Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: African Continent
Mains level: Recent Geopolitical issues
Why in the news?
- Renewed clashes in eastern DRC between the Congolese army and Rwandan-backed M23 rebels have raised global concerns.
Context:
- The conflict exacerbates the humanitarian crisis in the region, with increased fatalities, displacements, and food security risks.
- The United Nations and several Western countries denounce the attacks and urge the M23 rebels to halt their offensive
What is the conflict?
- Origin: Conflict in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) stems from the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide in 1994, where extremist Hutus killed hundreds of thousands of minority ethnic Tutsis and Hutu moderates.
- Refugee Crisis: Following the genocide, around two million Rwandan refugees fled to eastern Congo, leading to tensions between local Congolese and Rwandan emigrants.
- First Congo War: Ethnic tensions escalated into the First Congo War, pitting Zairean soldiers against Tutsi militias and the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), supported by Rwanda and Uganda.
- Political Changes: The AFDL captured Kinshasa, leading to the renaming of Zaire as the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in 1997.
- Africa’s World War: The Second Congo War erupted in 1998, characterized as “Africa’s world war,” involving various armed groups, including the Rwanda-backed rebel group, the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD).
- Despite multiple peace agreements, violence persists in the region, making it one of the deadliest conflicts since World War II.
Who are the M23 rebels?
- Formation of M23 rebels: The March 23 Movement (M23) was formed in 2012 to defend Tutsi interests against Hutu militias, stemming from a 2009 ceasefire agreement. It broke away from the Congolese army, accusing the government of failing to integrate Tutsis.
- Recent Resurgence: M23 resurged in 2022, citing attacks by Hutu militias. Recent attacks near Goma have exacerbated the humanitarian crisis, leading to protests urging Rwanda’s withdrawal of support.
- Escalating Tensions: Violence has strained relations between the DRC and Rwanda, with the DRC accusing Rwanda of backing M23 rebels. Rwanda denies these allegations and attributes the escalation to Congo’s decision to send back regional peacekeepers.
- Potential Regional Escalation: The worsening violence raises concerns about regional tensions and the involvement of more countries. Attacks on civilian settlements have caused significant casualties and forced health and aid workers to withdraw.
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Measures to resolve these issues-
- Regional Cooperation: Foster cooperation among neighboring countries to address cross-border security challenges and prevent the spread of violence. Establishing joint patrols and intelligence-sharing mechanisms can enhance security along shared borders.
- Peacekeeping Missions: Increased peacekeeping efforts can help stabilize conflict-affected areas and create conducive conditions for peace talks.
- Socio-Economic Development: Invest in socio-economic development initiatives in conflict-affected areas to address underlying drivers of instability and marginalization. Providing livelihood opportunities, access to education, healthcare, and infrastructure can help alleviate poverty and promote social cohesion.
- Disarmament and Reintegration: Implement effective disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) programs which should include vocational training, psychosocial support, and community-based reconciliation efforts.
- International Support: Mobilize international support and Regional organizations, donor countries, and civil society actors to provide timely and coordinated assistance to affected populations.
Conclusion:
The conflict in eastern DRC, fueled by historical grievances and ethnic tensions, requires diplomatic engagement, regional cooperation, peacekeeping missions, comprehensive peace agreements, socio-economic development, disarmament, international support to achieve lasting peace and stability.
Mains PYQ-
The anti-colonial struggles in West Africa were led by the new elite of Western-educated Africans. Examine. (UPSC IAS/2016)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Parliamentary democracy; Elections; Committee Reports;
Mains level: Parliamentary democracy; Elections; Committee Reports;
Why in the news?
- A high-level committee chaired by former President Ram Nath Kovind has proposed conducting simultaneous elections
Context
- It has proposed conducting simultaneous elections for the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies as the initial step.
- Subsequently, municipal and panchayat elections would be held within 100 days following the general elections.
What is Simultaneous elections?
- Simultaneous elections, also known as “One Nation, One Election,” refer to the practice of holding elections for all levels of government – national, state, and local – simultaneously, or within a short period of time.
- This means that voters would cast their ballots for parliamentary (Lok Sabha), state legislative assembly (Vidhan Sabha), and local government (municipalities, panchayats) elections on the same day or within a closely coordinated timeframe.
Article 83 (Duration of Houses of Parliament): Article 83 specifies the tenure of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament. It states that the Lok Sabha’s duration is five years from the date of its first sitting unless dissolved earlier. The President has the authority to dissolve the Lok Sabha before the completion of its five-year term, leading to general elections.
Article 172 (Duration of State Legislatures): Article 172 deals with the duration of the Legislative Assemblies in the states. It mandates that the Legislative Assembly of a state will continue for five years from the date of its first sitting unless dissolved earlier. Similar to the Lok Sabha, the Governor of a state holds the power to dissolve the Legislative Assembly before the completion of its five-year term, leading to fresh elections. |
Recommendation as per Committee-
- Synchronization Proposal: The committee proposed a method to synchronize elections by setting an ‘Appointed Date’ after the general elections. State Assemblies formed after this date and before the completion of the Lok Sabha’s term would conclude before subsequent general elections, enabling simultaneous polls.
- Tenure and Fresh Elections: The committee suggested that if a hung House or a no-confidence motion occurs, fresh elections could be conducted. However, the tenure of the House would only last for the remaining term of the preceding full term.
- Continuation of New Assemblies: In the case of fresh elections for Legislative Assemblies, the new Assemblies would continue until the end of the full term of the Lok Sabha unless dissolved earlier.
- Constitutional Amendments: Amendments to Article 83 and Article 172 of the Constitution are recommended to facilitate these changes regarding the duration of Parliament and State legislatures.
- Implementation of Changes: An implementation group is proposed to oversee the execution of the recommended amendments by the committee.
Examining the issue of Simultaneous elections:
- Law Commission’s Action: The 22nd Law Commission, concurrently examining the issue of simultaneous elections, is anticipated to submit its report to the Law Ministry soon. It is likely to recommend simultaneous polls from the 2029 general election cycle.
Ratification by States-
- Amendments to Constitution Articles: The committee recommends amendments to Article 324A to enable simultaneous elections in panchayats and municipalities. Amendments to Article 325 are suggested to empower the Election Commission of India (EC) to collaborate with state election authorities in preparing a unified electoral roll and voter ID cards.
- Article 324A: This article pertains to the recommendations for amendments to enable simultaneous elections in panchayats and municipalities.
- It implies that changes to Article 324A would empower the Election Commission of India (EC) to conduct elections for local bodies concurrently with state and national elections.
- The proposed amendment aims to streamline the electoral process and reduce the frequency of elections, aligning with the broader goal of synchronizing all levels of elections.
- Article 325: It deals with the right to vote and preparation of electoral rolls.
- The suggested amendments to Article 325 would authorize the Election Commission of India (EC), in consultation with state election authorities, to prepare a unified electoral roll and issue voter ID cards.
- This amendment seeks to establish a uniform and standardized voter registration process across different levels of elections, ensuring consistency and efficiency in voter identification and participation.
Significance of “One Nation, One Election”:
- Governance Efficiency: Conducting elections at all levels simultaneously can streamline the electoral process, reducing the disruptions caused by frequent elections. This leads to more stable governance and allows elected representatives to focus on their duties rather than preparing for elections.
- Cost Savings: Simultaneous elections can significantly reduce the financial burden associated with conducting multiple elections at different times. It helps in optimizing resources, cutting down on campaign expenses, and minimizing the overall cost to the exchequer.
- Voter Engagement: Coordinating elections at all levels encourages higher voter turnout by consolidating electoral activities. It simplifies the voting process for citizens and promotes greater participation in the democratic process.
- Policy Continuity: Simultaneous elections facilitate better policy planning and implementation by ensuring that elected governments at various levels have concurrent tenures. This continuity promotes stability and coherence in policymaking, leading to more effective governance.
- Reduced Political Polarization: By aligning electoral cycles, simultaneous elections can mitigate the intense political polarization often witnessed during election periods. It fosters a more collaborative political environment and encourages constructive dialogue among political parties.
Conclusion:
The proposal for simultaneous elections requires constitutional amendments and careful implementation. Cooperation among states and the Election Commission is essential for its success.
Mains PYQ-
Q- Simultaneous election to the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies will limit the amount of time and money spent in electioneering but it will reduce the government’s accountability to the people’ Discuss.( UPSC IAS/2017)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tendulkar Committee; Important reports and surveys;
Mains level: Poverty in India; Tendulkar Committee; Important reports and surveys;
Why in the news?
- NITI Aayog’s B.V.R. Subrahmanyam stated that less than 5% of Indians live below the poverty line based on HCES(Household Consumption Expenditure Survey) 2022-23 findings.
Context:
- According to the World Bank, in India, 21.9% of the population lives below the national poverty line in 2011.
- In 2018, almost 8% of the world’s workers and their families lived on less than US$1.90 per person per day (international poverty line).
- About HCES (Household Consumption Expenditure Survey): The HCES is usually conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) every 5 years. It is designed to collect information on the consumption of goods and services by households
What does the HCES Survey say?
- The survey indicates 2.5 times increase in consumption expenditure since 2011-12, but critics question income rise parity on basis of the following conditions:
- Nominal vs. Real Terms: Consumption has increased about 40% per capita in real terms over the past 11 years, despite nominal terms showing a 2.5 times increase.
- Wage Growth: Data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) reveals a 3.2% annual increase in wages for agricultural workers since 2011, indicating real wage growth.
- Tax Data: Tax records demonstrate robust growth in the wages of salaried workers since 2011, further supporting the claim of increased incomes lead to higher consumption.
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How the Poverty line is defined in India? Does the poverty line need to be raised?
- The poverty line in India: Historically based on the Tendulkar Committee observation, the poverty line, currently approximates ₹1,500 in rural and ₹1,800 in urban areas. However, it lacks a clear conceptual basis, diverging from traditional calorie-based metrics. Additionally, there’s no officially declared poverty line presently.
- Poverty Line Calculation: NITI Aayog’s task force calculates the poverty line in India using data from the National Sample Survey Office, which is part of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
- Need for raising the Poverty line: In 2011-12, India’s poverty rate was 12.5%, but it has decreased to 5% by 2022-23. Using the Tendulkar poverty line, poverty levels are around 2%, indicating the need to increase the poverty line. Extreme poverty has been reduced, but raising the poverty line is necessary, as indicated by different calculations.
What is the Criticism faced along the lines of income rise parity?
- Real Wage Growth: Contrary to claims of wage growth, numerous studies indicate that real wages have grown by less than 1% annually since 2017, and have even declined for construction workers.
- Employment Data: The celebrated increase in employment shown in the latest PLFS survey for 2022-23 is misleading, as it primarily stems from a rise in unpaid family helpers rather than genuine job creation.
- Unpaid Workers: The prevalence of unpaid family helpers, particularly among women, has increased significantly, with 37.5% of women workers now being unpaid, up from 32% in previous years.
- Paid Employment Rates: When considering only paid employment (those receiving compensation for work), the rates are notably low, with only 48% for men and 13% for women, indicating a lack of genuine employment opportunities and wage growth for most working families.
- Stagnant Demand for Mass Consumption Goods: Despite overall consumption growth, demand for mass-consumption goods and fast-moving consumer goods (FMCGs) remains stagnant, suggesting limited improvement in the purchasing power of the majority of the population.
- Two-Wheeler Sales: Sales of two-wheelers, a key indicator of consumer demand, have not recovered to pre-demonetization levels (pre-November 2016), indicating persistent challenges in the broader economy affecting consumer spending habits.
The Other side of the coin-
- Concerns with Private Sector Data: There is skepticism regarding the quality of data provided by private sector entities like CMIE, particularly regarding indicators such as female labor force participation rates.
- Female Labor Force Participation Rate: CMIE data suggests a significantly low female labor force participation rate in India, with only 9% of women reportedly working, raising questions about the accuracy and reliability of these statistics.
- Comparison with Other Countries: The data implies that India’s female labor force participation rate is lower than that of countries like Yemen and Iraq, highlighting the severity of the issue and prompting concerns about the credibility of the data.
Way Forward: Measures to improve the data and poverty line –
- Revising Poverty Line Definition: Develop a clear conceptual basis for defining the poverty line, moving away from historical metrics like the Tendulkar poverty line towards more comprehensive and inclusive criteria, such as calorie-based metrics or multidimensional poverty indicators.
- Official Declaration of Poverty Line: Establish an officially declared poverty line, supported by rigorous research and consultation with experts, to provide clarity and consistency in poverty estimation efforts.
- Enhanced Monitoring and Evaluation: Strengthen monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to regularly review and update the poverty line based on evolving socio-economic conditions, ensuring its relevance and accuracy over time.
Conclusion:
The poverty line in India, historically based on the Tendulkar poverty line, needs revision due to its lack of conceptual basis and the absence of an official declaration. Despite reductions in extreme poverty, concerns persist over stagnant wage growth, misleading employment data, and the need for improved poverty measurement methodologies.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Citizenship;CAA 2019; CAA 2024; Judicial interventions;
Mains level: Citizenship; CAA 2019; CAA 2024; Judicial interventions;
Why in the news?
- The Ministry of Home Affairs notified the rules to implement the CAA, which fast-tracks citizenship for non-Muslim immigrants from neighbouring countries. Despite delays, the Act faces challenges in the Supreme Court.
Context
- Petitions challenge the CAA’s constitutionality, arguing it violates Article 14 by making religion a qualifier for citizenship.
- Petitions seek a stay on the recently notified rules, criticizing the bypassing of tiered scrutiny for citizenship applications and the government’s decision to implement rules before a final court decision.
About Citizenship Amendment Act 2019:
- Origin- The citizenship laws in India find their roots in the constitution through Articles 5-11 and the Citizenship Act of 1955. This legislation outlines provisions for acquiring citizenship through birth, descent, registration, and naturalization.
- Changes as per CAA 2019– It revised the Citizenship Act of 1955 to grant eligibility for Indian citizenship to illegal migrants who are Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, and Christians from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.
Citizenship Amendment Rules, 2024:
Despite a delay of over four years, the Ministry of Home Affairs has officially issued the Citizenship Amendment Rules, 2024, facilitating the implementation of the Citizenship Amendment Act 2019.
The key provisions include:
- Application Process: Eligible refugees are required to submit applications accompanied by affidavits verifying statements, character references from Indian citizens, and a declaration of proficiency in a designated Indian language for citizenship.
- E-Application to District-Level Committee: The rules stipulate that applications must be submitted electronically to a district-level committee for verification of documents and administration of the oath of allegiance. Failure to appear in person may result in rejection of the application by the empowered committee following review by the district committee.
- Supporting Documentation: Applicants are mandated to provide supporting documents such as passports, birth certificates, identity papers, land records, or evidence of ancestry from Pakistan, Afghanistan, or Bangladesh to substantiate their citizenship claims.
- Verification of Entry Date: Applicants must furnish evidence of entry before December 31, 2014, through one of the 20 specified documents, including FRRO registration, Census slips, government-issued IDs (such as Aadhaar, ration card, driver’s license), or marriage certificates issued in India.
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What are the implications of CAA?
- Potential Impact on Muslims: The CAA, when combined with the proposed National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC), has the potential to disproportionately affect Muslims residing in India. Non-Muslims may have an opportunity to obtain citizenship through the CAA, while Muslims may be denied this opportunity.
- Exclusion from NRIC: In the event of people being excluded from the NRIC, non-Muslims may have a pathway to inclusion through the CAA, while Muslims may face barriers. The Supreme Court-monitored NRC exercise in Assam in 2021 left over 19 lakh people from the citizenship register, raising concerns about exclusion and discrimination.
- Executive Order and Implementation: The Union government issued an order granting District Collectors in five states with high migrant populations the power to grant citizenship to groups identified in the CAA amendment. However, there were allegations that this order was a tactic to implement the CAA, which the government denied.
- Relaxation of Citizenship Criteria: The newly notified rules under the CAA have eased the process of granting Indian citizenship to members of specified communities by excluding the requirement of a valid passport or visa. Instead, documents showing ancestry from designated countries are deemed sufficient.
- Constitutional Challenges: The constitutionality of the CAA has been challenged in court, with petitions arguing that the law violates Article 14 of the Constitution by making religion a qualifier for citizenship.
- Impact on Assam Accord: The CAA has been criticized as undermining the Assam Accord of 1985, which does not differentiate on grounds of religion and deems any person who cannot prove ancestry beyond March 24, 1971, as an alien. Petitions contend that the law may lead to an increase in the influx of illegal migrants from Bangladesh to Assam.
How has the Supreme Court responded? (Judicial Stand)
- December 2019: The Supreme Court, led by former Chief Justice of India (CJI) S.A. Bobde, refused to stay the operation of the CAA. Instead, the court suggested that the government should publicize the actual intent of the Act.
- A similar plea for a stay was rejected by the court on January 22, 2020, with the court emphasizing the need to hear the government’s perspective first.
- October 2022: A Bench led by former CJI U.U. Lalit ordered that final hearings in the case would commence on December 6, 2022.
- However, since then, the case has not been listed. According to the Supreme Court’s website, the petitions are currently before a Bench headed by Justice Pankaj Mithal.
What is the significance of the challenge to Section 6A?
- Dependence on Assam Accord: Section 6A was introduced in furtherance of the Assam Accord, a Memorandum of Settlement signed in 1985 to resolve issues related to immigration in Assam.
- Therefore, the challenge to Section 6A is intricately linked to the implementation and interpretation of the Assam Accord.
- Legal Implications: The challenges against Section 6A of the Citizenship Act and the CAA raise significant legal questions regarding their constitutionality and compatibility with existing laws and agreements.
- These legal challenges highlight the need for clarity and consistency in India’s citizenship laws.
- Interpretation of Assam Accord: Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, introduced by the Assam Accord of 1985, establishes March 24, 1971, as the cut-off date for determining citizenship in Assam.
- The challenges against this provision and the CAA raise questions about the interpretation and implementation of the Assam Accord, which aimed to resolve issues related to immigration in Assam.
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Why are petitioners seeking a stay on the rules?
- Changes in Scrutiny Process: The rules have reportedly eliminated the tiered scrutiny process of applications for citizenship by District Collectors.
- Previously, District Collectors scrutinized applications, and state governments provided recommendations on granting citizenship. The removal of this scrutiny process is a concern for the petitioners.
- Timing of their implementation: The petitioners highlight that the government had previously avoided a push for a stay on the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) in the Supreme Court five years ago by arguing that the rules for implementation had not been framed.
- Now, with the rules in place, the petitioners question the timing of their implementation.
- Pending Decision from Supreme Court: The petitioners argue that the government should have awaited a final decision from the Supreme Court regarding the constitutionality of the CAA before implementing the rules.
- They suggest that implementing the rules without a definitive ruling from the court could preempt its decision-making process.
Conclusion:
- Implementing the Citizenship Amendment Act and its accompanying rules faces legal challenges and societal implications.
- Moving forward, ensuring fairness, inclusivity, and adherence to constitutional principles will be vital in resolving the complexities surrounding citizenship laws in India.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CEC and Other ECs Appointment Bill, 2023
Mains level: Appointments in key constitutional positions
Why in the news?
The plea filed by the NGO Association for Democratic Reforms seeks an urgent hearing as it raises concerns about potential unfair advantage in filling Election Commission vacancies after Arun Goel’s resignation.
Context
- The unexpected resignation of Arun Goel ahead of the Lok Sabha elections raised concerns about potential unfair advantage in filling the vacancies.
- The NGO Association for Democratic Reforms requested the new law on EC appointments to be put on hold and urged the involvement of the Chief Justice of India in the selection committee, as directed by a previous Supreme Court judgment.
About the CEC and Other ECs (Appointment, Conditions of Service, and Term of Office) Bill, 2023:
- The Bill replaces the Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991.
- It addresses the appointment, salary, and removal of the CEC and ECs.
Appointment Process:
- The CEC and ECs will be appointed by the President upon the recommendation of a Selection Committee.
- The Selection Committee will consist of the Prime Minister, a Union Cabinet Minister, and the Leader of Opposition/leader of the largest opposition party in Lok Sabha.
- Recommendations of the Selection Committee will be valid even when there is a vacancy in this Committee.
- A Search Committee headed by the Cabinet Secretary will propose a panel of names to the Selection Committee.
- Eligibility for the posts includes holding (or having held) a post equivalent to the Secretary to the central government.
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Why Free and fair elections are necessary?
- Protects from Intimidation and Fraud: Concerns were raised about the potential for unfair advantage due to the Executive’s ability to appoint two Election Commissioners, which could compromise the independence of the Election Commission.
- Consensus building and Integrity: Emphasis on the critical role of the Election Commission in ensuring free and fair elections, highlights the importance of fair and unbiased appointments to maintain the integrity of the electoral process.
- Anoop Baranwal Case: Reference to the Supreme Court’s judgment in the Anoop Baranwal case, where a Constitution Bench directed the appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two ECs by the President based on the advice of a committee consisting of the Prime Minister, Leader of Opposition, and Chief Justice of India (CJI).
- Government’s Response: Mention of the government’s enactment of the Chief Election Commission and other Election Commissions (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023, which replaced the CJI with a Cabinet Minister on the selection committee, thereby giving the Centre more control over the appointment process, contrary to the Supreme Court’s judgment.
Way Forward: Need to avoid Political interference:
- Current Leadership: Mention of CEC Rajiv Kumar being in sole charge of the Election Commission at present, indicates the need to address vacancies in the position of Election Commissioners to ensure effective functioning, especially with impending elections.
- Independence of Election Commission: Emphasis on the importance of maintaining the independence of the Election Commission from political and executive interference to ensure free and fair elections and uphold democracy.
- Insulation from Interference: Arguing that the Election Commission should be insulated from political and/or executive interference to preserve the integrity of the electoral process and protect democratic principles.
- Critical Role of Election Commission: Highlighting the critical role of the Election Commission in various aspects such as ensuring free and fair elections, resolving disputes between political parties, and maintaining accurate voter lists and turnout, underscoring the urgency to address vacancies in the Commission.
Conclusion:
- The government should reconsider the appointment process, ensuring the inclusion of the Chief Justice of India in the selection committee to uphold the independence and integrity of the Election Commission.
Mains PYQs
Q. Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct. (2022)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bilateral Relations; Defence Exports and Imports
Mains level: Bilateral Relations; India-Russia; Trade relations and defense ties
Why in the news?
- In recent years, India has decreased its reliance on the top arms supplier of Russia from 76% (2009-13) to 36% (2019-23), as per SIPRI, indicating diversification in arms imports.
Context:
- India’s arms imports have marked an eventual shift from Russia to France and the U.S. impacting India’s defensive modernization, regional security dynamics in the Indo-Pacific, and global arms trade trends, reshaping geopolitical relationships.
Major shift observed in the volume of exporters to India:
- Increase in France’s Share: France’s share of India’s arms imports surged from 0.9% in 2009-13 to 33% in 2019-23, positioning it as the second-largest supplier.
- Increase in U.S. share: The U.S.’s share of India’s arms imports also rose from 8% to 13% during the same period.
- Focus on Military Modernization: The rise in arms imports reflects India’s ongoing efforts towards military modernization and enhancement of defense capabilities.
How India has climbed to become the world’s biggest arms importer, displacing Saudi Arabia?
- India’s Rise as Largest Arms Importer: India surpassed Saudi Arabia to become the world’s biggest arms importer between 2019 and 2023, with its share in global arms imports increasing from 9.1% to 9.8%. Saudi Arabia’s share of global arms imports decreased from 11% to 8.4% during the same period.
- Emergence of Ukraine: Ukraine, previously a negligible importer, increased its share of global arms imports to 4.9% following the Russian invasion in February 2022.
- Trends in Neighboring Countries: Pakistan’s share in global arms imports rose from 2.9% to 4.3%, while China’s share declined from 4.9% to 2.9%.
How Russia is affected in this scenario?
- Decline in Russia’s Arms Exports: Russia’s share of global arms exports decreased from 21% in 2014-18 to 11% in 2019-23, accompanied by a 52% reduction in volume terms. Russian arms exports remained stable until 2019 but rapidly declined in 2020-2023, with a 74% decrease in volume by 2023 compared to 2019.
- Impact on Russia’s Arms Industry: The decline in Russia’s arms exports suggests potential challenges for its arms industry, including decreased revenue and market share.
- Decrease in Number of Recipient Nations: Russia supplied arms to 31 nations in 2019, which decreased to 12 by 2023, indicating a reduction in its arms export footprint.
- U.S. Consolidation as Top Exporter: The U.S. increased its share in global arms exports from 34% to 42% during the same period, consolidating its position as the leading arms exporter. The U.S.’s increased share in global arms exports underscores its dominance in the arms market and its ability to expand its influence worldwide.
How India is affected in this scenario?
- Diversification of Arms Suppliers: India’s reduced dependence on Russia indicates a diversification strategy, reducing vulnerability to supply disruptions and geopolitical tensions.
- Strengthened Defense Partnerships: Increased arms imports from France and the U.S. suggest enhanced defense partnerships, potentially leading to technology transfers, joint ventures, and co-development projects.
- Modernization of Armed Forces: Importing a diverse range of weapons and equipment from multiple suppliers enhances the modernization efforts of India’s armed forces, improving operational capabilities and readiness.
- Technological Advancements: Collaboration with advanced arms exporters like France and the U.S. may facilitate access to cutting-edge technologies, fostering indigenous defense production capabilities and innovation.
What are the implications on Indo-Pacific region?
- Impact on Regional Dynamics: The shift in India’s arms imports could alter the balance of power in the Indo-Pacific region, potentially prompting other countries to reassess their defense strategies and alliances.
- Increased arms imports from France and the United States may signal India’s intention to diversify its defense partnerships and capabilities, potentially contributing to regional stability by reducing dependence on a single supplier.
- Western Tilt: Diversifying arms imports could reach it with Western defense systems, potentially bolstering its role as a key player in the Indo-Pacific region’s security architecture.
- China Factor: This may aim at countering China’s growing military assertiveness in the region. This could lead to increased competition and tensions between the two countries.
- Russia’s Influence: The reduction in India’s arms imports from Russia may diminish Russia’s influence in the Indo-Pacific region.
Conclusion
- India’s decreasing reliance on Russian arms, increased imports from France and the U.S., and diversification of suppliers reshape regional security dynamics have more evolving dynamics in Global geopolitics considering recent moves of Russia in its defence and military policies.
Mains PYQs:
What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (2020)
Practice Questions for Mains:
Q- How has India’s decreasing reliance on Russian arms and increasing imports from France and the U.S. reshaped regional security dynamics and global arms trade trends?
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Key provisions of CAA, 2019
Mains level: CAA Rules
In the news
- The long-awaited Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) has been set into motion by the Centre, marking a significant step forward in India’s legislative landscape.
- Enacted in December 2019, the CAA aims to provide citizenship to certain migrants from neighboring countries, sparking debates and controversies nationwide.
Making of the CAA, 2019: A Timeline
2002: Initial efforts were made to address the challenges faced by Pakistani Hindus seeking Indian visas and citizenship.
2004: Amendments to Citizenship Rules empowered district magistrates to grant Long Term Visas (LTVs) and citizenship to migrants in border districts.
2010: The Ministry of Home Affairs eased restrictions on LTV extensions for certain categories of Pakistani nationals.
2014: Notification allowed citizenship for select migrant communities, excluding Jains and Parsis.
2018: Government extended LTV eligibility to communities seeking Indian citizenship, offering various benefits. |
New Citizenship Law: Eligibility and Required Documentation
- Beneficiaries: The CAA primarily benefits Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, or Christian migrants from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan who entered India before December 31, 2014.
- Documentation: Applicants need to provide proof of their country of origin, religion, date of entry into India, and knowledge of an Indian language.
- Proof of Country of Origin: Acceptable documents include birth certificates, educational institution certificates, identity documents, licenses, certificates, or any other document issued by Pakistan, Bangladesh, or Afghanistan.
- Establishing Date of Entry: Applicants can provide a range of documents such as visas, residential permits, census slips, driving licenses, Aadhaar cards, ration cards, or any letter issued by the government or court to prove their entry date.
- Generational Proof: Applicants can also provide documents indicating familial ties to these countries, such as those showing ancestry, expanding the scope of eligibility.
Application Processing Mechanism
[A] Empowered Committees
- Role of Empowered Committee: This committee is tasked with overseeing the entire process, from receiving to processing applications. It ensures that all procedures are followed diligently and efficiently.
- Membership: The Empowered Committee is headed by a Director (Census Operations) and comprises representatives from various government bodies, including the Subsidiary Intelligence Bureau, the Foreigners’ Regional Registration Office (FRRO), the National Informatics Centre (NIC), and the Postmaster General.
- Responsibilities: The committee members are responsible for verifying the authenticity of documents submitted by applicants, conducting background checks, and making final decisions on citizenship applications.
[B] District Level Committees (DLC)
- Composition: The DLC consists of the District Informatics Officer or District Informatics Assistant and a nominee of the central government.
- Functions: DLCs serve as the initial point of contact for applicants, receiving their submissions and ensuring they are complete and accurate before forwarding them to the Empowered Committee for further processing.
- Oversight: While DLCs handle the initial stages of application processing, they operate under the supervision and guidance of the Empowered Committee. This hierarchical structure ensures uniformity and consistency in decision-making across different regions.
[C] Electronic Submission and Processing
- Digital Platform: To streamline operations and minimize paperwork, the application process is conducted electronically. Applicants submit their documents and forms through an online portal managed by the government.
- Efficiency: Electronic submission allows for faster processing times and reduces the risk of errors associated with manual data entry. It also enables real-time tracking of application status, providing transparency to applicants throughout the process.
- Data Security: The government ensures robust cybersecurity measures to protect the sensitive information submitted by applicants. Encryption protocols and secure servers safeguard data integrity and confidentiality.
Conclusion
- The implementation of the CAA signifies a significant policy shift aimed at addressing the plight of persecuted minorities in neighbouring countries.
- While the rules have sparked debates and opposition, they also represent India’s commitment to humanitarian values and providing refuge to those in need.
- As the citizenship application process unfolds, it will be crucial to ensure transparency, fairness, and adherence to legal procedures to uphold the principles of justice and inclusivity.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear Wastes mentioned in the newscard, Nuclear Fission Reaction
Mains level: Nuclear Waste Management
In the news
- India recently achieved a significant milestone in its nuclear program with the loading of the core of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR).
- However, as India progresses towards energy independence, it faces the complex challenge of managing nuclear waste.
What is Nuclear Waste?
- Composition: Nuclear waste comprises radioactive by-products generated during the fission process in nuclear reactors.
- Radioactive Elements: These by-products include elements such as barium-144, krypton-89, and various isotopes of uranium and plutonium.
Nuclear Waste Handling Techniques
- Spent Fuel Storage: Spent fuel, initially stored underwater for cooling, is later transferred to dry casks for long-term storage. This process is critical due to the high radioactivity of spent fuel. Ex.: The U.S. had 69,682 tonnes of spent fuel (as of 2015), Canada had 54,000 tonnes (2016), and Russia had 21,362 tonnes (2014).
- Liquid Waste Treatment: Nuclear power plants have facilities to treat liquid waste, with some waste being discharged into the environment after treatment.
- Vitrification: Liquid high-level waste is vitrified to form a stable glass for long-term storage.
- Reprocessing: Reprocessing separates fissile material from non-fissile elements in spent fuel, allowing for the reuse of valuable materials. Ex.: India operates reprocessing plants in Trombay, Tarapur, and Kalpakkam.
- Geological Disposal: Some experts advocate for burying nuclear waste deep underground in stable geological formations. Waste is sealed in containers and buried in granite or clay formations, away from human activity.
Challenges and Concerns
- Environmental Risks: Improper waste management can lead to contamination of water resources and surrounding areas.
- Ex.: The Asse II salt mine in Germany faced contamination concerns due to nuclear waste storage.
- Safety Concerns: Accidents at nuclear waste storage sites highlight the need for stringent safety measures.
- Ex.: The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in the U.S. experienced an accident in 2014, releasing radioactive materials.
- Cost Implications: Waste management accounts for a significant portion of the overall cost of nuclear energy production.
- Cost Estimate: Waste management imposes a cost of $1.6-7.1 per MWh of nuclear energy.
India’s Nuclear Waste Management
- On-Site Storage: Low and intermediate-level nuclear waste generated at power stations is treated and stored on-site. India’s PFBR project aims to address waste management challenges by utilizing fast breeder reactor technology.
- IAEA Safeguards: India adheres to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, ensuring the safe and secure handling of nuclear materials and waste.
- Challenges Ahead: The delayed commissioning of the PFBR suggests potential complications in managing spent fuel with different compositions.
Way Forward
- Investment in Research: Continued investment in research and development of advanced waste treatment technologies can enhance efficiency and safety in nuclear waste management.
- International Collaboration: Collaborating with international organizations and sharing best practices can provide valuable insights and expertise in addressing nuclear waste challenges.
- Public Engagement: Engaging with stakeholders and the public to raise awareness about nuclear waste management and address concerns regarding safety and environmental impact is crucial.
- Regulatory Framework: Strengthening regulatory frameworks and implementing robust safety standards can ensure compliance with international guidelines and safeguard against potential hazards.
Conclusion
- As India advances its nuclear program, effective waste management strategies are crucial to mitigate environmental and safety risks.
Try this PYQ from CSE Prelims 2018:
Q.In the Indian context, what is the implication of ratifying the ‘Additional Protocol’ with the `International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)’?
(a) The civilian nuclear reactors come under IAEA safeguards.
(b) The military nuclear installations come under the inspection of IAEA.
(c) The country will have the privilege to buy uranium from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
(d) The country automatically becomes a member of the NSG.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sabarmati Ashram and the associated events
Mains level: NA
In the news
- Prime Minister’s recent activities, commemorating the 94th anniversary of the Dandi March at the Sabarmati Ashram, mark a significant step towards the redevelopment and expansion of this historic site.
Ashrams Built by Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi set up five settlements during his lifetime — two in South Africa (Phoenix Settlement in Natal, and Tolstoy Farm outside Johannesburg), where he lived from 1893 to 1914, and three in India, where he arrived in January 1915.
South Africa Settlements:
- Phoenix Settlement in Natal: Founded in 1904, the Phoenix Settlement was established by Gandhi as a communal living space and center for social and political activism. It served as a hub for his Satyagraha campaigns against racial discrimination and injustice in South Africa.
- Tolstoy Farm outside Johannesburg: Gandhi established Tolstoy Farm in 1910 as a self-sustaining community inspired by the teachings of Russian writer Leo Tolstoy. It served as a refuge for Indian immigrants and a base for organizing resistance against discriminatory laws.
Indian Settlements:
- Ahmedabad Ashram (Kocharab Ashram): Gandhi’s first ashram in India was established in Kocharab, Ahmedabad, in 1915. It was initially a rented space and was later moved to a larger site on the banks of the Sabarmati River, becoming the Sabarmati Ashram.
- Sabarmati Ashram: Read the article below.
- Sevagram Ashram: Established in 1936 near Wardha in Maharashtra, Sevagram Ashram was Gandhi’s final residence in India. It was intended to be a model village based on principles of self-reliance, sustainability, and nonviolence. Gandhi spent the last years of his life here, engaging in various constructive programs and campaigns.
Try this PYQ from CSE Mains 2019:
Q. Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian Phase. Elaborate. |
About Sabarmati Ashram
- Founded in 1917 by Mahatma Gandhi, the Sabarmati Ashram holds immense historical significance in India’s struggle for independence and Gandhian philosophy.
- Situated on the western bank of the Sabarmati River, north of the village of Juna Vadaj in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, the ashram became a focal point for various movements and experiments led by Gandhi.
Key Movements and Initiatives
- Champaran Satyagraha (1917): The ashram served as a base for Gandhi’s involvement in the Champaran Satyagraha, a movement against oppressive indigo planters in Bihar.
- Khadi Movement (1918): Gandhi initiated the Khadi movement from Sabarmati Ashram, promoting the use of hand-spun cloth as a means to boycott foreign goods and promote self-reliance.
- Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) and Kheda Satyagraha: Gandhi led the workers’ strike in Ahmedabad and the peasants’ movement in Kheda, both of which were pivotal in India’s struggle for independence.
- Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): The ashram played a crucial role in Gandhi’s call for non-cooperation with British authorities, urging Indians to boycott British goods and institutions.
- Dandi March (1930): One of the most iconic events in India’s freedom struggle, the Dandi March, commenced from Sabarmati Ashram. Gandhi, along with his followers, marched to Dandi to protest against the salt tax imposed by the British.
Philosophy and Ideals
- Gandhi envisioned Sabarmati Ashram as a community based on principles of simplicity, self-reliance, and communal living.
- He emphasized the importance of truth, non-violence (Ahimsa), and Satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) as tools for social and political change.
Activities and Structures
The ashram housed various facilities and structures, including:
- Hriday Kunj: Gandhi’s residence at the ashram, where he lived with his wife Kasturba.
- Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya: A museum dedicated to Gandhi’s life, showcasing his personal belongings, letters, and photographs.
- Magan Niwas: A guesthouse for visitors and volunteers.
- Vinoba-Mira Kutir: Residence of Vinoba Bhave and Mira Behn, Gandhian disciples.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Key provisions of CAA, 2019
Mains level: Debate over CAA
In the news
- Just days ahead of the announcement of Lok Sabha election, the Union Home Ministry notified the Citizenship Amendment Rules, 2024.
- This would now enable the implementation of the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) passed by Parliament in 2019.
Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA), 2019: Key Provisions
- Basic idea: CAA, 2019, aims to amend the Citizenship Act, 1955, to grant Indian citizenship to specific categories of illegal migrants.
- Eligible Religions: CAA targets Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian illegal migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, making them eligible for Indian citizenship.
- Objective: The primary objective is to facilitate citizenship for non-Muslim immigrants from India’s three Muslim-majority neighboring countries.
- Residence Requirement: The Citizenship Act, 1955, normally requires 11 of the previous 14 years of residence in India as a condition for naturalization.
- Amendment: CAA reduces this requirement to 6 years for applicants belonging to the specified religions and countries.
- Exemption from Criminal Cases: Members of the designated communities are exempted from criminal cases under the Foreigners Act, 1946, and the Passport Act, 1920, if they entered India before December 31, 2014.
Defining Illegal Migrants
- Status under Present Laws: Existing laws prohibit illegal migrants from acquiring Indian citizenship.
- CAA’s Definition: CAA classifies an illegal migrant as a foreigner who enters India without valid travel documents (passport and visa) or overstays beyond the allowed period.
- Penalties: Illegal migrants can face imprisonment or deportation under the Foreigners Act, 1946, and The Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920.
Exceptions under CAA
- Conditions for Exemption: CAA outlines four conditions that, if met, exempt certain individuals from being treated as illegal migrants:
- They belong to the specified religions (Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, or Christian).
- They hail from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, or Pakistan.
- They entered India on or before December 31, 2014.
- They are not in certain tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, or Tripura (Sixth Schedule) or “Inner Line” permit areas (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Nagaland).
Controversies Surrounding CAA
- Country of Origin: CAA categorizes migrants based on their country of origin, specifically Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
- Religious Exclusivity: It raises questions about why only six specified religious minorities have been considered in the Act.
- Omission of Rohingya: The Act doesn’t address the Rohingya Muslims from Myanmar, who have faced persecution.
- Entry Date Differentiation: The differential treatment of migrants based on their entry date, i.e., before or after December 31, 2014, has generated debate.
- Secularism Concerns: Critics argue that granting citizenship based on religion contradicts the secular principles of India’s Constitution, considered part of the unalterable basic structure.
Constitutionality Check
- The challenge may rest primarily on the grounds that the law violates Article 14 of the Constitution that guarantees that no person shall be denied the right to equality before law or the equal protection of law in the territory of India.
- The Supreme Court has developed a Two-Pronged Test to examine a law on the grounds of Article 14.
- First, any differentiation between groups of persons must be founded on “intelligible differentia”
- Second, differentia must have a rational nexus to the object sought to be achieved by the Act
- Simply put, for a law to satisfy the conditions under Article 14, it has to first create a “reasonable class” of subjects that it seeks to govern under the law.
- Even if the classification is reasonable, any person who falls in that category has to be treated alike.
Impact on Assam and Assam Accord
- Intersection with Section 6A: The CAA intersects with Section 6A of The Citizenship Act, 1955, which determines citizenship criteria in Assam.
- Assam Accord: Section 6A, linked to the Assam Accord, sets criteria for determining citizenship in Assam, posing potential conflicts with the CAA’s provisions.
- Base Cut-off Date and Regularization: The Assam Accord establishes a base cut-off date for identifying and regularizing foreigners in Assam, impacting the implementation of the CAA in the state.
Way forward
- India is a constitutional democracy with a basic structure that assures a secure and spacious home for all Indians.
- Being partitioned on religious grounds, India has to undertake a balancing act to protect the religious minorities in its neighbourhood.
- These minorities are under constant threat of persecution and vandalism.
- India needs to balance its civilization duties to protect those who are prosecuted in the neighbourhood.
Try this PYQ from CSE Prelims 2021:
Q.With reference to India, consider the following statements:
- There is only one citizenship and one domicile.
- A citizen by birth only can become the Head of State.
- A foreigner once granted the citizenship cannot be deprived of it under any circumstances.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3
(s) 2 and 3
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Agni Missiles, MIRV Technology
Mains level: India's missile arsenal and the deterrence created
In the news
- India’s recent successful testing of an Agni-5 Missile equipped with Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) technology with multiple warhead capabilities, termed Mission Divyastra, marks a significant milestone in the nation’s defense capabilities.
What are Agni Missiles?
- Agni missiles are long range, nuclear weapons capable surface to surface ballistic missile.
- The first missile of the series, Agni-I was developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) and tested in 1989.
- After its success, Agni missile program was separated from the IGMDP upon realizing its strategic importance.
- It was designated as a special program in India’s defence budget and provided adequate funds for subsequent development.
Variants of Agni missiles
- Agni I: It is a Medium Range Ballistic Missile with a Range of 700-800 km.
- Agni II: It is also a Medium Range Ballistic Missile with a Range more than 2000 km.
- Agni III: It is also an Inter-Medium Range Ballistic Missile with Range of more than 2,500 Km
- Agni IV: It is also an Inter-Medium Range Ballistic Missile with Range is more than 3,500 km and can fire from a road mobile launcher.
- Agni-V: Currently it is the longest of Agni series, an Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with a range of over 5,000 km.
- Agni- VI: The longest of the Agni series, an ICBM with a range of ICBM 11,000–12,000 km.
About Agni-5 Missiles
- Indigenous Development: Agni missiles, developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), have been integral to India’s defense arsenal since the early 1990s.
- MIRV Technology: The latest variant of Agni incorporates Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) technology, a sophisticated capability possessed by only a handful of countries globally.
Developments in MIRV Technology
- Targeting Versatility: MIRV technology enables a single missile to target multiple locations, potentially hundreds of kilometers apart, significantly enhancing its operational effectiveness.
- Range and Strategic Focus: Agni, equipped with nuclear warheads, boasts a range exceeding 5,000 km, primarily aimed at countering threats from China.
- Limited MIRV-Equipped Nations: Currently, major nations possessing MIRV-equipped missiles include the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom, with emerging capabilities in Pakistan and Israel.
- Complex Technology: Developing MIRV technology requires miniaturization of warheads, independent guidance systems, and sequential release mechanisms, making it a challenging endeavor.
Strategic Significance of the Mission Divyastra
- Versatile Strike Capabilities: MIRV-equipped missiles enable simultaneous strikes on multiple targets, overwhelming enemy defenses and maximizing damage potential.
- Deterrence and Defense Penetration: These missiles pose a significant challenge to missile defense systems, as multiple warheads with independent trajectories can thwart interception efforts.
- Strategic Balance and Deterrence: For nations like India with a no-first-use policy, MIRV technology enhances the credibility of response strikes, serving as a potent deterrent against aggression.
Try this PYQ from CS Prelims 2014:
Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- It is a surface-to-surface missile.
- It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.
- It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Bloc
Mains level: Read the attached story
In the news
- India has inked a momentous Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), comprising Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.
- The accord, aimed at attracting a staggering $100 billion in investment over 15 years, signifies a significant leap towards diversifying imports and forging robust economic ties with key European nations.
About the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Bloc
|
Description |
| Member |
Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland |
| Formation |
Established in 1960 by seven European countries as an alternative trade bloc to the EU |
| Trade Relations |
Free trade agreements among themselves and with other regions |
| Activities |
Participate in European Single Market through the EEA Agreement |
| Institutions |
EFTA Court, EFTA Surveillance Authority, EFTA Secretariat |
| Relationship with EU |
Not part of the EU,
But have close economic ties and trade agreements with EU countries |
Why was this FTA revived?
- Resurgence of Talks: The trade deal comes to fruition after a hiatus of 16 years, during which discussions were stalled due to differences between the parties.
- Strategic Realignment: Evolving geopolitical dynamics and mutual interests in reducing dependence on China played a pivotal role in reigniting negotiations and reaching a consensus.
Key Decisions
- Investment Commitments: EFTA countries pledge to invest $100 billion in India, aiming to generate 1 million jobs within 15 years, demonstrating a shared commitment to mutual prosperity and development.
- Market Access: The agreement ensures enhanced market access for both goods and services, with provisions for tariff concessions and non-discriminatory treatment of service providers.
- Sectoral Focus: Priority sectors such as pharma, chemicals, minerals, and services receive particular attention, reflecting the potential for growth and collaboration in these areas.
Key Highlights of the Trade Pact
- Scope of Agreement: The agreement covers tariff concessions for pharma, chemical products, minerals, and other key sectors, facilitating enhanced bilateral trade relations.
- Binding Commitments: The pact includes a binding commitment to increase FDI from EFTA states into India by $50 billion within the first ten years and an additional $50 billion in the subsequent five years.
- Mechanisms for Investment Facilitation: The agreement outlines mechanisms to facilitate investment flows from the private sector in EFTA countries, ensuring transparency and accountability.
- Rebalancing Concessions: Provisions are in place to withdraw tariff concessions if the expected investment commitments are not met, ensuring accountability and adherence to agreed-upon terms.
- Market Access Commitments: The agreement opens avenues for Indian service providers, particularly in audio-visual services, with commitments from EFTA nations to ensure non-discrimination and market access.
- Visa Facilitation: EFTA countries have provided visa categories for intra-corporate transferees and independent professionals, enhancing opportunities for Indian service providers.
- Tariff Reduction: The agreement entails the elimination of tariffs on industrial goods exported to India by EFTA companies, including pharmaceuticals, machinery, watches, and chemicals.
- Agricultural Products Exemption: While agricultural items are largely excluded, meaningful tariff concessions have been granted for both basic and processed agricultural products.
Significance of the FTA’s Timing
- Election Concerns: With numerous countries, including India, embarking on electoral processes, the window for negotiating free trade agreements (FTAs) may narrow significantly. Seizing the moment is imperative amid a global shift in supply chains away from China.
- Geopolitical Opportunity: As global investors eye alternative destinations, delays in fostering investment flows and global integration could result in missed geopolitical advantages for India.
- Addressing Trade Deficit: India seeks to mitigate trade deficits prevalent with many trading partners, including ASEAN nations. While previous FTAs provided access to intermediate goods, India’s relatively high average tariffs disadvantaged its position, granting preferential market access to FTA partners.
Challenges in India-EFTA Trade Agreement
- Limited Tariff Benefits: Existing zero or low tariffs in EFTA countries limit the potential gains for Indian goods exports, particularly in industrial and agricultural sectors.
- Trade Deficit Concerns: India’s significant trade deficit with EFTA, especially driven by imports of gold and precious metals, raises concerns about the imbalance in trade relations.
- Market Access Limitations: The scope for increasing market access for Indian goods in EFTA remains low, posing challenges for trade expansion efforts.
- Competition from Other Countries: EFTA investment commitments may face competition from other countries like Vietnam and Mexico, potentially impacting India’s ability to attract investment.
- Political Uncertainty: The timing of signing the agreement is crucial due to upcoming elections in many countries, which could delay future trade agreements and geopolitical opportunities.
Opportunities in India-EFTA Trade Agreement
- Investment Inflow: Commitments for $100 billion in investment over 15 years offer significant economic opportunities, including job creation and sectoral growth.
- Services Sector Development: The agreement could bolster India’s services sector, enhancing its competitiveness and contributing to economic growth.
- Sectoral Benefits: Key sectors like pharma, chemicals, food processing, and engineering stand to benefit from investment inflow, potentially reducing dependency on imports from China.
- Joint Ventures: Collaboration in identified sectors through joint ventures could facilitate technology transfer, skill development, and product diversification.
- Wider Economic Impact: Investment from EFTA countries, including Norway’s substantial sovereign wealth fund, could stimulate economic activity and fuel India’s growth trajectory.
Conclusion
- The forthcoming trade agreement with EFTA signals a paradigm shift in India’s trade dynamics, emphasizing economic diversification and bolstering strategic sectors.
- As India navigates evolving global trade landscapes, leveraging investments from EFTA nations presents an opportunity to stimulate growth, foster innovation, and reduce dependency on a single market.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gig Workers
Mains level: Regulating Gig Economy
In the news
- A recent study conducted by the People’s Association in Grassroots Action and Movements highlights the working conditions and challenges encountered by app-based cab and delivery drivers/persons in India.
- The findings underscore the critical need for enhanced social security measures and regulatory oversight to safeguard the welfare of gig workers in the country.
Key Findings on Gig Workers
- Extended Working Hours: Approximately a third of app-based cab drivers work for over 14 hours daily, with over 83% working more than 10 hours and 60% exceeding 12 hours, reflecting the demanding nature of their work.
- Caste-wise Impact: The study reveals a disproportionate impact on drivers from Scheduled Castes and Tribes, with over 60% working beyond 14 hours compared to only 16% from the unreserved category.
- Financial Strain: More than 43% of participants earn less than ₹500 per day or ₹15,000 monthly after expenses, highlighting the precarious financial situation faced by many workers.
- Financial Hardship: A significant majority (76%) of delivery persons struggle to meet their financial needs, indicative of the economic challenges inherent in the gig economy.
- Other Challenges: Issues such as ID deactivation and customer misbehaviour further compound the difficulties faced by workers in the app-based transport and delivery sector.
Implications of the Report
- Social Disparities: Income disparities exacerbate existing social inequalities, particularly among workers from different caste backgrounds, perpetuating cycles of poverty and distress within these communities.
- Health and Safety Risks: Prolonged working hours contribute to physical exhaustion and increased risk of road traffic accidents, compounded by pressure from e-commerce platforms to achieve rapid delivery times. Lack of social and job security adds to stress levels and poses potential health risks for workers.
Understanding the Gig Economy
- In a gig economy, temporary, flexible jobs are prevalent, with companies often hiring independent contractors and freelancers instead of full-time employees.
- Tech-enabled platforms connect consumers with gig workers for short-term services across various sectors.
- Sectors such as media, real estate, legal, hospitality, and technology are already operating within the gig economy framework, offering opportunities for self-employed individuals, freelancers, and part-time workers.
Key Drivers for Gig Economy Growth
- Changing Work Preferences: Millennials prefer flexible work arrangements over traditional full-time employment, driven by hectic lifestyles and a desire for autonomy.
- Startup Culture: Startups hire contractual freelancers to reduce fixed costs associated with full-time employees, fostering the growth of the gig economy.
- Freelancing Platforms: The proliferation of freelancing platforms facilitates connections between gig workers and businesses, enabling seamless transactions.
- Post-Pandemic Transition: The pandemic has prompted laid-off employees to explore freelance opportunities, contributing to the expansion of the gig economy.
Advantages and Challenges
[A] Advantages for Workers
- Profit through Diversification: Gig workers can supplement their income by engaging in multiple gigs simultaneously.
- Empowerment and Flexibility: Women and retired individuals benefit from the flexibility offered by gig work, empowering them to balance work and personal responsibilities.
- Cost Savings and Convenience: Work-from-home arrangements reduce travel costs and offer convenience to workers, enhancing their overall quality of life.
[B] Advantages for Employers
- Efficiency and Productivity: Gig workers often exhibit higher efficiency and productivity compared to traditional employees, driving business growth.
- Cost Savings: Employers save on benefits, office space, and training costs associated with full-time employment, optimizing resource allocation.
Challenges in the Gig Economy
- Lack of Employment Perks: Gig workers miss out on traditional employee benefits such as pension and gratuity, leading to financial insecurity.
- Job Insecurity: Unfair termination and inadequate wages pose significant challenges for gig workers, contributing to job insecurity.
- Legal Protections: Gig workers lack bargaining power and legal protections, making it difficult to negotiate fair terms with employers.
- Access and Connectivity: The gig economy remains inaccessible to rural populations with limited internet connectivity and infrastructure.
Way Forward
- Policy Reforms: The government must fine-tune existing social security policies to address the unique needs of gig workers, ensuring comprehensive protection and support.
- New Legislation: The centre must thrive in from the Platform-Based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Bill, 2023 recently introduced in Rajasthan Assembly.
- Collaborative Efforts: Stakeholders across sectors should collaborate to establish industry-wide standards and best practices for gig work, promoting fair treatment and equitable opportunities.
- Technology Integration: Leveraging technology can enhance access to gig opportunities and streamline processes for both workers and employers, fostering a more inclusive and efficient gig economy ecosystem.
Conclusion
- The gig economy presents both opportunities and challenges for workers and businesses alike.
- By addressing key issues and fostering a conducive regulatory environment, India can harness the full potential of the gig economy while ensuring the well-being and rights of all stakeholders involved.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Right to Abortion
Mains level: Abortion Debate: Aspects of Morality, Women's Bodily Rights
In the news
- France’s historic decision to enshrine the right to abortion in its constitution marks a pivotal moment in the global struggle for women’s reproductive rights.
- Against the backdrop of International Women’s Day, this groundbreaking amendment underscores France’s commitment to upholding women’s autonomy and healthcare choices.
Debate:
- Right to ‘Bodily Autonomy’ of Women is paramount.
- ‘Right to Life’ of the foetus is paramount.
France’s constitutional council previously upheld abortion rights based on the notion of Liberty enshrined in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man. |
Why discuss this?
- The legislative journey leading to this transformative reform and its implications resonate far beyond France’s borders, resonating with ongoing debates on reproductive rights worldwide.
Abortion in France: Legislative Progression
- National Assembly and Senate Approval: Initially passed by the National Assembly in January, the amendment received unanimous support from the Senate last week, culminating in a joint parliamentary session for final ratification.
- Bipartisan Consensus: With an overwhelming majority of legislators voting in favor, the reform underscores broad bipartisan consensus on safeguarding women’s reproductive freedoms.
- Constitutional Modification: The amendment elevates abortion from a statutory right to a constitutionally guaranteed freedom, solidifying its legal protection against potential legislative changes.
Amendment Provisions
- Constitutional Revision: The amendment revises Article 34 of the French constitution, stipulating that women’s freedom to terminate pregnancies is constitutionally guaranteed.
- Preservation of Existing Rights: By mandating that future legislation uphold existing abortion laws, the amendment ensures continuity and stability in reproductive healthcare policies.
- Global Context: Acknowledging global trends of encroachment on abortion rights, the legislation reaffirms France’s commitment to resisting regressive measures that curtail women’s autonomy.
Global Implications
- Unprecedented Precedent: France becomes the first nation to embed abortion rights in its constitution, setting a groundbreaking precedent for global reproductive justice movements.
- European Landscape: Amidst escalating efforts to restrict abortion access in some European countries, France’s bold initiative offers a beacon of hope and inspiration for defenders of reproductive rights across the continent.
- European Charter of Fundamental Rights: The amendment’s resonance with fundamental rights principles may catalyze broader efforts to incorporate abortion protections into the European Charter of Fundamental Rights.
Public Reception and Political Landscape
- Public Support: Reflecting widespread public sentiment, opinion polls indicate overwhelming support for constitutionalizing abortion rights, with 81% of respondents endorsing the reform.
- Political Consensus: Unlike the polarized discourse on abortion in some countries, France’s political spectrum exhibits remarkable unity in upholding women’s reproductive autonomy.
- Criticism and Allegations: While critics decry the reform as a political maneuver by President Macron to court left-leaning factions, its substantive impact on women’s rights remains undeniable.
Global Abortion Landscape
- European Context: Against the backdrop of escalating abortion restrictions in some European nations, France’s progressive stance contrasts starkly with regressive measures adopted elsewhere.
- Global Reverberations: France’s pioneering initiative may reverberate globally, emboldening movements to advance abortion rights and combat legislative regressions worldwide.
India’s Abortion Policies
- Legal Framework: India implemented the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act in 1971, allowing abortions under specific conditions up to 20 weeks, with recent amendments extending the limit to 24 weeks in certain cases.
- Recent Amendments: The 2021 amendment extends the permissible gestational limit for abortions and streamlines the approval process for certain categories of pregnancies.
- Continued Advocacy: While India’s legal framework for abortion is comparatively progressive, ongoing advocacy efforts seek to further enhance access to safe and legal abortion services nationwide.
Pregnancy Laws in India:
- The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, enacted on April 1, 1972, applied to all of India except Jammu and Kashmir.
- Section 312 of IPC Code, 1860, criminalizes voluntarily causing miscarriage, even with the pregnant woman’s consent, except to save her life, leading to potential prosecution for abortion.
- The MTP Act, 1971, permitted pregnancy termination in two stages:
- Up to 12 weeks after conception, abortion required a single doctor’s opinion.
- Between 12 to 20 weeks, two doctors’ opinions determined if continuing the pregnancy posed risks to the woman’s life or mental/physical health or if the child would be seriously handicapped.
Amendments in 2021:
- The law now allows abortions up to 20 weeks based on one doctor’s advice.
- For pregnancies between 20 to 24 weeks, two doctors’ opinions are needed.
- Specific categories eligible for termination under section 3B of the MTP Act rules include survivors of sexual assault, minors, marital status changes, physically disabled women, mentally ill women, foetuses with severe abnormalities, and pregnancies in humanitarian settings.
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Conclusion
- By embedding abortion rights within its constitutional fabric, France sets a transformative precedent for advancing women’s autonomy and healthcare choices worldwide.
- As the international community grapples with escalating threats to reproductive rights, France’s bold stance offers a beacon of hope and solidarity for women everywhere, underscoring the imperative of safeguarding reproductive freedoms as fundamental human rights.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MC13, WTO
Mains level: Read the attached story
In the news
- The 13th Ministerial Conference (MC13) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) convened in Abu Dhabi, UAE, from February 26 to March 2, drawing participation from 166 member countries.
- The conference culminated in the adoption of a ministerial declaration outlining a reform agenda to bolster the WTO’s role in regulating global trade and facilitating seamless cross-border commerce.
About World Trade Organization (WTO)
|
Details |
| Establishment |
1995, replacing GATT |
| Objective |
To regulate international trade |
| Headquarters |
Geneva, Switzerland |
| Members |
- 164
- India is a Founding Member.
|
| Objectives |
- Formulate rules for trade
- Negotiate further liberalization
- Settle disputes
- Assist developing countries
- Cooperate with major economic institutions
|
| Principles |
- Non-Discrimination
- Most Favored Nation
- National Treatment
- Reciprocity
- Predictability through Binding Commitments
- Transparency
- Encourage Development and Reforms
|
| Important Trade Agreements |
- Agreement on Agriculture (AoA),
- Agreement on TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights),
- Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS),
- Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT),
- Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS),
- General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) etc.
|
| WTO Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) |
- Negotiated during Uruguay Round (1995)
- Aims to reform trade in agriculture
- Allows support for rural economies with fewer trade “distortions”
- Focuses on improving market access, reducing subsidies, and eliminating export subsidies
Subsidies Types:
- Green Box – No distortion in trade
- Amber Box – Can distort production and trade (subject to limits)
- Blue Box – Subsidies linked to production-limiting programs
|
| Most Favoured Nation Clause |
- Ensures non-discriminatory trade
- Prevents discrimination among trade partners
- First clause in GATT
- Special trade statuses extended to all WTO members
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Key Decisions at MC13
- Dispute Settlement System: Member countries reaffirmed their commitment to establishing a fully functional dispute settlement system by 2024.
- Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT): Emphasis was placed on enhancing the utilization of S&DT provisions to support the development objectives of developing and least developed countries (LDCs).
Challenges to Multilateral Trading Order
- Rising Protectionism: Developed economies, amid growing domestic pressures, have exhibited a propensity towards protectionist policies, challenging the prevailing globalized trade paradigm.
- Supply Chain Disruptions: Ongoing conflicts and sanctions have disrupted global supply chains, necessitating a reassessment of trade norms to ensure resilience and efficiency.
- Development Disparities: Concerns persist regarding the equitable treatment of nations, with attention directed towards mitigating disparities between richer nations and LDCs.
India’s Approach
- Public Stockholding (PSH) Programme: India advocated for a resolution concerning the PSH program, crucial for ensuring food security. The program enables the procurement and distribution of essential food grains to millions of beneficiaries at subsidized rates.
- Fisheries Subsidies: India proposed measures to regulate fisheries subsidies, advocating for support to poor fishermen within national waters while curbing subsidies for industrial fishing in international waters.
- E-commerce Customs Duties: India pressed for the removal of the moratorium on customs duties for cross-border e-commerce, citing the need to safeguard revenue generation in the digital trade landscape.
Outcomes
- Agriculture: MC13 witnessed the formulation of a text addressing agricultural issues, marking a significant milestone after decades of negotiations.
- Fisheries: Progress towards consensus on fisheries regulations was noted, with expectations of finalization by mid-year.
- E-commerce Duties: Despite efforts, the exemption from customs duties for e-commerce transactions was extended for an additional two years, disappointing several developing economies.
Conclusion
- The outcomes of MC13 underscore the imperative for collaborative efforts to address pressing challenges in global trade.
- While strides were made in certain areas such as agriculture and fisheries, unresolved issues surrounding e-commerce and development disparities persist.
- As nations navigate the evolving trade landscape, sustained dialogue and concerted action are essential to foster inclusive and sustainable economic growth worldwide.
Try this PYQ from CSE Prelims 2015:
The terms ‘Agreement on Agriculture’, ‘Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures’ and Peace Clause’ appear in the news frequently in the context of the affairs of the:
(a) Food and Agriculture Organization
(b) United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change
(c) World Trade Organization
(d) United Nations Environment Programme
Post your response here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Human Genomics, Gene Editing, Genetic Surveys
Mains level: Read the attached story
In the news
- The field of genomics has witnessed remarkable progress over the last two decades, marked by significant advancements in sequencing, analysis, and interpretation of genomes.
- As costs continue to decline, the next decade is set to witness widespread integration of genome sequencing in clinical settings, offering unprecedented opportunities alongside new challenges.
India’s Progress in Human Genomics
- Milestones: India has achieved notable milestones in genomics, from the first genome sequencing in 2009 to the recent completion of sequencing 10,000 genomes. These endeavours have provided valuable insights into disease prevalence and catalyzed research and decision-making.
- Population Diversity: With a diverse population exceeding 1.4 billion, India holds immense potential for genomic research. However, realizing this potential requires ambitious yet pragmatic strategies to ensure inclusivity and equitable access to genomic benefits.
Challenges in the field
- Lack of Data Protection Laws: Absence of robust data protection laws raises concerns about privacy and security of genetic information.
- Fragmented Genetic Data: Fragmentation of genetic data across organizations hampers accessibility for public health decision-making.
- Discrimination Risks: Absence of laws against genetic discrimination exposes individuals to risks in areas like insurance and employment.
- Equity Concerns: Unregulated market forces may exacerbate healthcare disparities, particularly affecting marginalized communities.
Opportunities in Leveraging Genomics in India
- Advancements in Genome Sequencing: Milestones like sequencing 10,000 genomes offer insights into disease prevalence and accelerate research.
- Diverse Population Base: India’s diverse population provides a rich source of data for understanding genetic variations and disease susceptibilities.
- Cost-effective Testing Potential: Aggregating genetic data can enable the development of affordable genetic tests for early disease detection.
- Ethical Framework Development: Prioritizing the development of ethical frameworks ensures responsible use of genomic technologies and fosters public trust.
- Healthcare Transformation: Genomics has the potential to revolutionize healthcare delivery, offering personalized treatment approaches and improved health outcomes.
Ethical Considerations and Equity
- Ethical Use of Technology: Ensuring ethical use of genomic technology is paramount to safeguarding individual rights and promoting equitable access to healthcare. Evidence-based guidelines and mechanisms to ensure the quality and validity of genomic tests are essential.
- Equity and Diversity: Addressing disparities in access to genomic data and healthcare services is critical, particularly in a diverse country like India. Unregulated market forces could exacerbate existing barriers, widening disparities in healthcare access and research opportunities.
Way Forward for India
- Role of Regulations: Effective regulations and policies foster trust among stakeholders, encouraging collaboration and innovation in genomic research.
- Potential of Genomics: With proper oversight, genomic research can revolutionize healthcare by offering personalized treatments, disease prevention strategies, and diagnostic tools.
- India’s Leadership Potential: India has the opportunity to lead in genomic research by enabling access to genomic technologies on a mass scale, contributing to a healthier future for its people
Conclusion
- The advancement of human genomics holds immense potential to transform healthcare and improve outcomes.
- However, realizing this potential requires concerted efforts to address regulatory gaps, promote equity and diversity, and ensure ethical use of genomic technologies.
- With the right guidance and policies, India can emerge as a leader in genomic research, paving the way for a healthier and more prosperous future for its citizens.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quo Warranto, Writ Jurisdiction
Mains level: Read the attached story
In the news
- In a noteworthy observation, Justice Anita Sumanth of the Madras High Court delved into the complex interplay between caste, societal benefits, and historical contexts while addressing quo warranto pleas against three lawmakers.
- Her remarks shed light on the multifaceted nature of caste dynamics in contemporary Tamil Nadu.
Quo Warranto: A Writ Jurisdiction
- Definition: This legal remedy allows the court to investigate the legality of an individual’s claim to a public office, preventing unauthorized individuals from unlawfully occupying such positions.
- Scope: It applies to substantive public offices of a permanent nature established by statute or the Constitution, excluding ministerial or private roles.
- Applicability: Unlike other writs, Quo Warranto can be sought by any interested party, not limited to the aggrieved party.
Constitutional Provisions
- Authority: The power to issue writs, including Quo Warranto, was bestowed upon the Supreme Court (Article 32) and High Courts (Article 226) by the Constitution.
- Objective: Quo Warranto aims to halt usurpers from wrongfully holding public office and exercising its privileges without lawful authority.
Conditions for Issuing Quo Warranto
- Public Office: The office in question must be public, established by law or the Constitution.
- Permanent Tenure: It should entail permanent tenure not subject to arbitrary termination.
- Actual Possession: The individual against whom the writ is sought must have the office and actively utilizing its powers.
- Disqualification: Quo Warranto can also be issued if a disqualified individual continues to hold the office illegally.
Circumstances for Refusal
- Ineffectiveness: The court may refuse to grant Quo Warranto if its intervention would not alter the outcome or if the situation is deemed inconsequential.
- Non-public Office: If the office in question is private, the writ cannot be issued.
Landmark Judgments
- Jamalpur Arya Samaj Sabha vs. Dr. D Rama (1954): The court declined to issue the writ against a private entity, emphasizing its inapplicability to non-public offices.
- Niranjan Kumar Goenka vs. The University of Bihar, Muzzfarpur (1971): Established that Quo Warranto cannot be invoked against individuals not holding a public office.
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Judicial Insights on Castes
- Caste and State Benefits: Justice Sumanth highlighted the nexus between caste-based divisions and state-provided benefits, suggesting that the fervour surrounding caste issues is fueled by socio-economic advantages conferred by the state on different caste groups.
- Historical Perspective: While acknowledging the prevalence of caste divisions in society, the judge emphasized that the present-day caste system is relatively recent, tracing its origins to less than a century ago, rather than being solely rooted in ancient Varna Dharma principles.
- Varna Dharma vs. Caste System: Drawing a distinction, Justice Sumanth elucidated that Varna Dharma, historically, delineated societal roles based on occupation rather than birth, contrasting it with the entrenched birth-based caste system prevalent today.
Societal Realities
- Cacophony of Castes: Tamil Nadu, with its 370 registered castes, witnesses a cacophony of societal pressures and pulls from various caste groups, reflecting the complexities of caste dynamics in the state.
- Benefits and Ferocity: The judge noted that the ferocity among different caste groups partly stems from the benefits accorded to them by the state, raising questions about the fairness and equity of resource distribution.
Key Recommendations
- Acknowledgment of Past Injustices: While refraining from detailing past atrocities, the judge emphasized the need for acknowledging and deprecating historical injustices, calling for ongoing efforts towards repair and damage control.
- Forward-looking Approach: Justice Sumanth advocated for sincere introspection among lawmakers to evolve methods for correcting injustices and fostering equality in the present and future.
Conclusion
- In her nuanced reflections, Justice Sumanth highlighted the need for a holistic approach towards addressing caste-related issues.
- She emphasized the importance of societal introspection, equitable resource distribution, and leadership accountability in fostering a more inclusive and just society.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Geological Time Scale, Anthropocene Epoch
Mains level: Human Determinism and Geological Time Scale
In the news
- The proposal to declare the start of the Anthropocene Epoch, signifying the impact of human activity on Earth’s geological history, has sparked debate among scientists.
- Despite mounting evidence of human-induced changes to the planet, a recent vote by a scientific committee has rejected the notion.
Understanding Geological Time
- Geologic Time Scale: Geoscientists use the Geologic Time Scale (GTS) to measure Earth’s history, categorizing it into aeons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
- Chronostratigraphic Classification: The GTS is based on chronostratigraphic units, marked by significant geological events, shaping the planet’s conditions.
The Proposed ‘Human Epoch’
- Holocene Epoch: The Holocene began approximately 11,700 years ago, following the Last Glacial Period, coinciding with the rise of human civilization.
- Anthropocene Proposal: The Anthropocene concept suggests that human activities have altered Earth significantly, warranting recognition as a distinct geological epoch.
Understanding the Anthropocene Epoch
- Coined Term: The Anthropocene epoch was first coined by Nobel Prize-winning chemist Paul Crutzen and biology professor Eugene Stoermer in 2000.
- Human Impact: The Anthropocene represents the geological time interval characterized by radical changes in the Earth’s ecosystem due to human impact, particularly since the onset of the Industrial Revolution.
- Environmental Changes: Numerous phenomena associated with the Anthropocene include global warming, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, mass-scale soil erosion, deadly heat waves, and environmental deterioration.
- Geological Strata: The AWG’s website states that these changes are reflected in a distinctive body of geological strata, with the potential to be preserved into the far future.
Rejection of the Proposal
- Scientific Deliberations: Despite the Anthropocene Working Group’s proposal, the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy voted against declaring the Anthropocene epoch.
- Criticism and Concerns: Critics argue against defining the Anthropocene based on recent events, questioning the significance of the proposed start date and the boundary between epochs.
Geological Implications
- Definition of Epochs: The rejection highlights the challenge of defining geological epochs based on human-induced changes, given the traditional criteria for epoch delineation.
- Permanence and Recognition: While the vote does not negate human impact on the planet, it raises questions about the formal recognition of the Anthropocene as a distinct epoch.
Future of the Anthropocene Concept
- Beyond Epochs: Some scientists propose viewing the Anthropocene as an “event” rather than a formal epoch, acknowledging its transformative nature without conforming to traditional geological classifications.
- Relevance and Recognition: Regardless of formal classification, the concept of the Anthropocene underscores the profound impact of human activity on Earth’s systems, shaping discussions on environmental stewardship and sustainability.
Back2Basics: Geological Time Scale
- The Geological Time Scale is a system used by geologists and palaeontologists to divide Earth’s history into distinct time intervals based on significant geological and biological events.
- It provides a framework for organizing and understanding the vast expanse of time since the formation of the Earth, approximately 4.6 billion years ago, up to the present day.
- The Scale is divided into several hierarchical units, including eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
Here is a simplified overview of the major divisions:
(1) Eon: The largest division of time on the Geological Time Scale. The history of Earth is typically divided into four eons:
- Hadean Eon: Represents the earliest stage of Earth’s history, from its formation to around 4 billion years ago.
- Archean Eon: Covers the period from around 4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago. It includes the formation of the Earth’s crust, the emergence of life, and the development of the first continents.
- Proterozoic Eon: Encompasses the time between 2.5 billion and 541 million years ago. It includes significant evolutionary developments, such as the emergence of complex multicellular life.
- Phanerozoic Eon: The current eon, spanning from 541 million years ago to the present. It is further divided into eras.
(2) Era: The second-largest division of time, encompassing longer periods of geological history within an eon. The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three eras:
- Paleozoic Era: Covers the time from 541 million to 252 million years ago. It is known for the diversification of life, including the appearance of complex marine organisms, fish, insects, and the first terrestrial plants.
- Mesozoic Era: Spans from 252 million to 66 million years ago. It is often referred to as the “Age of Reptiles” and includes the dominance of dinosaurs, as well as the rise of mammals and birds.
- Cenozoic Era: Extends from 66 million years ago to the present. It is sometimes called the “Age of Mammals” and includes the diversification and proliferation of mammals, the appearance of humans, and the development of modern ecosystems.
(3) Period: A subdivision of an era, representing a distinct interval of time characterized by specific geological and biological events. For example:
- The Paleozoic Era is divided into periods such as the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian.
- The Mesozoic Era is divided into periods including the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.
- The Cenozoic Era is divided into periods such as the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary.
(4) Epoch: A smaller subdivision of a period, representing a shorter interval of time. Epochs are defined by more localized geological and biological changes.
(5) Age: The smallest division of time on the Geological Time Scale. Ages represent relatively brief periods, often defined by specific fossil or rock layers.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nikshay Poshan Yojana , Nikshay Mitra
Mains level: Gendered Lens on TB Care
In the news: Case Study
- The intersection of gender norms, economic instability, and homelessness presents unique challenges in accessing tuberculosis (TB) care for women like Reshma.
- Amidst systemic inequities and societal biases, their journey through diagnosis, treatment, and recovery is often fraught with obstacles.
- A recent study sheds light on the nuanced experiences of homeless women grappling with TB, urging a reevaluation of existing healthcare frameworks.
Gendered Lens on TB Care
- Reshma’s Story: Reshma, a homeless woman from Jaipur, embodies the complex narratives surrounding TB care. Her journey, marked by societal abandonment and inadequate healthcare, epitomizes the challenges faced by homeless women battling TB.
- Gender Norms and Diagnosis: Patriarchal norms influence the accuracy and timeliness of TB diagnosis for women, impacting their access to healthcare facilities and adherence to treatment regimens.
- Impact of Economic Precarity: Economic instability exacerbates the vulnerability of homeless women, hindering their ability to navigate TB care pathways effectively.
Data Insights and Inequities
- Study Findings: A recent survey in Jaipur highlighted the prevalence of TB among the homeless population, underscoring the dire conditions that facilitate TB transmission.
- Gender Disparities: Homeless women, like Reshma, bear a disproportionate burden of TB infections, revealing systemic gender inequities within TB care systems.
Barriers to Access and Treatment
- Documentation Challenges: Lack of identity proof and access to banking services impedes homeless women’s eligibility for government-sponsored TB care Initiatives, such as the Nikshay Poshan Yojana and Nikshay Mitra.
- Stigma and Social Dynamics: Societal stigma surrounding TB, coupled with patriarchal control over finances, further marginalizes homeless women, hindering their access to nutritional support and treatment adherence.
Navigating Diagnosis and Care
- Diagnostic Delays: Vague symptoms and logistical barriers contribute to delayed TB diagnosis among homeless women, prolonging their suffering and increasing the risk of disease progression.
- Treatment Adherence: Mobility constraints and medication shortages undermine treatment adherence among homeless women, necessitating tailored interventions to address their unique needs.
Way Forward
- Inclusive Healthcare Policies: Recognizing the intersectionality of homelessness and gender within TB care, policymakers must prioritize the rights and well-being of homeless women in national TB eradication initiatives.
- Investment in Care Ecosystems: A comprehensive approach to TB care for homeless women requires increased investment in counselling, tracking, and support services, acknowledging the heightened challenges they face in accessing and adhering to treatment protocols.
Conclusion
- Addressing the multifaceted challenges faced by homeless women in accessing TB care demands a concerted effort to dismantle gender biases, mitigate economic disparities, and foster inclusive healthcare ecosystems.
- By prioritizing equity and empowerment, policymakers can pave the way for a more just and effective TB care paradigm for all individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic status or gender identity.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian women in STEM
Mains level: Read the attached story
In the news
- As Women’s Day (8th March) approaches, the spotlight turns to women scientists throughout history who shattered glass ceilings and left indelible marks on the scientific landscape.
- Their stories advocate for inclusivity, diversity, and equality within the realm of science.
- Celebrating Women Scientists: Initiatives like Vigyan Prasar’s resource book profiling Indian women scientists and anthologies like “Lilavati’s Daughters” and “Gutsy Girls of Science” highlight the achievements and struggles of women in science, providing inspiration for future generations.
- Biographical Works: Books like “Janaki Ammal: Life and Scientific Contributions” and “Chromosome Woman, Nomad Scientist” delve into the extraordinary lives of pioneering women like E.K. Janaki Ammal, offering insights into their groundbreaking research and battles against sexism, casteism, and racism.
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Gender Disparity in Indian Science
- Underrepresentation in Leadership: The Indian Academy of Sciences, founded by Nobel Laureate C.V. Raman in 1934, has never been led by a woman scientist. Statistics reveal that women comprise only 14% of India’s working scientists, with a meager 15% representation among faculty members in research institutes nationwide.
- Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize: Over 65 years, only 20 women scientists have been honoured with India’s prestigious SSB Prize for Science & Technology, despite 571 total recipients.
Status of Women in STEM: A Global Perspective
- Global Gender Gap: India’s STEM workforce comprises only 27% women, compared to 32% in non-STEM fields, highlighting disparities in gender representation.
- Research Participation: Worldwide, women constitute only 33% of researchers, with even lower representation in engineering and technology sectors.
- Educational Disparity: A gender gap persists in STEM education, with only 18% of girls pursuing higher-level STEM studies, compared to 35% of boys.
List of Notable Women Scientists mentioned in the News Article
- Gagandeep Kang: Known for her work in the field of microbiology and vaccine development, particularly in studying the epidemiology of rotavirus and other infectious diseases prevalent in India.
- Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw: A prominent figure in the biotechnology industry, she founded Biocon, one of India’s leading biotechnology companies, and has contributed significantly to the development of affordable biopharmaceuticals and healthcare solutions.
- Rohini Godbole: Renowned theoretical physicist known for her research in high-energy physics, particularly in the field of particle phenomenology and collider physics. She has also been actively involved in promoting science education and gender equality in STEM fields.
- Prajval Shastri Majumdar: Notable astrophysicist known for her research on the formation and evolution of galaxies, active galactic nuclei, and black holes. She has made significant contributions to understanding the dynamics of the universe through her work in observational astronomy.
- Kamala Sohonie: A pioneering biochemist, she was the first Indian woman to receive a Ph.D. in the field of science. Her research focused on enzymology and biochemistry, particularly in understanding the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds in bacteria.
- Lilavati (referred to in “Lilavati’s Daughters: The Women Scientists of India” anthology): Lilavati is a legendary figure in Indian mathematics, known for her contributions to algebra and arithmetic. Her legacy has inspired generations of mathematicians and scientists.
- Archana Sharma: A renowned cytogeneticist known for her research in understanding chromosomal abnormalities and genetic disorders. She has contributed significantly to the field of genetics and genetic counseling.
- E.K. Janaki Ammal: An eminent botanist known for her research on plant breeding, genetics, and taxonomy. She made significant contributions to understanding the diversity of plant species in India and played a crucial role in the conservation of plant biodiversity.
- Bibha Chowdhuri: A pioneering physicist known for her research in cosmic ray physics and particle physics. She made significant contributions to understanding the properties of cosmic rays and their interactions with matter.
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Significance of Women’s Participation in STEM
- Economic Growth: Women’s involvement in STEM fields can catalyze economic growth, with potential GDP gains of up to 10% reported in studies.
- Gender Diversity: Enhancing female representation fosters diversity and inclusivity, enriching scientific discourse and innovation.
- Targeted Interventions: Involving women in research ensures the relevance and applicability of scientific outcomes to diverse communities.
- Inclusive Decision Making: Women’s perspectives contribute valuable insights to scientific research, leading to more informed decision-making processes.
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): STEM empowerment aligns with SDG 5, promoting gender equality and women’s access to transformative technologies.
Challenges Faced by Women
- Implicit and Explicit Biases: Women scientists encounter biases suggesting their unsuitability for scientific pursuits, perpetuating the Matilda Effect wherein their achievements are undervalued, leading to discrimination in perks, promotions, and opportunities.
- Societal Stereotypes: Deep-rooted stereotypes perpetuate the notion that certain STEM fields are inherently male-dominated, discouraging women from pursuing these careers.
- Lack of Role Models: Limited visibility of female role models hinders aspiring women scientists from envisioning themselves in STEM leadership roles.
- Self-Efficacy Gap: Gender disparities in self-efficacy beliefs create barriers for women, affecting their confidence to pursue STEM disciplines.
- Work-Life Balance: Dual responsibilities and societal expectations impede women’s career progression in STEM, necessitating flexible policies and support systems.
- Systemic Discrimination: Bias and discrimination in educational institutions and workplaces perpetuate the underrepresentation of women in STEM.
Government Initiatives for Women in STEM
- STI Policy by DST: The Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) policy aims to achieve 30% women’s participation in science and technology by 2030, with significant strides in women’s leadership roles.
- Indo-US Fellowship: International collaborative research opportunities empower women scientists to expand their horizons and contribute to global scientific endeavors.
- Vigyan Jyoti: Initiatives like Vigyan Jyoti encourage young girls to pursue STEM education, addressing gender disparities from an early age.
- Gender Advancement Programs: GATI and KIRAN initiatives focus on creating gender-sensitive institutions and providing career opportunities for women in S&T.
- CURIE Initiative: The CURIE program supports the development of research infrastructure in women’s universities, fostering a conducive environment for women’s participation in R&D.
- SWATI Portal: It is aimed at creating a single online portal representing Indian Women and Girls in STEMM. It is a complete interactive database.
Way Forward
- Continued Advocacy: Initiatives and publications spotlighting women scientists serve as reminders of the ongoing need for advocacy and support to address gender inequality in the scientific community.
- Redefining the Culture in STEM: Mandating women’s representation in boards, implementing women-centric mentoring programs, and providing flexible work setups and childcare support.
- Investment in Women-Only Institutions: Establishing women’s technology parks and institutions to address specific challenges faced by women in STEM.
- Paid Internships: Encouraging states to offer paid internships to girl science students, particularly in rural areas, to enhance their participation in STEM.
- Positive Parenting: Fostering supportive environments at home to challenge stereotypical perceptions and inspire young girls to pursue careers in STEM.
Conclusion
- As Women’s Day approaches, reflections on the contributions and struggles of women scientists underscore the importance of fostering inclusivity, diversity, and equality within the scientific community.
- By celebrating their achievements and advocating for systemic changes, we pave the way for a more equitable and empowering future for women in science.
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