms like PM GatiShakti, Logistics Data Bank, ULIP, and GST are driving India’s improved global ranking.
- India’s Improved LPI Rank: India’s LPI rank improved by six places to 38th position in 2023, reflecting the positive impact of these efforts.
- Vision for Logistics Sector: India’s logistics sector is set to grow from a $3.5 trillion to $35 trillion economy by 2047.
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