Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Scheduled Castes
Mains level: Horizontal Reservation and its Efficacy
Introduction
- The Supreme Court’s recent deliberation on the sub-classification of Scheduled Castes (SC) within India’s reservation system raises questions about the balance of power between states and the Parliament.
- This highlights the socio-economic implications of such sub-classification.
Who are the Scheduled Castes?
- Scheduled Castes (SC) represent an administrative classification that encompasses various castes, including both touchable and untouchable groups, consolidated for preferential treatment purposes.
- This classification fails to acknowledge the internal distinctions among the castes grouped together under the SC category.
- Despite reservations, the pre-existing internal differences among the listed Scheduled Castes persist, posing challenges to effective upliftment measures.
- Constitutional Provisions:
- Article 341 of the Indian Constitution empowers the President to designate specific castes and classes as Scheduled Castes within states or union territories.
- Article 342 allows Parliament to include or exclude castes or tribes from this list. It elaborates on the term “Scheduled Castes,” encompassing castes, races, or tribes, or their subsets, as specified under Article 341.
- Parliament: Inclusion or exclusion of any group from these lists is done through legislation by the Parliament.
|
Quest for Sub-Classification: SC Bench’s Examination
- Questioning Tinkering with the List: Justice B.R. Gavai queries whether state-level preferential allotment to certain sub-castes affects the parliamentary power to manage the Presidential list.
- Dismissal of “Balkanisation” Argument: The Bench dismisses concerns that sub-classification would lead to fragmentation of the SC list.
- Argument for Homogeneity: Senior advocate Manoj Swarup argues that SCs form a homogeneous group and preferential treatment would perpetuate inequality.
- Justice Gavai’s Counter: Justice Gavai challenges this view, highlighting the need for the upliftment of particularly backward groups within SCs.
Why discuss this?
[A] Socio-Economic Implications
- Equality and Empowerment: Justice Vikram Nath underscores the aim of sub-classification as uplifting backward groups within SCs.
- Ensuring Fairness: Justice Gavai emphasizes that preferential treatment should not exclude other deserving candidates from access to opportunities.
[B] Political and Societal Considerations
- Potential for Political Appeasement: Concerns raised about states using sub-classification for political gains and electoral advantage.
- Judicial Review and Empirical Basis: Justice Gavai highlights the role of High Courts in scrutinizing state decisions based on empirical data.
Why is the Sub-Classification needed?
- Addressing Inequalities: Graded inequalities persist among SC communities, with some having limited access to services.
- Disproportionate Representation: Certain sub-castes lack fair representation in employment and education due to current discrimination policies.
- Overcoming Hierarchies: SCs vary socio-economically, with some progressing while others still face disadvantages.
- Facilitating Mobility: Current policies hinder uniform benefits, leading to competition. Sub-categorization can aid in political empowerment and education.
- Ensuring Justice: Targeted approaches are needed to address specific vulnerabilities within SC sub-groups.
- Equitable Distribution: Sub-categorization prevents benefits from concentrating in certain groups, promoting fair resource allocation.
Challenges Associated
- Inequality: Sub-categorization may not effectively address disparities within Scheduled Castes, per recommendations from the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST), highlighting the need for existing schemes to reach the most backward communities first.
- Federalism Issue: While a 2004 Supreme Court ruling barred states from unilaterally sub-categorizing SC lists, a 2020 judgment indicated states could decide benefit allocations within these lists, pending review by a larger Bench.
- Identification Criteria Complexity: Determining sub-categorization criteria, as highlighted in judgments like State of Kerala v N M Thomas (1976) and E V Chinnaiah (2005), presents challenges in defining SCs due to socio-economic complexities.
- Data Accuracy Challenge: Obtaining accurate socio-economic data for SC communities is difficult, hindering decision-making on caste categorizations and allocations.
- Intra-group Disputes Risk: Sub-categorization may create internal divisions within SC communities, potentially exacerbating tensions as groups compete for affirmative action.
- Fragmentation Risk: Sub-categorization could fragment the SC community, diluting their political and social identity, and weakening their collective advocacy for rights, as per concerns raised.
Chief Justice’s Perspective
- Artificial Backward Class Creation: Chief Justice Chandrachud emphasizes the need for states to demonstrate objective criteria, like lack of representation, for sub-classification.
- High Court Review: Asserts that High Courts can review state decisions to ensure fairness and adherence to constitutional principles.
Way Forward
- Legal Options: Explore legal avenues like a constitutional amendment for sub-categorization, leveraging existing provisions like Article 16(4).
- Data Collection: Enhance data collection on socio-economic status through a caste-based census to inform policy formulation.
- Creamy Layer Concept: Apply the “creamy layer” concept within SCs to ensure fair allocation of benefits based on income eligibility.
- Transparent Criteria: Develop transparent criteria for sub-categorization, considering socio-economic status, education, and regional disparities.
- Balanced Approach: Strike a balance between recognizing diversity within SCs and maintaining unity, ensuring policies address specific needs without fragmenting the community.
Conclusion
- As the case awaits judgment, the need for a nuanced approach that balances legal principles with social justice imperatives remains paramount.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: India's over-dependence on Chinese imports
Introduction
- Bilateral trade between India and China soared to a record $136.2 billion in 2023, marking a 1.5% year-on-year increase.
Why discuss this?
- Trade Deficit Concerns: India has been grappling with a significant trade deficit in favor of China, exceeding $100 billion in 2022. Efforts to address this deficit remain a priority for India.
- Diplomatic Vacancies: The absence of a Chinese Ambassador to Delhi for over 16 months and the lack of direct flights between the two countries underscore persistent diplomatic challenges.
- Panchsheel Agreement Anniversary: The upcoming 70th anniversary of the India-China Panchsheel Agreement serves as a reminder of the importance of peaceful coexistence and adherence to international norms.
India-China Bilateral Trade Overview
- Key Trading Partner: China stands as India’s largest trading partner, with significant exchanges in various commodities.
- Major Imports from China: Electronic equipment, machinery, organic chemicals, and iron and steel are among the primary commodities imported from China into India.
- Major Exports to China: Indian exports to China include cotton, gems, copper, ores, organic chemicals, and machinery.
Recent Measures to Curb Imports from China
- Boycotts and Labeling Initiatives: Indian businesses are increasingly boycotting Chinese products, while the government mandates country of origin labelling for products sold online.
- Ban on Chinese Apps: The Indian government has banned several Chinese mobile applications, citing concerns over national security and data privacy.
Challenges and Implications of Complete Boycott
- Trade Deficits and Economic Realities: Complete boycotts may not be feasible as they could adversely affect Indian consumers, producers, and exporters.
- Impact on Pharma Sector: The pharmaceutical sector, heavily reliant on Chinese imports for raw materials, could face significant disruptions.
- Minimal Impact on China: UNCTAD data suggests that a complete boycott would have limited repercussions on China’s economy.
- Integration and Policy Credibility: India’s integration with China and the potential fallout on policy credibility are crucial considerations.
Way Forward
- Promoting Self-Reliance: India’s focus on self-reliance aims to bolster domestic capabilities and enhance competitiveness in global trade.
- Government Support and Ecosystem Development: Government initiatives under the “Atmanirbhar” banner should prioritize industries needing support for self-reliance.
- Addressing Cost Disadvantages: Long-term strategies must address the cost disparities in Indian manufacturing to reduce dependence on imports.
- Conflict Resolution: Continued efforts towards conflict resolution and adherence to international norms will be crucial in navigating the complexities of this strategic partnership.
Back2Basics: Panchsheel Agreement
|
Details |
| Origin |
- Joint statement issued by PM Nehru during Chinese premier Zhou Enlai’s visits to India in 1954
- Based on Westphalian norms of State Sovereignty
|
| Principles |
- Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity
- Mutual non-aggression
- Mutual non-interference in internal matters
- Equality and mutual benefit
- Peaceful co-existence
|
| Relevance |
- Preserving independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity
- Reducing regional tensions and threats
- Establishing India as an equal partner
- Providing a framework for engagement
- Portraying India as a robust democracy
- Facilitating regional cooperation and connectivity
|
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Energy Agency (IEA)
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- India’s burgeoning economy is poised to become a significant player in global oil demand, with projections indicating that it will outpace China by 2027.
- The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts robust growth in India’s oil demand, driven primarily by industrial expansion and increasing mobility.
About International Energy Agency (IEA)
|
Details |
| Nature |
Autonomous inter-governmental organisation within the OECD framework |
| Mission |
Works with governments and industry to shape a secure and sustainable energy future for all |
| Establishment |
Founded in 1974 to ensure the security of oil supplies |
| Origin |
Created in response to the 1973-1974 oil crisis |
| Membership |
Consists of 31 member countries and eleven association countries |
| Criteria for Membership |
- Crude oil and/or product reserves equivalent to 90 days of the previous year’s net imports, accessible by the government
- Demand restraint programme to reduce national oil consumption
- Legislation and organisation for Co-ordinated Emergency Response Measures (CERM)
- Legislation to ensure oil companies report information
- Capability to contribute to IEA collective action
|
| India’s Membership |
Joined as an Associate member in 2017 |
| Key Reports Published |
World Energy Outlook, World Energy Balances, Energy Technology Perspectives, World Energy Statistics, Net Zero by 2050. |
India’s Projected Growth in Oil Demand
- Dominance in Oil Demand Growth: India is expected to surpass China as the biggest driver of global oil demand growth by 2027, according to the IEA.
- Magnitude of Increase: The IEA projects an increase of nearly 1.2 million barrels per day (bpd) in India’s oil demand by 2023, contributing to over a third of the global demand growth by the end of the decade.
- Key Drivers: Diesel consumption emerges as the primary driver of India’s oil demand growth, accounting for nearly half of the nation’s demand rise and a significant portion of global demand growth.
- Sectoral Analysis: While jet-kerosene demand is expected to grow substantially, petrol demand is projected to increase moderately due to the electrification of India’s vehicle fleet.
Factors Influencing Demand Growth
- Impact of EVs and Biofuels: Increased penetration of electric vehicles (EVs), energy efficiency measures, and growth in biofuels consumption are anticipated to mitigate around 500,000 bpd of additional oil demand by 2030.
- Role of EVs: EV penetration alone is projected to displace 200,000 bpd of oil demand by 2030.
Why such a forecast for surge?
- Rising Crude Oil Imports: India’s crude oil imports are expected to surge by over a fourth to 5.8 million bpd by 2030, driven by robust demand growth and declining domestic production.
- Limited Domestic Production: Despite efforts to attract foreign investment, domestic crude oil production is projected to decline steadily, further increasing import dependence.
- Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPRs): India is enhancing its capacity to respond to oil supply disruptions through strategic petroleum reserves.
- Importance of SPRs: These reserves help mitigate the impact of emergencies on energy supplies and ensure oil resilience in case of market disruptions.
Major Policy Initiatives for Oil Import Cut
- Urja Sangam 2015: In March 2015, the PM inaugurated ‘Urja Sangam 2015,’ aiming to boost India’s energy security. Stakeholders were urged to increase domestic oil and gas production to reduce import dependence from 77% to 67% by 2022 and further to 50% by 2030.
- Production Sharing Contract (PSC) Regime: The government introduced policies like PSC, Discovered Small Field Policy, Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP), and New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) to incentivize domestic production.
- Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP): India promotes the EBP to reduce crude oil imports, cut carbon emissions, and boost farmers’ incomes. The target for 20% ethanol blending in petrol (E20) was advanced to 2025 from 2030, expediting ethanol adoption as an alternative fuel.
Way Forward
- Diversification Strategies: India must focus on diversifying its energy mix and promoting alternative fuels to reduce reliance on oil imports.
- Investment in Renewable Energy: Accelerated investment in renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power can mitigate the growth in oil demand and enhance energy security.
- Policy Initiatives: Robust policy measures are essential to incentivize energy efficiency, promote electric mobility, and encourage sustainable practices in the transport sector.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 19(c)
Mains level: Regulation of marriage under UCC
Introduction
- The recent enactment of the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) in Uttarakhand, specifically addressing live-in relationships, has sparked debates concerning individual freedom and state intervention.
What are Intimate Associations?
- It is an association that promotes a way of life, not causes; a harmony in living, not political faiths; a bilateral loyalty, not commercial or social projects.
- This includes family relationships and other deep, personal connections that are important to individuals.
Uttarakhand UCC on Intimate Associations
- State Oversight: Section 381 of Uttarakhand’s common civil code mandates individuals intending to enter a live-in relationship to submit a “joint statement” before a Registrar, subjecting their intimate associations to state monitoring.
- Regulatory Measures: The Registrar is empowered to conduct an “enquiry” to determine the legitimacy of the relationship, infringing on the privacy of consenting adults.
- Registration Requirement: Couples must obtain a “registration certificate” from the State authority, imposing bureaucratic hurdles on the exercise of personal choice.
- Scope of Freedom: The freedom to choose a partner and enjoy their society is integral to personal autonomy and individual liberty, safeguarded under Article 19(c) of the Constitution.
Major Judgments upholding Intimate Associations
|
Key Takeaway |
| Lata Singh vs. State of UP (2006) |
Directed protection for inter-caste and inter-religious couples from harassment and violence. |
| S. Khushboo vs. Kanniammal & Anr. (2010) |
Declared sexual relations between consenting adults outside marriage as legal and within the right to privacy. |
| Naz Foundation vs. Government of NCT of Delhi (2009) |
Decriminalized consensual homosexual acts between adults, declaring Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code as a violation of rights. |
| Joseph Shine vs. Union of India (2018) |
Decriminalized adultery and declared it a violation of the rights to equality, dignity, privacy, and autonomy. |
| Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India (2018) |
Affirmed the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals to express their sexual orientation and identity with dignity. |
| Shafin Jahan vs. Asokan K.M. (2018) |
Upheld the right to marry a person of one’s choice regardless of religion or caste, nullifying the annulment of a Hindu-Muslim marriage. |
| Shakti Vahini vs. Union of India (2018) |
Condemned honour killings and violence against inter-caste and inter-religious couples, issuing guidelines for prevention and protection. |
| Supriyo versus Union of India (2023) |
Refers to how State should not interfere with the freedom of consenting adults to form legitimate “intimate associations”. |
Critique of State Intervention
- Infringement on Privacy: The UCC’s intrusive provisions undermine the autonomy and privacy of individuals by subjecting their relationships to state scrutiny.
- Restriction on Freedom: Imposing regulatory requirements on live-in relationships contradicts established principles of personal liberty and restricts the exercise of fundamental rights.
- Potential Discrimination: State interference in intimate matters risks perpetuating discrimination and infringing on the rights of consenting adults to form relationships of their choice.
Arguments in Favor of such Associations
- Fundamental Rights: Denying individuals the right to choose their partners violates fundamental rights and equality.
- Union Recognition: Diverse couples lack legal recognition and access to marital rights and protections.
- Promotion of Equality: Legalizing diverse relationships reduces discrimination and fosters inclusivity.
- Positive Impact: Recognizing diverse unions positively impacts mental health and societal acceptance.
- Secularism: Recognizing diverse relationships aligns with democratic principles and equality.
Arguments Against
- Preservation of Norms: Altering traditional marriage norms challenges societal expectations.
- Cultural Preservation: Diverse relationships may conflict with cultural or religious beliefs.
- Social Impact: Concerns exist regarding family structures and societal cohesion.
- Legal Complexity: Legalizing diverse unions may introduce legal uncertainties and disputes.
- Social Stigma: Societal stigma and discrimination persist against diverse relationships.
Way Forward
- Advocacy: Continued advocacy for rights and societal acceptance of diverse relationships.
- Policy Reforms: Push for policy reforms to recognize and protect the rights of individuals.
- Support Services: Offer counseling and support services to address stigma and legal challenges.
- Community Building: Create safe spaces and support networks for individuals in diverse relationships.
Conclusion
- As debates continue, it is essential to strike a balance between regulatory measures and the protection of constitutional freedoms, fostering a society that values diversity and respects individual autonomy.
Try this PYQ:
Which Article of the Constitution of India safeguards one’s right to marry the person of one’s choice? (CSP 2019)
(a) Article 19
(b) Article 21
(c) Article 25
(d) Article 29
Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: FRBM Act, 2003
Mains level: Fiscal mismanagement by states
Introduction
- The ongoing dispute between the Centre and the Kerala government regarding fiscal management has sparked debates on financial health, resource allocation, and federal governance.
Financial Mismanagement in Kerala
- Poor Fiscal Health: The Centre contends that Kerala’s fiscal condition is precarious, attributing it to inadequate management of public finances.
- Financial Assistance: Despite substantial financial support provided by the Centre, including additional funds beyond the recommendations of the 15th Finance Commission, Kerala continues to face financial stress.
- Mismanagement: Kerala’s alleged reckless borrowing, financing of unproductive expenditure, and poorly targeted subsidies exacerbate its financial woes, impacting both state and national economies.
What data has to say?
- Rising Liabilities: Kerala’s outstanding liabilities, as a percentage of its Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP), have consistently increased from 31% in 2018-19 to 39% in 2021-22, exceeding the national average.
- Implications of High Liability Ratio: The Centre warns that the elevated outstanding liability ratio results in heightened interest payments, exacerbating fiscal deficits and potentially leading to a debt trap.
- Increased Committed Expenditure: Kerala’s committed expenditure as a percentage of revenue receipts has risen from 74% in 2018-19 to 82.40% in 2021-22, surpassing that of any other state. This trend limits the state’s capacity for productive government spending, negatively impacting long-term growth.
Kerala’s Defence
- Federal Structure: Kerala asserts its rights under the federal system to regulate its finances independently, highlighting the Centre’s infringement on its fiscal autonomy.
- Economic Damage: The state argues that the Centre’s actions, such as imposing arbitrary borrowing ceilings, threaten Kerala’s economic stability, jeopardizing its ability to meet developmental goals.
Legal Response
- Court Proceedings: The Attorney General’s submission to the Supreme Court forms part of the legal battle initiated by Kerala against the Centre’s alleged interference in state finances.
- Protection of Federalism: Kerala seeks judicial intervention to safeguard the federal structure, emphasizing the state’s authority over budgetary management and borrowing decisions.
- FRBM Rescue: While the FRBM Act of 2023 primarily applies to the central government, some states have enacted their own FRBM legislation to maintain fiscal discipline at the state level. Kerala doesn’t have its own version yet.
Implications
- National Ramifications: The outcome of this dispute holds significance beyond Kerala, impacting the broader framework of fiscal federalism and intergovernmental relations.
- Developmental Concerns: The protracted legal battle could impede Kerala’s developmental agenda and exacerbate financial strains, affecting the welfare of its citizens.
Conclusion
- The Centre-State fiscal dispute underscores the complexities inherent in federal governance and fiscal management.
- As legal proceedings unfold, the resolution of this conflict will shape the contours of intergovernmental relations and define the boundaries of fiscal autonomy within India’s federal structure.
Back2Basics: Fiscal Reduction and Management Act (FRBM Act), 2003
|
Description |
| Objectives |
To ensure fiscal discipline, transparency, and accountability in government spending. |
| Fiscal Deficit Targets |
Mandates the government to reduce its fiscal deficit to a specified target over a period of time.
Fiscal deficit target aims to be below 4.5 per cent by 2025-26. |
| Elimination of Revenue Deficit |
Requires the government to eliminate its revenue deficit, which is the excess of government’s total expenditure over its total revenue. |
| Medium-term Fiscal Strategy |
Mandates the government to formulate and implement a medium-term fiscal strategy outlining plans for reducing fiscal deficit over three years. |
| Annual Fiscal Reports |
Requires the government to present an annual fiscal responsibility statement to Parliament, detailing progress in achieving fiscal consolidation targets. |
| Penalties for Non-compliance |
Imposes penalties on the government for non-compliance, including fines and disqualification of elected members from holding public office. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Delimitation Commission, Article 82 and Article 170
Mains level: Representativeness in Democracy and the role of Delimitiation
Introduction
- The impending delimitation exercise for Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, based on the first Census after 2026, has sparked discussions and raised pertinent questions.
Understanding Delimitation
- Definition: Delimitation entails fixing the number of seats and boundaries of territorial constituencies, including the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST), based on census data.
- Constitutional Mandate: Article 82 (Lok Sabha) and Article 170 (State Legislative Assemblies) mandate readjustment of seats after each Census, performed by the Delimitation Commission.
- Historical Precedent: Delimitation exercises were conducted post the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses, highlighting its periodic nature.
About Delimitation Commission
- The Delimitation Commission is a high-powered committee entrusted with the task of drawing and redrawing of boundaries of different constituencies for state assembly and Lok Sabha election.
- It is appointed by the President and works in collaboration with the Election Commission.
- The Commission consists of –
- A retired or working Supreme Court Judge (chairperson)
- Election Commissioner
- Concerned State Election Commissioners
- DC’s orders have the force of law and CANNOT be called in question before any court.
- The orders are laid before the Lok Sabha and the legislative assemblies concerned, but they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Need for Delimitation
- Democracy and Representation: The essence of democracy mandates ‘one citizen-one vote-one value,’ necessitating periodic readjustment of seats to reflect population changes.
- Freezing of Seats: Seats have been frozen since 1971 to encourage population control, with the freeze extended until 2026 through the 84th Amendment Act.
Why is this exercise problematic?
- Uneven Population Growth: Population disparities among states pose challenges, with some states experiencing rapid growth while others stagnate.
- Options Discussed: Options include redistributing existing seats among states or increasing the total seats to reflect population changes.
- Constituency Shrinkage: Electorates often lose their representation due to the merger of constituencies.
International Perspectives
- United States: The U.S. redistributes seats among states after each Census to maintain proportionality, ensuring minimal disruption.
- European Union: EU Parliament uses a principle of ‘degressive proportionality,’ where seats are allocated based on population ratios.
Way forward
- Harmonizing Principles: Balancing democratic representation and federal principles is crucial. Capping Lok Sabha seats at the current 543 ensures continuity, while increasing State Legislative Assembly seats aligns with democratic representation.
- Empowering Local Bodies: Strengthening democracy involves empowering grassroots institutions like panchayats and municipalities, enhancing citizen engagement and governance.
Conclusion
- The delimitation exercise presents a delicate balance between democratic representation and federal principles.
- By adopting a nuanced approach that respects constitutional mandates while empowering local governance, India can navigate the complexities of delimitation, ensuring inclusive and effective representation for its diverse populace.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ancient geographical division of India, ex. Madhyadesa, Udicya, Pracya etc.
Mains level: Maritime Geography and historic references to it
Introduction
- India’s coastal geography, often overshadowed in educational curricula, holds profound historical and cultural significance.
- While India’s connection with its southern seas is acknowledged, the broader implications of its maritime heritage remain underexplored.
Irony of India’s Maritime Geography
- Distance from the Sea: While some might remember that India is bound by sea all along the south, the connections with the sea do not consciously register — for a great many people even today, the sea is a very distant object.
- Impact of Natural Events: It may perhaps impinge on the consciousness a little more when there are reports of cyclones or storms (or the tsunami that hit some years ago in 2004), but the expanse of the sea, the links with the oceans, and the historical and geographical connections are typically rather hazy.
Historical Perspectives on Indian Geography
- School Definition: Moreover, children are mostly taught about only two parts of India — the plains to the north, and the peninsula to the south.
- Sanskrit Texts: But historically, India was defined slightly differently. In early Indian Sanskrit texts, the subcontinent is seen as divided into five major regions
- Madhyadesa (middle country),
- Udicya or Uttarapatha (northern India),
- Pracya (eastern India),
- Dakshinapatha (Deccan) and
- Aparanta (western India)
- Different Interpretations: The term Dakshinapatha came to be used in two ways: the entire peninsula, or more commonly, a more limited area from the Narmada to the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers. To the south of this lay the Dravidadesa or Tamilakam.
- Imperial Gazetteer’s Definition: On the other hand, as defined in the Imperial Gazetteer, the ‘Deccan’ has also been understood as referring to the entire landmass south of the Vindhya mountains and the great Gangetic plain, and so it can be taken to mean the entire peninsular region of India.
Geographical Features of the Indian Subcontinent
- Demarcated Regions: Within the peninsula itself are five clearly demarcated regions — the Western Ghats skirting the Arabian Sea, the northern Deccan plateau, the eastern plateau, the Eastern Ghats towards the Bay of Bengal and the coastal strip between the ghats on either side and the sea itself.
- Plateau Considerations: While studies have traditionally tended to focus on only the western part of the plateau as the ‘Deccan’, it is to be remembered that the plateau region covers much of the northern peninsula.
- Extent of Ghats: Furthermore, the ghats bordering it extend almost down to Kanyakumari. The western coastal strip is generally narrow, being indented and segmented by spurs from the Western Ghats or by small rivers flowing to the sea from the hills.
- Eastern Ghats Description: The Eastern Ghats are less continuous, with a wider and more fertile coastal strip, containing, as it does, the deltaic plains of the two major river systems of the Deccan plateau, the Krishna and Godavari.
Coastal Divisions and Sub-regions
- Distinct Names for Ghats: On both coasts, the ghats are given different names in various regions. So, for example, the Western Ghats up to Karnataka are also often referred to as the Sahyadri ranges.
- Plateau Description: What is normally understood as the Deccan plateau proper is a broad quadrangle covering most of the present-day Maharashtra state, with a topography typical of plateau land.
- Transition to Plains: As it begins to give way to the plains in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka (the south-eastern and southern plateaus), the geography becomes rougher and rockier, and is interspersed with forest land and riverine stretches.
- Coastal Strip Description: The western coastal strip is a narrow strip of land, very rarely extending more than eighty kilometres inwards from the sea. This strip is particularly narrow from the Tapi river to Goa, after which it widens a little on the Karnataka coast and finally includes all of present-day Kerala, for the ghats here form the demarcation between Kerala and modern Tamil Nadu.
Coastal Features and Subdivisions
[A] Western Coast
- Technical Divisions: This coast is technically divided into three parts, excluding Gujarat. The northernmost section is called the Konkan, which is further subdivided into two segments — the northern one running approximately from the Tapi to Chaul (modern Revdanda) and the southern from Chaul to Goa.
- Coastal Divisions: South of Goa is the Canara coast, stretching till Mount Eli (Ezhimala) in modern-day Kerala, known to early travellers as Mount Dilli or Dely. The Malabar coast begins here and extends to Kanyakumari, the tip of the peninsula.
- Maritime Economic Considerations: However, in maritime economic terms, it is rather difficult to limit oneself only to this western stretch of the coastline, for connections extend northwards into the Gujarat coast and eastwards across the ghats into the plateau region.
[B] Eastern Coast
- Ease of Access: The Eastern Ghats, as mentioned earlier, are not continuous, which means that access to the interior from the coast (or vice versa) is much easier.
- Water Bodies: The eastern coastal strip features deltas and various other water bodies, including, in the northernmost part of the region, Chilika Lake in modern-day Odisha; Kolleru Lake between the Krishna and the Godavari deltas, approximately in the centre of the coast; and Pulicat Lake, which lies towards the southern edge of the Deccan region.
- Historical Significance: All these lakes used to be hubs for trade and fishing, with Pulicat also being the heart of a thriving weaving industry through most of India’s medieval era.
Port Dynamics
- Abundance of Ports: Both coasts are, of course, marked by innumerable ports. A brief survey of these ports is enough to indicate the ever-present climatic and natural hazards they faced.
- Western Coast Considerations: The physical geography of the west coast, given its numerous indentations, offers ample natural shelters all along its length, with the two largest natural harbours being Mumbai (Bombay) and Goa.
- Importance of Smaller Ports: However, throughout the medieval and early modern period (approximately the eighth to eighteenth century), the harbours of ports like Mangalore, Honawar, Bhatkal or Chaul were no less important in terms of the traffic they handled.
Challenges and Hazards on the Coasts
- Monsoon Challenges: Western ports face closures during the southwest monsoon, with shifting sandbanks and shoals posing dangers to ships.
- Lack of Natural Harbours: The east coast lacks natural harbors, with ports vulnerable to silting near river deltas.
- Unstable Delta Mouths: Delta mouths are prone to instability, potentially rendering established channels unusable after monsoon cycles.
- Cyclone Vulnerability: The Bay of Bengal presents cyclone risks due to its enclosed nature, leading to higher possibilities of circular winds compared to the west coast.
- Open Roads for Ports: East coast ports operate as open roads, requiring ships to navigate high surf, rolling waters, and random winds while loading and unloading goods.
Trade Routes and Cultural Exchange
- Port Competitiveness: Ports rely on their immediate interior areas, often shared by multiple ports, for sustenance and trade.
- Political and Economic Factors: Port prosperity hinges on political stability and economic conditions in their vicinity.
- Trade Patterns: West coast ports primarily trade with the Arabian Sea littoral, while east coast ports engage in trade across the Bay of Bengal.
- Cross-Coastal Trading: Merchants from both coasts trade extensively across the Indian Ocean world, transcending geographical boundaries.
- Established Routes: Trade routes across the Indian Ocean have existed for centuries, with changes in rulership but continuity in trade activities.
Conclusion
- The multitude of functional ports, diverse trade patterns, and established trade routes highlight the resilience and adaptability of India’s maritime regions.
- As India continues to navigate its maritime heritage into the future, understanding and appreciating its maritime geography remain crucial for fostering sustainable development and cultural preservation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kaladan Project
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Arakan Army captured Paletwa in the Chin State, near Bangladesh and India. This has cast aspersions about the development of key Indian projects in Myanmar.
Myanmar Coup: A quick recap
- Myanmar’s military ousted Aung San Suu Kyi’s elected government in February 2021.
- The military expected resistance to subside quickly. After three years, opposition to the military regime is growing.
Conflict Dynamics near Indian Borders
- Complex Dynamics: The capture of Paletwa has triggered a complex dynamic between the Chin and Arakan ethnic groups.
- Ethnic Majority: Majority of Paletwa’s residents belong to the Chin ethnic community.
- Historical Claims: Some in the Rakhine State argue that Paletwa historically belonged to the Arakan Hill Tracts during colonial rule.
- Inter–Ethnic Solidarity: Inter-ethnic solidarity among EAOs is essential for an effective fight against the military.
- Challenge of Compromise: Finding an inter-ethnic compromise on settlements like Paletwa is challenging due to its strategic location.
Impact on India’s Kaladan Project:
- Significance for Kaladan: The developments in Paletwa have implications for India’s Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project (KMTTP) in Myanmar.
- Addressing Challenges: The Kaladan project aims to address northeast India’s geo-economic and geo-political challenges.
- Project Delays: Delays in project implementation were caused by rugged terrain, inadequate coordination, political instability, and security challenges.
- Local Attitudes: Attitudes of local ethnic organizations must be considered for swift Kaladan project execution.
- Local Interest: People in Mizoram and Chin State are interested in the project’s completion as it boosts economic activity.
China Factor in the Region
- Three Brotherhood Alliance: The Arakan Army is part of the Three Brotherhood alliance, believed to have Chinese support. This alliance aims to safeguard Chinese investments in Myanmar.
- Reports of Chinese Support: Reports suggest that the Arakan Army receives funding and military equipment from China.
- Concerns for India: Concerns exist in India about Beijing using armed groups to hinder India’s connectivity projects in Myanmar.
- China’s Economic Presence: China has increased its economic presence along Myanmar’s Bay of Bengal coast.
- Infrastructure Initiatives: Operationalized pipelines and agreements for a deep-sea port and special economic zone are part of China’s initiatives in Myanmar.
Conclusion
- India, as a liberal democracy, faces scrutiny regarding the impact of its external engagement on sectarian/identity-based violence in the neighborhood.
- Scaling up humanitarian and development assistance while collaborating with ethnic organizations is essential.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Places of Worship Act
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991, has once again come into focus due to ongoing civil suits challenging the religious character of mosques in Varanasi and Mathura.
Enactment of the Places of Worship Act
- Background: The Act was enacted in September 1991, during the Babri-Masjid Ram Janmabhoomi dispute, to address issues related to the status of places of worship.
- Objectives: It aimed to freeze the religious character of places of worship as it existed on August 15, 1947, and prevent the conversion of places of worship from one denomination to another.
Key Provisions of the Act
- Continuity of Religious Character: The Act ensures that the religious character of a place of worship remains unchanged from its status on August 15, 1947.
- Prohibition on Conversion: It prohibits the conversion of a place of worship of any religious denomination into one of a different denomination.
- Abatement of Pending Cases: All pending legal proceedings regarding the conversion of a place of worship, initiated before August 15, 1947, would abate upon the Act coming into force, and no new proceedings can be initiated.
Exceptions to the Rule
- Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites: The Act does not apply to ancient and historical monuments and archaeological sites protected under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958.
- Settled Disputes: It does not apply to suits that were already settled or disposed of or to conversions by acquiescence.
Status of Ongoing Cases on the Gyanvapi Mosque
- Current Litigation: Ongoing civil suits in Varanasi involve claims by Hindu worshippers asserting their right to worship deities within the Gyanvapi mosque premises.
- Basis for Suits: The Hindu side claims that an old temple of Lord Vishweshwar existed at the center of the mosque compound, demolished by Emperor Aurangzeb in 1669.
- Court Orders: Court orders have favored the position that these suits are not barred by the Places of Worship Act. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) conducted a survey that reported the existence of a temple before the mosque.
Implications of the Act in the Mathura Dispute
- Shahi Idgah Mosque: Civil suits in Mathura pertain to the Shahi Idgah mosque near the Krishna Janmabhoomi Temple, with claims that it was built over Lord Krishna’s birthplace.
- Challenging Compromise: The suits challenge a compromise reached in 1968 between Sri Krishna Janmasthan Seva Sansthan and the Shahi Idgah Trust. The Allahabad High Court has transferred all Mathura dispute suits to itself.
- Act’s Applicability: Court decisions have held that the Act does not bar these suits. In the Mathura dispute, the Act is not applicable as the compromise decree predates its enactment.
Conclusion
- The Places of Worship Act, enacted to freeze the status of places of worship, is facing challenges in ongoing disputes, particularly in Varanasi and Mathura.
- Courts have ruled that the Act does not prohibit these suits, emphasizing the need for a case-by-case examination to determine religious character.
- These developments underscore the complexities and legal interpretations surrounding the Act’s application in the context of evolving disputes.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Adjournment of Court
Mains level: Issues with Judicial Functioning
Introduction
- During the Supreme Court’s 75th-year Foundation Day address, the Chief Justice of India (CJI) highlighted four crucial issues within the judiciary that require “difficult conversations.”
- This article delves into these issues and their historical context.
Major Issues with Legal Profession
[1] Problem of “Adjournment Culture”
- Definition: Adjournment culture refers to the practice of lawyers repeatedly seeking adjournments, delaying scheduled hearings.
- Effect on Justice: Prolonged adjournments lead to case delays and contribute to the growing backlog of pending cases.
- Legal Framework: Order XVII of the Civil Procedure Code, 1908 sets rules for granting adjournments, limiting them to three times, with sufficient cause shown.
- Vicious Cycle: Advocates exploit heavy workloads to seek adjournments, perpetuating delays.
[2] Managing Lengthy Oral Arguments
- Constitutional Bench Matters: The court directs parties to schedule oral arguments to avoid repetition in important cases.
- Mixed Success: Past cases, like the Ayodhya title dispute, had lengthy hearings despite scheduling.
- Recent Improvements: Under CJI UU Lalit, a Constitution Bench case involving EWS reservations achieved efficiency through time scheduling.
- US Model: The US Supreme Court restricts oral arguments to 30 minutes per side, considered but not adopted in India.
[3] Alternatives to Extended Court Vacations
- Flexi-Time: Introducing flexi-time for lawyers and judges is suggested, allowing them to choose working hours within a specified total.
- Philippines Example: The Philippines implemented flexi-time for court employees based on valid reasons.
- Historical Suggestions: Past reports and government recommendations aimed to reduce court vacations to tackle case backlog.
- Supreme Court Rules: In 2014, the court limited summer vacations to seven weeks instead of ten.
[4] Ensuring Equal Opportunities for First-Generation Lawyers
- Leveling the Field: The CJI emphasizes providing a level playing field for first-generation lawyers and marginalized segments with the potential to succeed.
- Progress: Over 50% of junior civil judge exam candidates are women, and 41% of Supreme Court law clerk candidates are women.
- Inclusivity Efforts: Initiatives by the Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association (SCAORA) aim to support diversity, including giving weightage to first-generation lawyers for Senior Advocate designations.
- Judicial Recognition: The judiciary acknowledges the growth and contributions of first-generation lawyers, dismissing claims that recognition is solely based on wealth and proximity.
Conclusion
- The judiciary faces multifaceted challenges, including adjournment culture, oral argument lengths, court vacations, and ensuring a fair platform for first-generation lawyers.
- Addressing these issues requires frank discussions, reforms, and continued efforts to uphold the principles of justice and inclusivity within the legal profession.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fiscal Deficit
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- In her Budget speech, FM revealed the government’s plans to reduce the fiscal deficit to 5.1% of GDP in 2024-25 and below 4.5% by 2025-26, surprising many analysts who expected slightly higher deficit targets.
- This article explains fiscal deficit, its significance, how the government funds it, and the implications of reducing the deficit.
What is Fiscal Deficit?
- Definition: Fiscal deficit represents the gap between a government’s revenue and its expenditure. When expenses exceed revenues, the government must borrow money or sell assets to cover the deficit.
- Revenue Sources: Taxes are the primary source of government revenue. In 2024-25, tax receipts are expected to be ₹26.02 lakh crore, while total revenue is estimated at ₹30.8 lakh crore. Total government expenditure for the same period is projected at ₹47.66 lakh crore.
Government Funding of Fiscal Deficit
- Borrowing: To finance the fiscal deficit, the government borrows money from the bond market, where lenders compete to purchase government-issued bonds.
- Central Banks: Central banks, such as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), play a significant role in the credit market by purchasing government bonds in the secondary market, indirectly providing funds to the government.
- Borrowing Amount: In 2024-25, the Centre aims to borrow ₹14.13 lakh crore from the market, lower than the target for 2023-24.
Why Does Fiscal Deficit Matter?
- Inflation: High fiscal deficits can lead to inflation, as the government may resort to printing money to fund the deficit.
- Market Confidence: Fiscal discipline, reflected in lower deficits, can boost confidence among lenders, potentially improving bond ratings and reducing borrowing costs.
- Debt Management: A high fiscal deficit can strain the government’s ability to manage public debt. India’s public debt may rise significantly, affecting the country’s fiscal health.
- International Borrowing: A lower fiscal deficit may make it easier for the government to issue bonds overseas and access cheaper credit.
Future Prospects
- Reducing Fiscal Deficit: The government plans to lower the fiscal deficit to 5.1% of GDP in 2024-25. It aims to achieve this primarily through increased tax collections, expecting a rise of 11.5%.
- Balancing Act: Balancing the budget through tax hikes could dampen economic growth, but achieving the ambitious fiscal deficit target remains uncertain.
Conclusion
- Fiscal deficit, the gap between government revenue and expenditure, holds significant implications for inflation, market confidence, debt management, and international borrowing.
- The government’s plan to reduce the fiscal deficit in the coming years involves a delicate balance of revenue generation and expenditure control.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Higher education in foreign countries
Introduction
- Indian students aspiring to pursue higher education in English-speaking countries, notably Canada and the U.K., are facing increased difficulties due to tightening immigration rules.
- This shift in regulations is affecting various aspects of the admission process and has raised concerns among higher education experts.
Recent Policy Changes
[1] Canada’s Revised Requirements:
- The Canadian government, responding to political tensions with India, revised its requirements in December 2023 to enhance the protection of international students.
- Notable Changes:
- The Guaranteed Investment Certificate (GIC) amount, necessary for visa applications, increased from 10,000 Canadian dollars (approximately ₹6.15 lakh) to 20,635 Canadian dollars (around ₹12.7 lakh).
- Canada has limited the total number of study permits or student visas to be issued to 3.6 lakh, down from nearly four lakh.
[2] UK’s Restriction on Dependant Family:
- Starting in 2024, international students in the UK will be prohibited from bringing dependant family members while pursuing their studies.
[3] Increased GIC Requirements in Other Countries:
- Countries like Germany and Australia have steadily raised their GIC amounts by around 10% annually, with Germany requiring 11,208 euros (₹10 lakh) for visa applications as of May 2023.
Impact on Students
- Financial Challenges: The substantial increase in GIC requirements, such as in Canada, poses financial challenges for Indian students, making it difficult to afford living expenses in expensive countries.
- Reduced Visa Accessibility: Canada’s reduction in the number of study permits affects Indian students’ access to higher education in the country.
- Change in Study Choices: The stricter rules have led to changes in study preferences, with some students considering countries like Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, the Netherlands, Finland, Taiwan, and Israel as alternative destinations for their education.
Mixed Implications
- Addressing Diploma Mills: Canada’s measures are aimed at curbing the issue of ‘diploma mills,’ improving the quality of education, and discouraging unethical practices by agents.
- Impact on Bachelor’s Degree Seekers: While master’s program students benefit from eased norms, those pursuing bachelor’s degrees in Canada face uncertainty and delays in their visa applications.
Conclusion
- The recent changes in admission rules for Indian students seeking higher education abroad highlight the evolving landscape of international education.
- These alterations necessitate adaptability among students and have sparked shifts in study preferences towards countries with more accessible pathways
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ammonia Emission
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Researchers have harnessed machine learning to provide precise estimates of ammonia emissions stemming from rice, wheat, and maize crops.
- Their dataset allows for a crop-specific assessment of emission reduction potential, suggesting that effective fertilizer management in these crops could decrease atmospheric ammonia emissions from agriculture by up to 38%.
Ammonia Emissions in Agriculture
Ammonia (NH3) emissions primarily originate from agricultural activities, particularly livestock farming and the application of synthetic and organic fertilizers.
- Livestock Farming: Livestock, such as cattle, poultry, and swine, produce ammonia through the breakdown of urea in their urine and faeces. Confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are major contributors to ammonia emissions.
- Fertilizer Application: Ammonia is released when synthetic fertilizers containing ammonium-based compounds (e.g., ammonium nitrate) are applied to crops. Manure from livestock can also be used as organic fertilizer, contributing to ammonia emissions.
Why it matters?
- Environmental Impact: Ammonia emissions can lead to air pollution, especially in areas with intensive agriculture. It can react with other pollutants to form fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, which has adverse effects on human health and the environment.
- Acid Deposition: Ammonia can undergo atmospheric transformation and contribute to acid rain, which can harm aquatic ecosystems, forests, and infrastructure.
- Nutrient Loss: Ammonia emissions represent a loss of valuable nitrogen nutrients from agricultural systems. This can reduce the efficiency of fertilizer use and contribute to nitrogen pollution in water bodies.
Significance of Ammonia Emissions
- Environmental Impact: Atmospheric ammonia is a significant environmental pollutant, affecting ecosystems and human health globally.
- Crop-Related Emissions: A substantial portion of anthropogenic ammonia emissions, 51-60%, originates from crop cultivation. Rice, wheat, and maize are responsible for approximately half of these emissions.
Machine Learning-Based Modeling
- Researchers’ Approach: The study employed machine learning to model ammonia emissions from rice, wheat, and maize farming worldwide. This modelling considered various factors such as climate, soil characteristics, crop types, irrigation, tillage practices, and fertilization methods.
- Dataset Development: To train the model, researchers curated a dataset comprising ammonia emissions data from over 2,700 observations, gathered through a systematic review of published literature.
- Global Emission Estimate: The model’s estimates revealed that global ammonia emissions reached 4.3 teragrams (4.3 billion kilograms) in 2018.
Emission Reduction Potential
- Optimizing Fertilizer Management: By spatially optimizing fertilizer management according to the model’s guidance, ammonia emissions from the three crops could potentially be reduced by 38%.
- Strategies: The optimized strategy involves deeper placement of enhanced-efficiency fertilizers into the soil using conventional tillage practices during the growing season.
Crop-Specific Contributions
- Reduction Potential: Under the proposed fertilizer management scenario, rice crops could contribute to 47% of the total reduction potential. Maize and wheat could contribute 27% and 26%, respectively.
- Emission Projections: Without management strategies, ammonia emissions could increase by 4.6% to 15.8% by 2100, depending on future greenhouse gas emissions levels.
Conclusion
- This study showcases how machine learning can provide valuable insights into ammonia emissions from crop cultivation.
- By optimizing fertilizer management practices, substantial reductions in ammonia emissions from rice, wheat, and maize crops can be achieved, contributing to environmental sustainability.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: $7 Trillion Economy
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Indian government’s recent review of the economy has set an ambitious target of achieving a $7 trillion economy by 2030.
- This article analyzes the feasibility of this goal and explores the factors that contribute to India’s economic outlook.
$7 Trillion Economy: Key Findings
- Robust Growth: The review expects India to sustain a growth rate of 7% or higher in the fiscal years 2023-24 and beyond.
- Economic Strengths: The government highlights significant strengths, including substantial infrastructure investments, a healthy financial sector, strong household finances, comfortable forex reserves, controlled inflation, and a decreasing fiscal deficit.
- $7 Trillion Vision: Based on these factors, the review envisions India reaching a $7 trillion economy by 2030.
India’s Economic Journey
- Historic Growth: India took 60 years to reach a $1 trillion economy (2007-08), achieved $2 trillion in just seven years (2014-15), and surpassed $3 trillion by 2021-22.
- Current Status: India is now the world’s fifth-largest economy, with a GDP estimated to reach $3.7 trillion by the end of 2023-24.
Obstacles to Rapid Growth
- Slower Growth Phase: After a period of rapid growth, India’s economy began to decelerate post-2014, exacerbated by events such as demonetization in 2016 and the pandemic-induced contraction.
- Ambitious Targets: India had set ambitious targets of becoming a $5 trillion economy by 2024-25 and a $10 trillion economy by 2029-30, but achieving them will require overcoming challenges.
- Growth Rate Hurdle: To reach a $7 trillion economy by 2030, India must achieve a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.9% from 2023-24 to 2029-30, compared to the expected CAGR of 6.7% from 2013-14 to 2023-24.
Challenges Ahead
- Global Economic Trends: Developed economies are facing declining growth due to inflation and environmental concerns, which could affect India’s export prospects.
- Protectionism: Increasing protectionism in the global trade landscape poses challenges for India’s export-oriented growth.
- Geo-Political Uncertainties: Geo-political tensions can fuel inflation and hinder economic growth, presenting additional hurdles.
Conclusion
- While India’s economic potential remains substantial, achieving a $7 trillion economy by 2030 is a formidable challenge.
- The nation must navigate global economic shifts, tackle protectionist policies, and address geo-political uncertainties to realize this ambitious vision.
- Success will require sustained efforts and innovative strategies to drive economic growth and resilience.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Political Parties
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Tamil superstar Thalapathy Vijay’s announcement of his political party has sparked interest in the process of registering political entities in India.
Creating a Political Party
- Legal Framework: Article 324 of the Indian Constitution and Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 empower the Election Commission to lay down guidelines for party registration.
- Application: A party seeking registration must apply to the Election Commission within 30 days of its formation.
- Public Notice: The applicant must publish the proposed party name in two national and two local daily newspapers. The notice is also posted on the Election Commission’s website.
- Documentation: The application, in a prescribed format, must be sent to the Election Commission Secretary within 30 days of party formation. It should include a demand draft of Rs. 10,000, a printed copy of the party’s memorandum, rules, or constitution, and the latest electoral rolls for at least 100 party members.
- Affidavits: An affidavit, duly signed by the President or General Secretary and sworn before a Magistrate/Notary Public, is required. Additionally, individual affidavits from 100 members confirming non-membership in any other registered political party are essential.
Need for Registration
- Not Mandatory: Registration with the Election Commission is not mandatory but comes with advantages under the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
- Symbol Allotment: Registered party candidates receive priority in the allotment of free symbols over independent candidates.
- State or National Recognition: Parties can achieve recognition as ‘state parties’ or ‘national parties,’ subject to fulfilling conditions laid out in the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968.
Recognition Criteria
- State Party: To be recognized as a state party, a registered party must meet any of these five conditions:
- Secure at least 6% of valid votes and win at least 2 seats in an Assembly General Election.
- Secure at least 6% of valid votes and win at least 1 seat in a Lok Sabha General Election.
- Win at least 3% of the seats or at least 3 seats, whichever is more, in an Assembly General Election.
- Win at least 1 out of every 25 seats from a state in a Lok Sabha General Election.
- Secure at least 8% of the total valid vote in an Assembly or Lok Sabha General Election.
- National Party: To attain national party status, a registered party must meet any of these three conditions:
- Secure at least 6% of valid votes in an Assembly or Lok Sabha General Election in four or more states and win at least 4 seats in a Lok Sabha General Election from any state.
- Win at least 2% of total Lok Sabha seats in a Lok Sabha General Election, spanning at least 3 states.
- The party is recognized as a State Party in at least four states.
Benefits of Recognition
- Reserved Symbol: State parties receive a reserved symbol within the state, while national parties can use the reserved symbol across the country.
- Nomination Ease: Such parties require only one proposer for filing nominations.
- Free Electoral Rolls: They are entitled to two sets of electoral rolls free of cost.
- Media Access: Recognized parties can use state-owned Akashvani/Doordarshan facilities for broadcasting/telecasting during general elections.
- Additional Perks: Recognized parties can avail of other advantages such as subsidized land for party offices, among others.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: North vs. South Korea
Introduction
- Provocative Actions: North Korea’s provocative actions and responses by South Korea and its allies have heightened concerns about international security.
- Major Power Rivalry: Major power rivalry has intensified, raising questions about regional stability.
North vs. South Korea: Historical Context
- Post-WWII Division: After World War II, the Korean Peninsula was divided into North and South Korea.
- Cold War Alignments: The North aligned with the Soviet Union, while the South aligned with the U.S.
- Korean War: The Korean War in the 1950s marked the first “hot war” of the Cold War era.
- Ongoing Division: Despite the end of active conflict and the Cold War, the two Koreas remain divided due to ideological and geopolitical differences.
- Nuclear Ambitions: A major issue in the region has been North Korea’s pursuit of nuclear weapons.
Recent Escalation
- Adversarial Designation: North Korea has officially designated South Korea as an adversary and dismantled symbols of reunification.
- Missile Tests: Multiple missile tests, including one involving a hypersonic warhead, have been conducted.
- Hypersonic Threat: Hypersonic weapons have the potential to evade missile defence systems.
- Joint Drills: In response, the U.S., South Korea, and Japan held joint naval drills to enhance their defence capabilities.
- Additional Tests: North Korea conducted tests of a nuclear-capable underwater drone and a strategic cruise missile, increasing tensions in the region.
South Korea’s Role
- New Leadership: South Korea’s newly elected conservative President Yoon Suk Yeol has adopted a hawkish approach toward North Korea.
- Alignment with Allies: There is a closer alignment with the U.S. and Japan.
- Trilateral Cooperation: The three countries held a historic meeting to strengthen trilateral cooperation.
- Conflict Concerns: These developments raise concerns about potential conflicts in the region, given the involvement of major powers and the possibility of unintended consequences.
International Implications
- Global Conflicts: Rising tensions in the Korean Peninsula coincide with other global conflicts, such as Russia-Ukraine and Israel-Palestine.
- Major Power Involvement: Key stakeholders in the Korean Peninsula, including the U.S., China, and Russia, are involved in a broader strategic competition.
- Conflict Possibilities: While a major conflict may be avoided due to alliances and nuclear deterrence, incidents or skirmishes are possible.
- Complex Alliances: North Korea’s ties with China and Russia and South Korea’s alignment with the U.S. add complexity to ongoing global conflicts.
Conclusion
- The situation in the Korean Peninsula has raised international security concerns due to increased tensions, missile tests, and shifts in political dynamics among the involved countries.
- The interconnectedness of these issues with broader global conflicts adds to the complexity and uncertainty in the region.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Deputy CM
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Deputy Chief Ministers (Deputy CMs) have become prominent figures in Indian politics, serving as political compromises and often following coalition governments or a lack of single-party dominance.
- The role and prevalence of Deputy CMs vary across states and regions.
Role of Deputy CM
- Political Compromise: Deputy CMs are appointed to strike a political compromise, especially in coalition governments or when no single leader commands undisputed authority.
- Representation: Deputy CMs represent various regions, communities, or interest groups within a state, promoting inclusivity.
- Constitutional Basis: The Constitution does not explicitly mention the position of Deputy CM; however, it is understood to be equivalent in rank to a Cabinet Minister.
- Article 163(1): This article outlines the existence of a Council of Ministers in each state, with the Chief Minister at its head, to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions. While it doesn’t mention Deputy CMs, they are a part of the Council of Ministers, akin to Cabinet Ministers.
- Article 164(1): This article states that the Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor, and other Ministers shall be appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. It establishes the authority of the Chief Minister in appointing Deputy CMs.
Prevalence of Deputy Chief Ministers
- Growing Prominence: Deputy CMs are increasingly common in Indian states, with four of the five states that went to polls in November 2021 having Deputy CMs.
- National Presence: Most major states, except Tamil Nadu and Kerala, have the position of Deputy CM.
- Varied Contexts: States like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Haryana have multiple Deputy CMs, often reflecting coalition governments or diverse political considerations.
Historical Overview
- Pioneering Deputy CM: Anugrah Narayan Sinha was one of the earliest Deputy CMs in India, representing Bihar.
- Post-1967 Increase: The prevalence of Deputy CMs expanded after the decline of Congress’s dominance in national politics in 1967.
- Examples: States like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Haryana have a history of Deputy CMs from various political backgrounds.
Deputy Prime Ministers
- Higher Position: India has also seen Deputy Prime Ministers, who held positions of significance at the national level.
- Notable Figures: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, Chaudhary Devi Lal, and Lal Krishna Advani have served as Deputy Prime Ministers.
- Constitutional Aspects: The role of the Deputy Prime Minister has been debated in court, with the Supreme Court emphasizing that it does not confer additional powers on the Deputy Prime Minister.
Conclusion
- Deputy Chief Ministers play a vital role in Indian politics, facilitating political stability and representation.
- Their prevalence has increased over the years, and they continue to hold significant positions in state governments.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Right to Internet
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- The Internet serves as a vital source of information, entertainment, healthcare, education, and livelihood.
- However, the rampant instances of Internet suspension in India, often without public disclosure, raise concerns about constitutional rights and economic losses.
Constitutional Provisions for Right to Internet
| Landmark Case |
Constitutional Provision |
Explanation |
| Anuradha Bhasin vs. Union of India and Ors. (2020) |
Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression under Article 19(1)(a) |
Grants the right to freedom of speech and expression, which encompasses access to information and the Internet. |
| Faheema Shirin RK vs. State of Kerala and others (2019) |
Right to Education under Article 21A |
Guarantees the right to education for children aged 6 to 14;
Internet access is crucial for modern education. |
| K.S. Puttaswamy (Privacy) vs. Union of India (2017) |
Right to Privacy under Article 21 |
Protects the fundamental right to privacy, and Internet access is often used for secure communication. |
| Anuradha Bhasin vs. Union of India and Ors. |
Freedom to Practice Any Profession or Carry on Any Trade, Business, or Occupation under Article 19(1)(g) |
Ensures the freedom to conduct various trades, businesses, and professions, often requiring Internet access. |
Mechanisms allowing Internet Shut-downs
| Mechanism |
Authorities |
Purpose |
| Temporary Suspension of Telecom Services (Public Emergency or Public Safety) Rules, 2017 |
Home Departments in the states, state government review committee, central government (under this law, but rarely used) |
Enforces shutdowns for public emergency or safety reasons. |
| Section 144 of the CrPC |
Local law enforcement authorities |
Enables shutdowns, particularly before 2017, to maintain public order and safety. |
| The Indian Telegraph Act, 1885, Section 5(2) |
Home Secretary of the Union or state governments |
Allows blocking of messaging during a public emergency, safeguarding public safety, or protecting sovereignty and integrity. |
Landmark Precedence: Anuradha Bhasin Judgment (2020)
- Supreme Court’s Ruling: In January 2020, the Supreme Court of India recognized access to the Internet as a fundamental right under the Indian Constitution.
- Restrictions Guidelines: The Court mandated that any government-imposed Internet restrictions must be temporary, limited, lawful, necessary, and proportionate. It also emphasized judicial review.
Unfulfilled Promises and Ongoing Restrictions
- Broken Promises: Despite the Anuradha Bhasin judgment, Internet shutdowns increased in India, making it the leader in global Internet suspensions.
- Recent Examples: The Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) and Haryana have imposed Internet restrictions without timely publication of orders.
- Compliance Issues: Lack of publication erodes public trust and limits the ability to challenge the legality of restrictions.
Need for Transparency
- Publication’s Significance: Non-disclosure of orders hinders legal challenges and perpetuates illegal restrictions.
- Statutory Recognition: The government’s failure to give statutory recognition to the Supreme Court’s directions creates awareness issues.
- Economic Impact: In 2020, India suffered $2.8 billion in losses due to 129 Internet shutdowns affecting 10.3 million individuals.
Widespread Impact
- Economic, Psychological, and Social Harm: Internet suspensions harm the economy and disrupt daily life, education, healthcare, and communication.
- Democratic Right to Protest: Restrictions on Internet access hinder the democratic exercise of the right to protest.
- Verifying Information: The Internet helps verify rumors and disseminate the truth during emergencies.
Socio-economic Disparities
- Mobile-Dependent Users: The majority of Internet users rely on mobile data services, making Internet restrictions detrimental to lower socio-economic groups.
- Broadband Accessibility: Limited access to broadband Internet exacerbates the impact of shutdowns.
Conclusion
- To uphold constitutional rights and unlock the full potential of Digital India, the government must adhere to the Supreme Court’s guidelines, ensuring transparency and legality in Internet shutdowns.
- Addressing compliance issues and minimizing restrictions can benefit the nation’s economic and social well-being.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nitrogen Hypoxia
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Alabama’s recent execution of a prisoner by nitrogen hypoxia has stirred debate and controversy, marking a historic shift in execution methods after four decades.
- While some argue for the method’s effectiveness, others condemn it as cruel and inhumane.
Science behind Nitrogen Hypoxia
- Nitrogen Inhalation: Smith, 58, underwent execution by inhaling pure nitrogen, depriving the body of oxygen needed for vital functions.
- NIOSH-Approved Respirator: The state of Alabama used an industrial-grade respirator, specifically a “NIOSH-approved Type-C full facepiece supplied air respirator,” delivering nitrogen to the inmate.
- Deprivation of Oxygen: While nitrogen is harmless in normal air composition, inhaling it exclusively leads to oxygen deprivation, causing eventual death.
Execution Duration
- Unexpected Prolongation: Despite claims that nitrogen gas would cause unconsciousness within seconds and death within minutes, Smith’s execution took approximately 22 minutes.
- Witness Accounts: Onlookers reported distressing scenes of Smith writhing, convulsing, and gasping for air during the extended execution.
Legal and Ethical Questions
- Constitutional Concerns: Smith’s lawyers attempted to halt the execution, arguing it violated the constitutional ban on cruel and unusual punishment.
- Experimental Execution Method: Critics contended that Smith was being used as a test subject for an untested method, highlighting the lack of adequate research and procedures.
- Federal Court Rulings: Despite legal challenges, federal courts, including the US Supreme Court, rejected attempts to block the execution, raising concerns about the state’s approach.
Death Penalty Landscape in the US
- Highly Charged Issue: The death penalty remains a polarizing political topic in the United States, drawing contrasting views on its justice, deterrence, and ethical considerations.
- Questionable Deterrence: Research indicates no conclusive evidence that capital punishment acts as a deterrent to crime, challenging one of its main justifications.
- Execution Methods’ Challenges: Lethal injection, the most common method, faces controversies, from botched executions to reliability issues.
- Racial and Economic Bias: Critics argue that capital punishment carries a risk of wrongful prosecution, with studies revealing racial and economic biases in its application.
Conclusion
- As the United States witnesses the first nitrogen hypoxia execution, the controversy surrounding the method raises broader questions about the ethics, constitutionality, and efficacy of capital punishment.
- With legal battles ongoing and public opinion divided, the execution of Kenneth Smith serves as a focal point for re-evaluating the nation’s approach to the death penalty and the methods employed.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ladakh, Gilgit Baltistan
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The socio-political landscape of Ladakh is witnessing ongoing dialogues and demands on Gilgit-Baltistan, primarily presented by the Leh Apex Body (LAB) and Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA) to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
- The demands encompass a range of issues, including territorial control expansion, restoration of statehood, special status under the Sixth Schedule and Article 371, and exclusive rights over recruitment.
Ladakh’s Current Status
- Formation as Union Territory: Ladakh, spanning 59,146 square kilometers, became a Union Territory on August 5, 2019, following the abrogation of Article 370.
- Governance: Unlike Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh does not have a legislature but is governed by two elected hill councils, LAHDC-Kargil and LAHDC-Leh.
- Population and Demographics: Ladakh, with a population of 2.74 lakh (2011 census), is a Muslim-majority UT, with Buddhists dominating Leh district and Shia Muslims in Kargil. The region witnessed varied reactions to the abrogation of Article 370, with Leh supporting UT status and Kargil expressing a desire for reunification with Kashmir.
Latest Demands of the Region
- Protests against UT Status: Over the past two years, both Leh and Kargil initiated protests against the UT status without a legislature, advocating for the restoration of statehood.
- Special Status under Sixth Schedule: There is a collective demand for special status under the Sixth Schedule and Article 371, similar to other northeastern states, to preserve the region’s ecological fragility and limit external influences.
- Exclusive Recruitment Rights: Ladakh seeks exclusive rights over recruitment, proposing the establishment of the Ladakh Public Service Commission for gazetted jobs and empowering hill councils for lower rung staff recruitment.
Territorial Control Expansion
- Historical Context: The memorandum underlines Ladakh’s historical connection to Gilgit-Baltistan, part of the pre-1947 Ladakh district now under Pakistan’s occupation.
- Territorial Control Demand: Ladakh demands an extension of territorial control up to Gilgit-Baltistan, advocating for attempts to include this area into Ladakh. Reservation of seats for Gilgit-Baltistan is sought once a legislature is granted.
- Strategic and Stability Considerations: The memorandum emphasizes that empowering locals will enhance stability in the region, especially in the context of Ladakh’s volatile Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China.
Centre’s Response and Committees Formed
- Committees Formed: In response to street protests, the Centre formed committees in 2022 and 2024, led by Ministers G. Kishan Reddy and Nityanand Rai, respectively, to engage with LAB and KDA members.
- Assurance and Ongoing Talks: The Centre assured finding appropriate solutions to language, culture, and land conservation issues in Ladakh. Ongoing talks are aimed at addressing the demands and fostering a structured dialogue between New Delhi and Ladakh.
Conclusion
- Ladakh’s socio-political dialogue continues, reflecting the diverse sentiments and demands of its residents.
- The region’s historical context, strategic considerations, and ecological concerns play a crucial role in shaping the ongoing negotiations.
- As Ladakh awaits resolutions to its demands, the dialogue remains a critical component in navigating the complex dynamics between the Centre and this unique Union Territory.
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