Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Federal Issues; Issues related to the Nagaland Government;
Why in the News?
After months of inactivity, the Nagaland government announced last week that it is now prepared to submit its feedback on the Centre’s draft Memorandum of Settlement, which proposes greater Autonomy for the state’s six eastern districts.
What are the historical and socio-economic factors driving the demand for greater autonomy in Eastern Nagaland?
- Historical Background: The six eastern districts—Kiphire, Longleng, Mon, Noklak, Shamator, and Tuensang—were part of an area historically set apart for special governance.
- After Nagaland’s creation from Assam in 1963, these districts were administered differently due to their relative lack of infrastructure and resources.
- 16-Point Agreement & Article 371(A): Nagaland was formed with special provisions, including Article 371(A), to protect Naga customs and address unique challenges in the “Tuensang region” (now the six eastern districts).
- Initially, a regional council governed these districts, reflecting an early recognition of their distinct needs.
- Development Deficit: Despite Article 371(A), these districts continue to face significant development challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, healthcare, and educational facilities.
- This lack of development fuels the demand for separate governance, as the existing state-level administration is perceived to overlook their needs.
Note: Article 371(A) grants special provisions to Nagaland, protecting its cultural practices, land, resources, and customary laws from parliamentary laws.
How does the proposed ‘Frontier Nagaland Territory’ differ from existing governance structures, and what specific powers would it entail?
The “Frontier Nagaland Territory” is a unique model of autonomy within the state of Nagaland. Key points of the proposed arrangement include:
- Separate Legislature, Executive, and Financial Powers: This proposed setup would give the region greater control over local legislative decisions, executive functions, and financial resources.
- Regional Council: The regional council for Eastern Nagaland would manage local issues and is in line with the provisions of Article 371(A) but would expand these powers further.
- Headquarters in East Nagaland: Unlike current governance structures that are centered in the state capital Kohima, this arrangement suggests an independent headquarters within East Nagaland, giving local leaders more direct control over the region’s administration.
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What role do local organizations like the ENPO (Eastern Nagaland People’s Organization) play in advocating for this autonomy?
- Driving the Demand: ENPO has been the primary advocate for autonomy since its 2010 memorandum to the Prime Minister’s Office. The group argues for a separate state or enhanced autonomy based on longstanding neglect and developmental disparities.
- Political Leverage: ENPO’s influence is evident in their strategic actions, such as boycotting the Assembly and Lok Sabha elections to pressure both the state and central governments. This boycotting tactic has effectively highlighted the intensity of the demand and brought national attention to the issue.
- Insistence on Direct Negotiations: ENPO maintains a strong stance on discussing autonomy only with the central government, not with the state, which underscores its dissatisfaction with the state administration’s handling of Eastern Nagaland’s interests.
How might their demands influence state and central government responses?
- Central Government’s Response: The Centre has shown some willingness to explore a “mutually agreed solution,” as seen in the draft Memorandum of Settlement and repeated assurances to the ENPO.
- This indicates that the central government may consider some form of autonomy, though it balances this with state interests.
- State Government’s Position: The state government, which initially delayed providing input on the proposal, has now agreed to submit its comments, likely to avoid further regional dissent.
- However, it is navigating a complex situation where conceding autonomy could impact its overall governance framework.
- Further Deliberation and Possible Compromises: Both the Centre and the state are expected to engage in detailed negotiations with the ENPO and other stakeholders.
- The discussions will likely center on balancing the autonomy demands with the broader interests of Nagaland, seeking to avoid full separation while addressing developmental grievances.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Local Governance and Infrastructure: Need to establish a robust framework for local governance with dedicated funds and authority to address the developmental deficits in Eastern Nagaland, ensuring that the “Frontier Nagaland Territory” arrangement grants meaningful legislative, executive, and financial autonomy to meet the unique needs of the region.
- Inclusive Dialogue and Regular Consultations: Facilitate ongoing, inclusive dialogues among the Centre, state government, ENPO, and local representatives to address concerns transparently and collaboratively.
Mains PYQ:
Q Growing feeling of regionalism is an important factor in the generation of demand for a separate state. Discuss. 10 marks-200 words (UPSC CSE 2013)
Q The political and administrative reorganization of states and territories has heen a continuous ongoing process since the mid-nineteenth century. Discuss with examples. (UPSC CSE 2022)
Q “While the national political parties in India favour centralisation, the regional parties are in favour of State autonomy.” Comment. (UPSC CSE 2022)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Private Property; DPSP;
Why in the News?
A 9-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court, in a majority judgment (8:1), held that not every private resource can be considered a ‘material resource of the community’ to be used by the government to serve the ‘common good’ under Article 39(b).
- This overturns the earlier interpretation formed in 1977 that has been followed by the Supreme Court till 1997.
What are Constitutional Provisions?
- Part IV of the Constitution contains the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) where government should strive to achieve social and economic justice in our society.
- Article 39(b) in Part IV provides that ‘ownership and control of material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good.’
- Articles 19(1)(f) and 31 originally guaranteed right to property and compensation for acquisition as a Fundamental Right respectively.
- Article 31C that was added through the 25th amendment in 1971, provided an exception that laws made to fulfil the principles under Articles 39(b) and (c) shall not be void on the ground that it violated Fundamental Rights including right to property.
- In the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), a 13-judge Bench of the Supreme Court upheld the validity of Article 31C but made it subject to judicial review.
- In 1978, the right to property was omitted from Fundamental Rights and made a constitutional right under Article 300A.
- Any law to acquire private property by the government should only be for a public purpose with adequate compensation meted out.
What were earlier judgments?
- In the State of Karnataka vs. Ranganatha Reddy (1977) case, the Supreme Court upheld a law nationalizing private bus services, with Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer interpreting “material resource of the community” in Article 39(b) to include all national wealth.
- This minority opinion influenced the Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing Company vs. Bharat Coking Coal Limited (1982) case, which also supported nationalization, and was referenced in Mafatlal Industries Limited vs. Union of India (1996).
What is the current ruling?
- The SC recently ruled in the Property Owners Association vs. State of Maharashtra case that not all privately owned properties qualify as “material resources of the community” under Article 39(b).
- A 9 judge bench, stated that only certain properties, based on their nature and impact on public welfare, can be considered for state acquisition to serve the common good.
- This decision marks a shift from earlier interpretations that emphasized that individual property rights are protected and not every private asset can be appropriated by the state.
- The ruling also noted that the term “distribution” in Article 39(b) includes both state acquisition and redistribution to private entities when it benefits the community.
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What criteria should determine if a privately owned resource qualifies as a ‘material resource of the community’?
- Purpose and Public Utility: Privately owned resources may be classified as “material resources of the community” if they are essential for societal welfare, addressing collective needs, or fulfilling significant public purposes, such as energy, water, or land critical for infrastructure.
- Proportionality and Fairness: The court emphasized that any state action must be proportional, balancing public benefit with the impact on private owners.
- Economic Impact and Control: Resources that substantially impact the national economy or are crucial for maintaining societal equity (such as natural resources) may be considered community resources, but this does not apply to general private property.
How does this ruling impact the balance between individual property rights and the state’s ability to intervene for public welfare?
- This ruling reinforces individual property rights, clarifying that private property cannot be arbitrarily acquired under the guise of benefiting society. The state must justify the acquisition based on substantial, verifiable public welfare needs.
- Limitations on State Power: By rejecting an expansive interpretation of Article 39(b), the court limits state power, ensuring that only properties directly tied to public interest and welfare fall under this category.
What are the potential economic implications of this ruling in India?
- Investment Climate: This ruling strengthens protections for private property, likely improving investor confidence by assuring that property rights are safeguarded from excessive state intervention.
- Economic Development and Social Equity: By narrowing the scope of Article 39(b), the ruling limits redistributive policies to sectors where public welfare is a clear priority, allowing economic resources to be distributed in a manner that considers social equity while respecting individual rights.
- Real Estate and Industrial Sectors: The ruling could positively affect sectors with high-value assets, such as real estate and industry, as businesses will have greater certainty regarding property ownership and security.
How might this decision influence future legal interpretations and legislative actions?
- Refined Scope for Article 39(b) Applications: Future legislation under Article 39(b) must specifically justify how resources qualify as “material resources of the community,” likely limiting nationalization or acquisition to specific, strategically important sectors.
- Increased Judicial Scrutiny on Property Rights: Courts are likely to more critically evaluate state actions that aim to redistribute private property, requiring robust evidence of public interest and alignment with constitutional principles.
- Potential for Policy Revisions: Laws that invoke Article 39(b) and related provisions may need to be reviewed to ensure they comply with this interpretation, leading to a more nuanced application of public welfare policies.
Way forward:
- Establish Clear Guidelines for Public Interest Acquisition: The government should define transparent criteria for categorizing “material resources of the community,” ensuring acquisitions serve substantial public welfare needs and align with societal priorities, especially in areas like infrastructure and essential services.
- Strengthen Judicial and Legislative Safeguards: Introduce legal safeguards to protect individual property rights, allowing courts to rigorously assess state actions on property acquisition, ensuring proportionality, fairness, and adherence to constitutional principles.
Mains PYQ:
Q How did land reforms in some parts of the country help to improve the socio-economic conditions of marginal and small farmers? (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to vigilantism;
Why in the News?
On July 30, Uttar Pradesh toughened its 2021 anti-conversion law, increasing the maximum sentence to life imprisonment, tightening bail conditions, and expanding “illegal conversion” to include promises of marriage and trafficking.
How do current laws facilitate vigilante actions under the guise of protecting societal values?
- Expansion of Complainant Scope: The amended law allows any individual, regardless of personal involvement or direct impact, to lodge complaints about alleged unlawful conversions.
- Broad Interpretation of “Public Interest”: By permitting police officers and unrelated third parties to file FIRs, the law can be exploited to initiate cases that target religious minorities or interfaith couples, framing these as societal threats.
- Legal Ambiguity and Arbitrary Application: The inconsistent interpretations of “aggrieved person” under Section 4 by different courts have led to uncertainty.
- This ambiguity has allowed authorities and vigilantes to target groups and individuals selectively, often with little or no evidence of wrongdoing, undermining personal freedoms and due process.
- Reduced Threshold for Evidence: By widening the scope of what constitutes “illegal conversion” to include vague terms like “promise of marriage,” the law can easily be manipulated.
- This opens the door for complaints based on assumptions or suspicions, rather than clear, proven instances of forced conversion.
What measures can be implemented to ensure effective enforcement of laws against mob violence and vigilantism?
- Strict Definitions and Limits on Complainants: Restricting who can file complaints to genuinely aggrieved parties—directly affected individuals or close relatives—could help prevent misuse by third-party vigilante actors.
- Accountability Mechanisms for Law Enforcement: Police officers who file unfounded FIRs based on ideologically motivated complaints should face accountability measures.
- Disciplinary action or judicial oversight in cases of misuse would help discourage officers from acting on non-substantial complaints.
- Enhanced Legal Protections for Victims of Vigilantism: Establishing a separate body to investigate and prosecute cases of mob violence and vigilante actions can protect targeted groups.
- Promotion of Public Awareness and Legal Literacy: Initiatives to raise awareness about individual rights and legal processes can empower citizens to resist unlawful actions by vigilantes.
What role do societal perception and political influence play in the rise of vigilantism?
- Ideological Justifications for Vigilantism: Laws like the anti-conversion amendment are often framed as measures to protect cultural or religious values, creating a narrative that justifies vigilante actions as morally and socially acceptable.
- Political Endorsement and Implicit Encouragement: When political entities endorse such laws or publicly support vigilante actions, they create a permissive environment for vigilantism.
- Media Influence and Public Perception: Coverage of interfaith relationships or religious conversions as “threats” to societal harmony often fuels public support for vigilante actions.
- Sensationalist media narratives contribute to a heightened perception of certain groups as “others,” justifying vigilantism as a form of social correction.
- Inadequate Legal Deterrence: Weak penalties for mob violence or leniency in prosecuting vigilantes reinforce the perception that vigilantism will be tolerated, especially if aligned with popular or politically endorsed views.
Way forward:
- Enact Clearer Legal Boundaries and Protections: Define strict limits on who can file complaints under anti-conversion laws, ensuring only directly affected individuals or close family members can do so.
- Strengthen Public Awareness and Judicial Oversight: Promote legal literacy campaigns to educate citizens on their rights and the dangers of vigilante actions, and establish judicial oversight for cases involving mob violence and vigilantism to ensure accountability and protection for targeted groups.
Mains PYQ:
Q Mob violence is emerging as a serious law and order problem in India. By giving suitable examples, analyze the causes and consequences of such violence. (UPSC IAS/2017)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Significance of Aadhaar biometric data;
Why in the News?
The Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) enforces strict regulations on data disclosure to safeguard individuals’ privacy and prevent misuse of personal information. Under normal circumstances, the police cannot access the demographic or biometric details stored in the Aadhaar database.
What are the legal limitations of using Aadhaar biometric data for forensic purposes?
- Stringent Privacy Protections: The Aadhaar Act mandates strict protection of personal data, especially biometrics.
- Sections 29(1) and 33(1) prevent sharing of core biometric data (fingerprints and iris scans) with third parties, even law enforcement, barring limited situations.
- Court Order Requirement: Section 33(1) allows disclosure of certain demographic data upon the order of a High Court or above, but core biometrics are strictly protected and cannot be shared, creating limitations for police investigations involving unidentified bodies.
- Forensic Investigative Gaps: Police databases are often limited to individuals with criminal records, restricting the ability to identify deceased persons through fingerprints.
- Without access to a comprehensive Aadhaar database, identification processes for unknown deceased individuals become more challenging and time-consuming.
How can the balance between privacy rights and forensic needs be achieved?
- Right to Privacy vs. Right to Dignity: Balancing the fundamental right to privacy with the right to a dignified life and death is essential, especially in cases where access to biometric data can help identify unknown bodies.
- Controlled Access Mechanisms: Limited, case-specific access, such as requiring a judicial magistrate’s order (rather than a High Court order), can allow law enforcement to use Aadhaar biometrics in cases involving unidentified bodies, reducing the burden on higher courts while preserving privacy safeguards.
- Transparent Oversight: Any mechanism permitting Aadhaar data usage for forensics should include robust oversight, including logging access and stringent penalties for misuse, ensuring that access is restricted to genuinely necessary cases.
What technological and procedural changes are necessary to facilitate the use of Aadhaar data in forensics?
- Advanced Identification Algorithms: Introducing algorithms similar to the U.S. Deceased Persons Identification (DPI) system would enable more accurate and efficient matching of deceased persons’ fingerprints with larger databases.
- Digitization of Police Records: Digitizing state-level fingerprint databases would allow faster cross-referencing and aid forensic investigations, creating a more accessible identification system even without Aadhaar.
- Secure Data Access Channels: Secure and encrypted channels specifically for forensic use, with limited access, could protect the data while allowing controlled use.
- Specific Legislative Frameworks: There should be new amendments that could clarify circumstances under which biometric data can be accessed for deceased individuals, distinguishing these cases from broader data privacy concerns.
Way forward:
- Amend Legal Framework for Controlled Access: Need to introduce specific legislative amendments allowing limited, case-specific access to Aadhaar biometrics for forensic purposes in cases involving unidentified deceased individuals, with strict judicial oversight to maintain privacy protections.
- Establish Secure Access Protocols and Oversight: Need to implement secure, encrypted access channels and enforce strict oversight mechanisms, including access logging and penalties for misuse, ensuring biometric data is accessed only when absolutely necessary for forensic identification.
Mains PYQ:
Q Two parallel run schemes of the Government, viz the Adhar card and NPM, one of voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits , discuss whether or not both schemes need to run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve development benefits and equitable growth (UPSC IAS/2014)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Central Water Commission (CWC)
Why in the News?
Himalayan glacial lakes are expanding rapidly, posing greater risks to communities and ecosystems according to a Central Water Commission (CWC) report.
Key highlights of the CWC report:
- Rapid Expansion of Glacial Lakes: Glacial lakes across the Himalayan region expanded by 10.81% in surface area from 2011 to 2024. In India alone, glacial lakes grew by 33.7% over the same period, posing serious risks to local communities and ecosystems.
- High-Risk Lakes: The report identifies 67 lakes in India with a more than 40% increase in size, placing them in the high-risk category for glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
- Regional Expansion Trends: The surface area of glacial lakes in the Himalayas grew from 533,401 hectares in 2011 to 591,108 hectares in 2024, largely due to accelerated glacier melt from rising temperatures.
- Advanced Monitoring: The CWC is employing satellite technologies like Sentinel-1 SAR and Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery for precise, year-round data collection to monitor lake size and potential outburst risks.
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About Central Water Commission (CWC):
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Details |
| Establishment |
- Established in 1945 as the Central Waterways, Irrigation and Navigation Commission (CWINC);
- On the advice of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (a member of the then Viceroy’s Executive Council).
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| Nodal Ministry |
Ministry of Jal Shakti under the Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation. |
| Status |
Statutory body serving as an advisory entity to the GoI on water resources development and management. |
| Headquarters |
New Delhi |
| General Responsibilities |
- Initiating, coordinating, and furthering schemes for the control, conservation, and utilization of water resources.
- Compiles and maintains nationwide National Register of Large Dams (NRLD).
- Conducts hydrological surveys.
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| Scope of Work |
CWC deals exclusively with surface water; the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) manages groundwater resources. |
| Chairman |
Chairman serves as the Ex-Officio Secretary to the GoI. |
| Wings of CWC |
• Designs and Research (D&R) Wing
• River Management (RM) Wing
• Water Planning and Projects (WP&P) Wing |
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following statements:
1. 36% of India’s districts are classified as “overexploited” or “critical” by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA).
2. CGWA was formed under the Environment (Protection) Act.
3. India has the largest area under groundwater irrigation in the world.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1 and 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Inclusive Growth; Sustainable Development;
Why in the News?
Chhattisgarh, with its cultural richness and natural resources, is starting an industrial path with the 2024-29 policy.
- This plan is part of “Amritkaal: Chhattisgarh Vision@2047” to grow self-sufficient.
CASE STUDY: “Amritkaal: Chhattisgarh Vision@2047
- This policy introduces special provisions for marginalized groups, including surrendered Naxals, women, and the third-gender community. This inclusivity aims to empower these groups socio-economically.
- Specific packages are designed to support entrepreneurship among these communities through training and financial assistance, facilitating their integration into mainstream society.
- The ‘Amritkaal’ policy classifies development areas into three groups based on their industrialization levels, ensuring that incentives are targeted towards backward areas to promote balanced growth across the state.
- Focus on Sustainable Industries: There is a strong emphasis on promoting pollution-free industries, particularly in electric vehicle manufacturing and environmentally friendly products, ensuring sustainable growth.
- Support for Start-ups: A dedicated fund of ₹50 crore has been allocated to support start-ups, encouraging innovation and entrepreneurship throughout the state.
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What strategies can be implemented to enhance economic resilience in communities?
- For Targeted Training Programs: Implementing skill development initiatives tailored for marginalized groups can help them acquire the necessary skills for self-employment and entrepreneurship.
- For Financial Assistance and Subsidies: Providing subsidized loans and financial incentives can lower barriers for starting new businesses, especially for women and the third-gender community.
- For Establishment of Industrial Corridors: Developing industrial corridors can enhance connectivity and create a conducive environment for industries to thrive, leading to job creation and economic diversification.
How does self-sufficiency contribute to overall economic stability?
- Reduced Dependency: Self-sufficiency allows communities to rely less on external resources, making them more resilient to economic shocks and fluctuations in global markets.
- Local Job Creation: By fostering local industries and entrepreneurship, self-sufficiency contributes to job creation within communities, enhancing overall economic stability.
- Sustainable Growth: Emphasizing sustainable practices ensures that economic growth does not come at the expense of environmental degradation, promoting long-term stability.
What role do various stakeholders play in fostering economic resilience?
- Government: The government plays a crucial role by formulating policies that provide incentives and support for industrial development. It also facilitates training programs and infrastructure development.
- Local Businesses and Entrepreneurs: Local businesses contribute by creating jobs and stimulating the economy. Entrepreneurs drive innovation and respond effectively to local market needs.
- Community Organizations: NGOs and community organizations can assist in identifying the needs of marginalized groups and facilitate access to resources such as training and financial assistance.
Way forward:
- Integrated Community Development Programs: Establish comprehensive programs that unite training, financial assistance, and mentorship specifically for marginalized groups.
- Public-Private Partnerships for Infrastructure Development: Encourage collaboration between the government and private sector to develop industrial corridors and infrastructure that facilitate economic activities.
Mains PYQ:
Q Can the strategy of regional-resource-based manufacturing help in promoting employment in India? (UPSC IAS/2019)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to Rural Governance;
Why in the News?
From 2019-20 to 2023-24, India’s economy grew at 4.6% annually, with the farm sector at 4.2%, yet rural wages remain stagnant.
Disparity between Rural Wages and Economic Growth:
- Divergent Growth Trends: While the Indian economy has experienced significant GDP growth (averaging 4.6% annually from 2019-20 to 2023-24), rural wages have stagnated, with real agricultural wages showing minimal growth and often negative real wage growth due to rising inflation.
- Labor Supply Dynamics: The surge in female Labor Force Participation Rates (LFPR) in rural areas has increased the overall labor supply, exerting downward pressure on wages as more workers compete for the same or fewer jobs, primarily in low-productivity agricultural sectors.
- Capital-Intensive Growth: Economic growth has become increasingly capital-intensive and labor-saving, leading to a disproportionate share of income going to capital rather than labour.
- This trend results in fewer job opportunities in high-paying sectors, further exacerbating the stagnation of rural wages.
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What are the major factors behind the Stagnant Rural Wages?
- Increased Female Labour Force Participation (Surplus of Labour): The rural female Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) has seen a sharp rise, particularly due to government initiatives that have freed up women’s time for outside employment.
- However, this has led to a significant increase in the overall rural workforce, causing a surplus of labor that exerts downward pressure on wages.
- Majority of choosing Agricultural Employment: Although more women are entering the labour force, the majority are finding employment in agriculture rather than in higher-paying non-farm sectors.
- This results in a surplus of workers in an already low-productivity sector, which suppresses wages further.
- Capital-Intensive Economic Growth: The Indian economy’s growth has increasingly come from capital-intensive sectors that require fewer workers.
- Consequently, the share of income generated is shifting from labour (wages) to capital (profits). This trend limits demand for rural labour, leading to wage stagnation.
- Low Demand for Non-Agricultural Labor: Wage growth in rural non-agricultural sectors has been even weaker, with real wages declining. This reflects limited job opportunities outside of agriculture, partly due to low demand for labour in industries that are more capital-intensive.
What are the steps taken by Govt to address the issue of Low Rural Wages?
- Income Transfer Schemes: Both central and state governments have introduced various income transfer schemes, like Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) which provides an annual income support of Rs 6,000 to farmer households in rural areas.
- Many states have launched income-support schemes specifically for women, such as Maharashtra’s Ladki Bahin Yojana, which provides Rs 1,500 per month to women from low-income households.
- Employment Generation Programs: Schemes like the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) provide a safety net by guaranteeing 100 days of wage employment for rural households.
- The government has also promoted rural entrepreneurship through initiatives like the Mudra Yojana, which offers micro-loans to rural businesses and enhance employment opportunities.
- Skill Development Initiatives: The government has been investing in rural skill development programs to promote employability in non-farm sectors.
- Programs under schemes like the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) focus on upskilling rural youth and women to enable them to find better-paying, non-agricultural employment.
- Rural Infrastructure Development: Initiatives to build rural infrastructure, such as the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), create temporary employment in construction and improve access to jobs, markets, and services.
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Way forward:
- Diversification of Employment Opportunities: Enhancing support for non-agricultural sectors through targeted investments in skill development, vocational training, and entrepreneurship programs can create diverse job opportunities.
- Strengthening Agricultural Productivity: Implementing policies that focus on modernizing agricultural practices and improving productivity can increase the income of rural labourers.
Mains PYQ:
Q Though there have been several different estimates of poverty in India, all indicate reduction in poverty over time. Do you agree. Critically examine with reference to urban and rural poverty indicators. (2015)
Q Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth? (2024)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Significance of Infrastructure; Infrastructural development;
Why in the News?
Dedicated Freight Corridors are boosting India’s GDP and significantly enhancing Indian Railways’ revenue, according to a recent study by Australia’s University of New South Wales.
What are dedicated freight corridors (DFCs)?
Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) are specialized railway tracks for freight transportation, designed to improve efficiency with faster, high-capacity trains like double-stack containers and heavy-haul freight trains.
What is the Present Status?
- India has two main DFCs:
- Eastern DFC (EDFC): Spanning 1,337 km from Sonnagar (Bihar) to Sahnewal (Punjab). The EDFC is operational and includes feeder routes connecting coal mines and thermal plants.
- Western DFC (WDFC): Extends 1,506 km from Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Mumbai) to Dadri (Uttar Pradesh). The WDFC is 93% complete, serving major ports in Gujarat. Full completion is expected by December 2025.
- As of March 31, 2024, the project has incurred costs of ₹94,091 crore, excluding land acquisition.
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What does the Australian varsity study say?
- Conducted by the University of New South Wales, this study used a Computable General Equilibrium model to assess the WDFC’s impact, specifically from FY 2019–20.
- The study’s findings include:
- Reduced freight costs and travel times have decreased commodity prices by up to 0.5%.
- The DFCs contributed to a 2.94% increase in Indian Railways’ revenue between FY 2022–23 and FY 2018–19.
- Western regions gained significantly from reduced freight costs, which had a “social-equalizing effect,” benefiting states with lower per capita GDP.
- Published in Elsevier, the study integrated freight costs, industry inputs, population data, and rail and road data.
What economic benefits do Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) bring to India?
- Improved Supply Chains: DFCs provide faster, efficient transit for freight, enhancing the supply chain for industries and logistics providers.
- Cost Savings: Reduction in freight transport costs lowers overall logistics expenses, which can lead to price reductions for consumers.
- Revenue Growth for Railways: DFCs have directly contributed to revenue increases, supporting the Railways’ finances.
- Increased Freight Share: The corridors are key to meeting the National Rail Plan’s target of achieving a 45% rail share in freight by 2030.
- Exports and Imports: Faster, dedicated freight routes boost export-import activities, as DFCs support port connectivity, particularly in the West.
How do DFCs enhance the overall logistics and transportation infrastructure in India?
- Decongested Rail Network: By shifting freight traffic off the main passenger routes (e.g., the Golden Quadrilateral), DFCs alleviate congestion, improving both freight and passenger rail reliability.
- Regional Development: States along the DFC routes experience increased industrial activity due to improved logistics support, which can enhance local economies and job creation.
- Future Corridors: Plans are underway for four additional corridors (East Coast, East-West I & II, North-South) to further expand the freight network, enhancing connectivity across the country.
Current Operational Status and Future Outlook
- As of now, 325 trains run daily on the DFCs, which is a 60% increase from the previous year.
- DFC trains are faster, safer, and capable of carrying heavier loads, contributing to over 10% of Indian Railways’ total freight operations.
- DFCCIL is conducting further research on DFCs’ economic impact, with results expected soon, which will provide deeper insights into their long-term contributions to India’s economic growth.
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Challenges related to the development of DFC:
- Land Acquisition Delays: Acquiring over 8,800 hectares, often privately owned and developed land, has caused setbacks, with disputes and legal cases prolonging the process.
- Escalating Costs: Project costs have surged significantly, with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JBIC) noting that expenses have nearly doubled, raising concerns about financial viability and potential investor reluctance.
- Technology Disputes: Differences over locomotive technology—diesel versus electric—pose delays, as stakeholders like Indian Railways and JBIC debate environmentally friendly solutions.
- Utility and Infrastructure Challenges: Shifting utilities (power lines, water pipes) and constructing road overbridges and under-bridges add logistical complexities.
- Funding and Financial Management: Reliance on external funding and the need for efficient resource management impact project timelines and execution stability.
Way Forward:
- Streamlined Land Acquisition and Cost Management: Need to implement a centralized framework for faster land acquisition and cost oversight to mitigate delays and prevent cost escalations, ensuring project feasibility and investor confidence.
- Technological and Funding Consensus: Need to establish clear technology standards (e.g., electric locomotives) for environmental benefits and secure diversified funding sources to reduce dependence on external financing, enabling timely completion and sustainable operations.
Mains PYQ:
Q “Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.” Discuss in the light of India’s experience. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to Urban planning;
Why in the News?
World Cities Day is celebrated annually on October 31, highlighting the growing urban population, now at 4.7 billion (57.5% of the total). This year’s theme focuses on empowering youth to drive local sustainability initiatives in urban areas.
What is the theme for this year’s World Cities Day?
- The theme for this year’s World Cities Day is “Youth Climate Changemakers: Catalysing Local Action for Urban Sustainability.”
- It emphasizes the vital role of young people in driving grassroots initiatives to address climate change and promote sustainable urban development.
What led to India’s rapid urbanization?
- Economic Distress: Urbanization in India is largely driven by economic hardships in rural areas, leading to both rural-to-urban and urban-to-urban migration.
- COVID-19 Impact: The pandemic exposed the strain on urban infrastructure and highlighted the reverse migration trends, showcasing gaps in urban planning.
- Lack of Census Data: The absence of precise data from the 2021 Census limits understanding and planning for urban population growth, though estimates suggest around 40% of the population resides in urban areas.
- Job Losses from Deindustrialisation: Many cities have experienced deindustrialization since the 1980s, resulting in job losses that push displaced workers to peri-urban areas.
- Overcrowding in Slums: Approximately 40% of India’s urban population lives in slums, exacerbating the challenges associated with rapid urban growth.
How big of a threat do climate change and rising inequality pose to urban growth?
- Climate Change: Indian cities face severe pollution, urban flooding, and heat island effects, which jeopardize urban sustainability and living conditions.
- Rising Inequality: Urban development often caters to wealthier populations, resulting in stark contrasts between exclusive developments and the significant number of urban residents lacking basic housing.
- Social Segregation: Increasing segregation along social and religious lines within urban settings worsens inequality and marginalizes vulnerable groups.
- Governance Limitations: Many urban areas are controlled by undemocratic bodies, limiting the effectiveness of governance and local engagement in urban planning.
- Inadequate Urban Planning: Outdated spatial and temporal planning does not address the needs of a growing urban population, further complicating the impact of climate change and social disparities.
Steps taken by the government:
- Smart Cities Mission: Launched in 2015, this initiative aims to promote sustainable and inclusive urban development by investing in infrastructure, smart technologies, and urban planning to improve the quality of life in cities and enhance urban resilience.
- Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): This mission focuses on providing basic services like water supply, sewage management, and urban transport in cities, promoting sustainable urban development and improving the quality of life for residents.
- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): This scheme aims to provide affordable housing for all by 2022, addressing the housing shortage and improving living conditions for low-income urban residents, thereby tackling issues related to slums and inadequate housing.
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Way forward:
- Enhance Data-Driven Urban Planning: Need to conduct comprehensive and regular urban censuses to gather accurate demographic data, enabling evidence-based decision-making for urban policies and effective resource allocation.
- Strengthen Community Engagement: The government should foster participatory governance by involving local communities in urban planning and development processes.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are ‘Smart Cities’? examine their relevance for urban development in India. Will it increase rural-urban differences? Give arguments for ‘Smart Villages’ in the light of PURA and RURBAN Mission. (2016)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to health care;
Why in the News?
The Global Tuberculosis Report 2024 presented by WHO indicates that India recorded the highest burden of tuberculosis (TB) in 2023.
Current Scope of Tuberculosis in India
- High Burden: According to the Global Tuberculosis Report 2024, India accounts for 26% of all tuberculosis (TB) cases worldwide, making it the country with the highest TB burden. The report indicates that over 55.9% of global TB cases are concentrated in five countries: India, Indonesia, China, the Philippines, and Pakistan.
- Mortality Rates: Although TB deaths in India have decreased from 580,000 in 2010 to 320,000 in 2023, the country still accounted for 26% of global TB deaths among people with and without HIV in 2023.
- Incidence Trends: The incidence of TB has decreased from 275.7 cases per 100,000 population in 2010 to 194.9 cases in 2023. However, there has been a notable increase in notified TB relapse cases, reaching the highest level since 2010.
- Risk Factors: Individuals with nutritional deficiencies, diabetes, and smoking habits are at the highest risk of contracting TB. The prevalence of TB infection among individuals aged 15 and older is reported at 31.4%, according to the National TB Prevalence Survey conducted from 2019-2021.
- Preventive Treatment Uptake: The number of people receiving preventive treatment has been rising, indicating an increased focus on preventing TB progression among high-risk populations.
Strategies and Programs Implemented by Govt to Reduce TB Incidence
- National Tuberculosis Elimination Program (NTEP): This program aims to eliminate TB by 2025 through various strategies including early diagnosis, treatment support, and preventive measures.
- TB Preventive Therapy (TPT): The introduction of TPT marks a significant shift in TB care in India. It focuses on providing preventive treatment to individuals at high risk of developing active TB.
- Project Axshya Plus: Launched with support from the Global Fund, this project implements comprehensive interventions such as contact tracing, testing for infection, and managing latent TB infections.
- Increased Funding: Domestic funding for TB prevention and treatment increased by 38% in 2023 to $253 million, although international funding has declined during the same period.
- Community Engagement Initiatives: Programs like the Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan encourage community involvement in supporting TB patients through initiatives like Ni-kshay Mitras.
- Digital Health Initiatives: The NTEP leverages digital platforms for monitoring patient progress and ensuring adherence to treatment protocols through tools like the Nikshay portal.
- Awareness Campaigns: Public health campaigns aim to reduce stigma associated with TB and educate communities about prevention and treatment options.
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Challenges India Faces in Eliminating Tuberculosis by 2025
- Funding and Infrastructure Gaps: Despite increases in domestic funding, overall financial resources remain lower than pre-COVID levels, impacting program implementation and outreach efforts.
- Inadequate healthcare infrastructure, particularly in rural areas, hampers access to timely diagnosis and treatment for many patients.
- The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted TB services significantly, leading to a backlog of undiagnosed cases and impacting ongoing treatment programs.
- Stigma and Discrimination: Stigma associated with TB continues to deter individuals from seeking diagnosis and treatment, which can lead to delayed care and increased transmission rates.
- Social determinants such as poverty, malnutrition, and living conditions contribute to higher susceptibility to TB among vulnerable populations.
- Drug Resistance Issues: The rise of drug-resistant strains of TB poses significant challenges for effective treatment and control strategies.
- Multi-sectoral Coordination Challenges: Effective elimination requires collaboration across various sectors (healthcare, education, social services), which can be challenging due to bureaucratic hurdles.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Multi-Sectoral Coordination: There is a need to foster collaboration among healthcare, education, and social services to address the social determinants of TB.
- Enhancing Accessibility and Outreach: Need to improve access to TB diagnosis and treatment in rural areas by investing in healthcare infrastructure, training local health workers, and implementing mobile health units.
Mains PYQ:
Q Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved. (2014)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to Infrastructure;
Why in the News?
- The October 25, 2024, incident where a Qatar Airways Boeing 787’s landing gear sank into a collapsed ramp at Doha underscores the importance of runway safety concerns.
- Similar risks exist in Chennai Airport’s expansion plans and the greenfield project at Parandur, where soil stability and structural integrity are critical issues that must not be overlooked.
Background
- The Chennai airport expansion, initially proposed in 2007, faced design and safety issues, including unsuitable soil for a parallel runway and violations in bridge construction standards, raising concerns about infrastructure reliability and potential flooding risks in future projects.
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What are the specific challenges and risks pilots face when landing at these airports?
- Runway Integrity: Pilots may encounter challenges if the runway or taxiways have structural weaknesses or are poorly designed, such as in the case of Doha, where the ground beneath collapsed under the aircraft’s weight.
- Crosswinds and Weather Conditions: Airports located near water bodies or in regions with extreme weather may present challenges during landing, such as turbulence from crosswinds or sudden weather changes, increasing the risk of hard landings or runway excursions.
- Ground Handling: The condition of the ground infrastructure, including taxiways and ramps, is critical. Pilots must be cautious of soft spots or areas not properly constructed to withstand aircraft weight, which can lead to accidents.
- Limited Runway Width and Length: Airports with insufficient runway dimensions may restrict landing and takeoff performance for larger aircraft, posing risks during adverse conditions where longer stopping distances are required.
- Inadequate Visual Aids: Poorly designed lighting and navigational aids can impair a pilot’s ability to assess runway conditions, especially in low visibility scenarios.
- Safety Compliance: Non-compliance with international aviation standards during the design and construction phases may lead to operational hazards that pilots must navigate.
How do airport design and infrastructure impact aviation safety?
- Structural Reliability: The strength and reliability of runway surfaces directly affect safety. Insufficient ground support may lead to structural failures under heavy loads, as seen in the Doha incident.
- Drainage Systems: Effective drainage systems are vital for preventing water accumulation on runways, which can lead to hydroplaning and loss of control during landings.
- Environmental Considerations: The placement of airports in flood-prone areas without adequate flood management strategies can compromise safety during heavy rainfall, as experienced in Chennai.
- Design Standards: Compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards is crucial for ensuring that airports are capable of safely accommodating various aircraft types.
- Construction Quality: The choice of construction materials and techniques directly impacts the longevity and safety of airport infrastructure. Cost-cutting measures may lead to substandard designs.
What measures are being taken to enhance pilot training and operational procedures at these high-risk airports? (Way forward)
- Enhanced Simulation Training: Pilots receive advanced simulation training to handle specific challenges associated with landing at high-risk airports, including crosswind landings and emergencies on compromised runways.
- Regular Safety Audits: Conduct audits and inspections of airport facilities and infrastructure to ensure compliance with safety standards and identify potential hazards.
- Real-time Weather Updates: Implementation of systems that provide pilots with real-time updates on weather conditions and runway status, helping them make informed decisions during landings.
- Collaboration with Engineers: Continuous collaboration between pilots and airport engineers during the planning and construction phases to address potential safety issues upfront.
- Training on Emergency Protocols: Training programs that include scenarios specific to airports with known risks, ensuring pilots are prepared for emergencies related to runway or taxiway failures.
Mains PYQ:
Q Examine the development of Airports in India through joint ventures under Public – Private Partnership (PPP) model. What are the challenges faced by the authorities in this regard. (2017)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LiDAR technology,
Mains level: Use of technology in infrastructure
Why in the News?
Scientists have used LiDAR technology to find an ancient Mayan city hidden for centuries under a thick jungle in Mexico.
What is LiDAR?
- LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is a remote sensing technology that uses laser light pulses to measure distances between a sensor (often airborne) and Earth’s surface.
- It produces high-resolution, 3D models of ground elevation with up to 10 cm vertical accuracy, as per the US Geological Survey.
How Does LiDAR Work?
- LiDAR Setup: Includes a laser, a scanner, and a GPS receiver. The laser emits rapid pulses of light that reflect off surfaces on the ground, including natural features and man-made structures.
- Data Collection: The reflected light returns to the sensor, and the LiDAR system calculates the two-way travel time to determine the distance to each point on Earth’s surface.
- Data Processing: GPS and Inertial Measurement System (IMS) data are used to create accurate maps. The initial data forms a “point cloud” representing surfaces like vegetation, buildings, and terrain.
- “Bare Earth” Model: By filtering out structures and vegetation, LiDAR can create a Digital Elevation Model that shows just the ground terrain.
Applications of LiDAR
- Geography and Mapping: Creates precise 3D information for topographic mapping.
- Urban Planning and Infrastructure: Used in planning transportation routes, assessing flood risk, and managing natural resources.
- Conservation: Helps monitor forest health, manage habitats, and detect environmental changes.
- Engineering and Policy: Provides data for infrastructure design, environmental policy making, and land-use planning.
Why is LiDAR Useful for Archaeologists?
- Large-Area Surveying: LiDAR enables archaeologists to study extensive areas quickly, bypassing the need for labor-intensive, on-ground exploration.
- Vegetation Penetration: LiDAR can “see through” dense tree canopies by using the reflections that pass through gaps, allowing mapping of hidden structures and terrain.
- Detailed Site Mapping: With “bare earth” models, archaeologists can strip away vegetation layers to reveal hidden archaeological sites.
- Case Study – Maya Civilization: Archaeologists discovered the lost Mayan city of Valeriana in Mexico by analyzing publicly available LiDAR data, uncovering plazas, temple pyramids, a ballcourt, and other features indicative of a Classic Maya capital.
Where is the Indian Government using LiDAR ?
- High-Speed Rail Projects: NHSRCL (National High-Speed Rail Corporation Limited) uses aerial LiDAR surveys for the Delhi-Varanasi High-Speed Rail Corridor, reducing survey time from 10-12 months to 3-4 months by capturing detailed topographical data within a 300-meter corridor.
- National Highways: NHAI mandates Mobile LiDAR for feasibility studies and project reports, enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of highway surveys across extensive networks.
- Forest Mapping: The Ministry of Environment is piloting LiDAR-based forest mapping across states to improve forest management and accurately monitor forest cover changes.
- Water Resource Management: WAPCOS is using LiDAR to identify groundwater recharge zones, aiding water resource management and mitigating human-animal conflicts in forested areas.
- Urban Planning: Chandigarh and Gujarat are using LiDAR for GIS mapping and drone-based surveys, respectively, supporting detailed city models, urban planning, and infrastructure mapping.
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Conclusion: LiDAR technology has revolutionized fields from archaeology to urban planning by providing precise 3D mapping. In India, it’s enhancing infrastructure projects, environmental monitoring, and urban planning, proving invaluable for efficient, large-scale data collection and analysis.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to Climate change;
Why in the News?
Over nine years ago, the world promised to cut emissions significantly, but it hasn’t succeeded. As a result, the goal of keeping global warming below 1.5 degrees is now out of reach.
Is the 1.5°C Target Still Achievable?
- Rising Emissions: Global emissions are still increasing, with 2023 seeing record levels. Despite clean energy advancements, emissions reductions have been insufficient to meet the pace required for the 1.5°C target.
- Potential for Emission Peaking: The UNEP Emissions Gap Report suggests that emissions could peak by 2023 or 2024 if significant additional measures are taken, but global actions remain inconsistent and often insufficient.
- Need for Accelerated Action: For the 1.5°C goal, global emissions need to drop by at least 43% by 2030 from 2019 levels.
- Current projections indicate only a 2.6% reduction by 2030, far short of the required cuts.
- Technological and Financial Challenges: Achieving the 1.5°C target hinges on rapid technological deployment, energy transition, and substantial financing for climate action. However, these remain constrained by a lack of coordination and resources.
Implications of Exceeding the 1.5°C Limit
- Increased Frequency of Extreme Events: Exceeding 1.5°C would lead to more frequent and severe extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, droughts, wildfires, and intense storms.
- Impacts on Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Many species and ecosystems are sensitive to small temperature changes; coral reefs, for instance, face near-total collapse beyond 1.5°C warming.
- Threats to Human Health and Livelihoods: Exceeding 1.5°C could lead to more heat-related illnesses, loss of productivity, water scarcity, and risks to food security, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations.
- Feedback Loops: Warming beyond 1.5°C may activate feedback loops (e.g., Arctic ice melt, permafrost thawing), which could lead to irreversible changes and make further warming difficult to control.
Should We Reconsider the Focus on the 1.5°C Target?
- Adaptation vs. Mitigation: Given the increasing difficulty of limiting warming to 1.5°C, some argue for a shift in focus towards adaptation strategies to manage the unavoidable impacts of higher temperatures.
- Realigning Expectations: While the 1.5°C target was critical to rally global climate action, a shift towards realistic, achievable goals may better support gradual but sustained progress, especially if mitigation pathways fall short.
- Moving Towards a ‘Just Transition’: With a likely overshoot of the 1.5°C target, there is a greater need to ensure that climate adaptation and resilience measures do not disproportionately burden low-income countries and communities.
- Science-Based Overshoot Scenarios: The IPCC and other scientific bodies continue to assess overshoot scenarios (e.g., temporarily exceeding 1.5°C and then returning below it later) to guide global climate strategies. However, returning to a lower temperature after an overshoot requires substantial and sustained negative emissions, which are currently unfeasible at scale.
Way forward:
- Prioritize Scalable Emissions Reductions and Resilient Adaptation: Accelerate global transition to renewable energy, improve energy efficiency, and reduce methane and other non-CO₂ emissions. Simultaneously, invest in adaptation measures to help vulnerable communities manage the impacts of warming beyond 1.5°C.
- Strengthen Climate Finance and International Cooperation: Mobilize substantial climate funding for developing nations to support both mitigation and adaptation efforts. Enhance cross-border technology sharing and policy alignment to enable collective, equitable climate action.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Presidential election of India and USA;
Why in the News?
In the US system, when people vote for a presidential candidate, they are actually voting to choose that candidate’s “electors,” who will then cast their votes for the President.
What is the structure and function of the Electoral College?
- Composition: The Electoral College consists of 538 electors. A candidate needs a majority of 270 electoral votes to win the presidency.
- Allocation of Electors: Each state’s number of electors equals its Congressional delegation (one for each House member and two for Senators). California has the most electors (54), while six states and the District of Columbia have the smallest allocation (3 each).
- Selection of Electors: Political parties select electors in each state before the election, typically choosing party loyalists or those with ties to the presidential candidate.
- Electoral Voting Process: Electors meet in their state capitals in December to cast their votes for President and Vice President. This is mostly a formality, as electors generally vote for their party’s candidate.
Note: The Electoral College is a body of 538 electors who elect the U.S. President and Vice President, reflecting the popular vote in each state.
How does the Electoral College impact election outcomes?
- Discrepancy Between Popular and Electoral Votes: Candidates can win the presidency without winning the national popular vote, as seen in the elections of 2000 and 2016. This discrepancy occurs due to the allocation of electoral votes based on state populations rather than a direct count of all votes.
- Focus on Swing States: The winner-takes-all system encourages candidates to concentrate their campaign efforts on a few key swing states, which can lead to disproportionate attention and resources being directed there, often neglecting voters in states where one party is overwhelmingly dominant.
- Strengthening the Two-Party System: The Electoral College reinforces a two-party system by making it challenging for third-party candidates to gain traction, as the winner-takes-all approach in most states discourages votes for non-major party candidates, leading to a perception that such votes are “wasted.”
What happens if no candidate receives a majority of electoral votes?
- House of Representatives Decides: If no candidate secures a majority of electoral votes, the election is decided by the House of Representatives, with each state delegation casting one vote for one of the top three candidates.
- Senate Elects Vice President: Concurrently, the Senate elects the Vice President from the top two candidates for that office.
- Historical Context: This scenario has occurred only a few times in U.S. history, most notably in the election of 1824 when John Quincy Adams was elected by the House after no candidate received a majority of electoral votes.
Difference between Indian and USA presidential election:
| Aspect |
India |
USA |
| Electoral Process |
Indirect election by an electoral college of MPs and state assembly members. |
Indirect election through the Electoral College, where citizens vote for electors. |
| Voting System |
Single transferable vote system, ensuring proportional representation. |
Winner-takes-all system in most states; majority wins all electoral votes. |
| Electoral College |
Comprised of elected representatives, totaling around 5,000 electors. |
Consists of 538 electors based on Congressional representation. |
| Majority Requirement |
Majority of electoral votes needed to win. |
270 electoral votes needed to win. |
| Frequency of Elections |
Every five years. |
Every four years. |
| Nature of the Position |
Primarily ceremonial; limited powers. |
Head of state and government; significant executive powers. |
| Campaigning |
Limited campaigning; party nominations prevail. |
Extensive campaigning; candidates raise funds and engage voters directly. |
| Political Parties |
Influenced by major parties, with independent candidates also eligible. |
Dominated by a two-party system (Democratic and Republican). |
Conclusion: The Electoral College consists of 538 electors, with a majority of 270 needed to win the presidency. It allocates electors based on state Congressional representation. It impacts elections by creating discrepancies between popular and electoral votes, focusing campaigns on swing states, and reinforcing a two-party system. If no majority is achieved, the House decides the president.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to case pendency;
Why in the News?
President Droupadi Murmu has called for an end to court delays. In the District Judiciary Conference, she said that frequent postponements make it hard for poor and rural people to seek justice, as they worry cases will take too long to resolve.
Primary Causes of Case Pendency and Frequent Adjournments in Indian Courts:
- Judge-Population Ratio: India has a low judge-to-population ratio, with only 21 judges per million people as of 2024, far below the Law Commission’s recommended 50 per million.
- Vacant Judicial Positions: Delays in filling judicial vacancies lead to understaffed courts, with 30% vacancies in High Courts, adding pressure on the existing judges.
- Additional Judicial Charges: Judges often handle multiple courts or specialized responsibilities, detracting from their ability to focus on primary cases and adding to delays.
- Complex Case Load: Courts are burdened by multiple types of cases, including civil, criminal, constitutional, and appeals, many of which end up in higher courts, leading to severe backlogs.
- Lack of Judicial-Impact Assessment: New laws increase the caseload, but without assessing the impact on court infrastructure, staffing, and resources, exacerbating delays.
- Delay in Witness Availability: Witnesses are often not available on time, which postpones court hearings and impacts trial timelines.
How can technology be leveraged to reduce case pendency?
- Digitization of Case Records: Electronic records reduce administrative delays in case filing, retrieval, and transfer between courts.
- AI-Powered Case Management Systems: AI can assist in case prioritization, track progress, and predict possible delays, enabling judges and clerks to streamline schedules more effectively.
- E-Courts and Video Conferencing: Virtual hearings can expedite proceedings, especially for remote cases or minor disputes, saving travel and scheduling time.
- Automation of Routine Processes: Automating administrative tasks like case status updates, notifications, and scheduling can reduce clerical delays and improve transparency for litigants.
- Data Analytics for Judicial Insights: Predictive analytics can help in understanding case patterns, enabling policymakers to make data-driven decisions on judicial staffing and resources.
What reforms are necessary to improve judicial efficiency and reduce backlog? (Way forward)
- Filling Vacancies and Enhancing Judge Numbers: Quick action on filling judicial vacancies is critical, along with increasing sanctioned positions to meet the demands of the population and growing caseload.
- Implementing Judicial-Impact Assessments: Adopting the recommendations of the Justice M. Jagannadha Rao Committee for pre-legislative impact assessment would ensure adequate resources accompany new laws.
- Expanding Mediation and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR): Scaling up mediation centers and incentivizing ADR methods can resolve disputes outside court, decreasing the burden on the judiciary.
- Dedicated Special Courts: Establishing well-staffed, specialized courts for specific categories (e.g., economic offenses, family disputes) would help reduce strain on regular courts.
- No Additional Charge Policy for Judges: Assigning a single focus area per judge ensures concentration on cases without undue burdens, leading to higher efficiency and better judgment quality.
- Periodic Judicial Training: Regular training on case management and technological tools can empower judges and court staff to adapt to evolving needs, reducing inefficiencies.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Population Issues; Cultural issues in the Society; Child marriage;
Why in the News?
In the recent judgment of Society for Enlightenment and Voluntary Action v. Union of India, the SC has shifted the focus in child marriage cases from punishing criminal acts to addressing the “harm inflicted on the victim.”
What is the law on Child Marriage?
- Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 (PCMA): Defines child marriage as one where the husband is under 21 years or the wife is under 18.
- Such marriages are voidable: The underage person can choose to cancel the marriage, but until they do, it is still legally recognized.
- State Variations: In Karnataka and Haryana, child marriages are void from the beginning, without the need for annulment.
- Annulment vs. Divorce: Annulment treats the marriage as if it never took place, while divorce ends an existing marriage. To get an annulment under the PCMA, it only needs to be shown that one person was underage at the time.
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Why are there concerns about using criminal action to tackle child marriage?
- Although the marriage remains valid unless annulled, related activities are criminalized under PCMA, BNS, and POCSO, such as promoting or performing child marriages and sexual activity with a minor.
- Criminal provisions can lead to charges against the girl’s family members (parents, husband, in-laws), leaving her without support and creating barriers to accessing sexual and reproductive healthcare.
- Studies reveal criminal provisions are used more in self-initiated marriages than arranged ones, overlooking the complexities of these cases.
- Some adolescents may choose marriage to escape abusive environments or forced marriage, often seeing it as a way to assert their agency in a restrictive society.
Why is the SC judgment significant?
- Social and Economic Barriers: Women who leave child marriages often face significant social and economic penalties. The SC judgment proposes skill development, vocational training, economic stability programs, rehabilitation services, and victim compensation to support them.
- Empowering Women in Child Marriages: Some women prefer to remain married but need support to advocate for themselves. The judgment calls for tools to help them make decisions about reproductive rights, employment, and education.
- Sex Education for Adolescents: The judgment emphasizes sex education, equipping young people with skills and knowledge to navigate relationships and improve agency.
- Holistic Approach: By moving away from solely criminal prosecution to focus on empowerment and support, the SC judgment provides a more comprehensive, agency-affirming response to child marriage.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Support Systems: Develop targeted programs for skill training, financial assistance, and rehabilitation to help individuals exit child marriages, promoting economic stability and social reintegration.
- Enhance Education and Awareness: Implement comprehensive sex education and awareness initiatives in communities to empower young individuals and discourage child marriage through informed decision-making and better access to reproductive rights.
Mains PYQ:
Q “Empowering women is the key to controlling the population growth.” Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2019)
Q Customs and traditions suppress reason leading to obscurantism. Do you agree? (UPSC IAS/2020)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to EPR;
Why in the News?
The Indian government’s 2022 “Extended Producer Responsibility” guidelines mark progress, but a recent report states that stronger measures are needed to fully enforce the “polluter pays” principle in plastic waste management, per a recent CSE report.
What is the CSE report?
- A CSE report is a publication by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a prominent Delhi-based think tank focused on environmental research and advocacy.
- CSE reports analyze pressing environmental issues, often providing data-driven insights and policy recommendations.
What is Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)?
- Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a policy approach where producers are given significant financial and sometimes operational responsibility for the treatment or disposal of post-consumer products.
- The primary goal of EPR is to make manufacturers accountable for the entire lifecycle of their products, especially in terms of environmental impact, by ensuring that they take part in the collection, recycling, and disposal processes.
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Extent of the misuse of EPR certificates in India’s plastic recycling industry
- Fake Certificates: An assessment by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and findings from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) revealed the generation of over 700,000 fake recycling certificates, indicating widespread fraud among plastic recyclers.
- Certificate Inflation: Some processors and recyclers reported volumes vastly exceeding their registered capacities.
- For example, cement plants engaged in end-of-life co-processing claimed to process 335.4 million tonnes annually, despite an actual capacity of only 11.4 million tonnes.
- Undermined Trust: Fraudulent activities result in artificially low certificate prices, undermining the credibility of the EPR system and making it difficult to accurately track plastic waste management.
How does this impact environmental compliance and plastic waste management?
- Underreported Waste Generation: PIBOs introduced 23.9 million tonnes of plastic packaging in April 2022, translating to an annual waste generation of approximately 8 million tonnes. However, CPCB’s estimate of 4.1 million tonnes of plastic waste generation annually indicates significant underreporting.
- Limited Stakeholder Participation: The absence of key contributors, such as urban local bodies and informal waste collectors from the EPR system, reduces traceability and leaves much of the waste management burden on local governments.
- Compromised Recycling Integrity: Due to low-cost fraudulent certificates, genuine recycling efforts suffer from underfunding and inadequate regulation, jeopardizing sustainable plastic waste management efforts and hindering the implementation of the “polluter pays” principle.
What measures can be implemented to improve oversight and accountability within the EPR framework?
- Inclusion of Informal Sector: Recognizing and formalizing the role of informal waste collectors and urban local bodies within the EPR framework could enhance waste collection, segregation, and recycling rates, creating a more transparent value chain.
- Combatting Fraud: Strengthening the auditing and certification process to identify and remove fraudulent recyclers and processors, supported by stricter legal and financial penalties, would help deter misuse.
- Transparent Reporting: Enhancing the EPR portal to ensure accurate data collection on plastic waste generation and disposal, and setting fair prices for recycling certificates to prevent undervaluation.
- Standardizing Products: By mandating uniform standards for plastic packaging materials and designs, recyclability could be improved, reducing contamination and making recycling more effective.
- Enhanced Monitoring and Accountability: Strengthening CPCB and State Pollution Control Boards’ (SPCBs) monitoring capacity and ensuring consistent enforcement of guidelines at both the state and central levels.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), International Monitoring System (IMS)
Why in the News?
- Two earthquakes struck Iran sparking rumours of a nuclear test.
- However, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) in Vienna swiftly refuted these claims using its International Monitoring System (IMS) designed to detect nuclear tests.
About International Monitoring System (IMS):
- IMS is a global monitoring network established by the CTBTO to detect nuclear explosions anywhere in the world.
- It is a global network of over 300 monitoring facilities across 89 countries, using seismic, infrasound, hydroacoustic, and radionuclide technologies to detect nuclear explosions worldwide.
- The CTBTO shares IMS data with member-states in near real-time, ensuring access to accurate, verified data.
- Over 16 gigabytes of data are transmitted daily from IMS stations to the CTBTO’s International Data Centre (IDC) in Vienna.
- Analysts use this IMS data to distinguish natural events (like earthquakes) from nuclear explosions.
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About Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO):
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Details |
| Location |
Based in Vienna, Austria. |
| Established |
Created to implement the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), opened for signature in 1996. |
| Purpose of the CTBT |
Aims to ban all nuclear explosions worldwide, regardless of purpose (military or civilian). |
| Key Elements of the CTBT |
• Total Ban on Nuclear Tests: Prohibits all nuclear explosions.
• Verification Mechanisms: Establishes a global monitoring network and allows for on-site inspections.
• Distant Monitoring by IMS: Employs technologies for monitoring compliance. |
| Signature and Ratification |
Signed by 183 states and ratified by 164; has not entered into force as eight specific states among 44 Annex-2 states have yet to ratify. |
| Key Non-Ratifying States |
The states that have not ratified the treaty include United States, China, Iran, Egypt, Israel, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. |
| Compliance Verification |
CTBT establishes a global monitoring network of over 300 facilities for detection and verification, along with provisions for on-site inspections. |
| Significance |
Plays a crucial role in global efforts toward nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation, fostering international cooperation and stability. |
PYQ:
[2018] What is/are the consequence/consequences of a country becoming the member of the ‘Nuclear Suppliers Group’?
- It will have access to the latest and most efficient nuclear technologies.
- It automatically becomes a member of “The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)”.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
[2011] Recently, the USA decided to support India’s membership in multilateral export control regimes called the “Australia Group” and the “Wassenaar Arrangement”. What is the difference between them?
- The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.
- The Australia Group comprises predominantly Asian, African and North American countries whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American Continents.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Importance of Myanmar;
Why in the News?
The 44th ASEAN Summit in Vientiane highlighted growing regional issues, especially Myanmar’s crisis. Despite ASEAN’s peace efforts, Myanmar’s turmoil persists, testing the group’s commitment to stability.
What are the key challenges facing ASEAN and India in their efforts to stabilize Myanmar?
- Lack of Consensus within ASEAN: ASEAN’s principle of consensus-based decision-making complicates strong, unified responses.
- Nations like Indonesia and Malaysia advocate for firm action, while others, including Thailand and Laos, maintain closer ties with Myanmar’s military government, slowing decisive actions.
- Failure of the Five-Point Consensus: Despite ASEAN’s efforts to enforce the 2021 Five-Point Consensus, which mandates an end to violence and inclusive dialogue, Myanmar’s military has shown little interest in cooperating, undermining ASEAN’s credibility.
- Exclusion of Key Groups: ASEAN’s initiatives mainly engage the junta without including the National Unity Government (NUG) or Ethnic Armed Organizations (EAOs), limiting the inclusiveness and effectiveness of peace efforts.
- Worsening Humanitarian Crisis: Myanmar’s civil war has led to massive displacement and humanitarian needs, with over 18.6 million people requiring aid.
- This poses logistical and diplomatic challenges for ASEAN and complicates India’s border security and refugee policies.
- Balancing Regional and Security Concerns for India: India faces a dilemma balancing its Act East Policy objectives and the need for stability on its Myanmar border.
- Issues such as cross-border militancy, illegal activities, and the refugee crisis strain India’s relations with the junta and impact regional connectivity projects.
How can Inclusive dialogue be achieved among all stakeholders in Myanmar?
- ASEAN must involve non-state actors like the NUG, EAOs, and the People’s Defense Forces (PDFs) in dialogue efforts to ensure all key groups have a stake in Myanmar’s peace process.
- Thailand’s recent ‘Troika’ proposal to host talks with ASEAN chairs (current, past, and future) and possibly other stakeholders indicates a potential pathway for more flexible discussions, albeit with the need for junta cooperation and broader participant involvement.
- Establishing humanitarian corridors that operate beyond junta-controlled areas, with the cooperation of EAOs, could lay the groundwork for inclusive engagement and build trust among conflicting parties.
What role does India’s Foreign Policy play in addressing the Myanmar crisis? (Way forward)
- Strategic Engagement and Regional Connectivity: Under its Act East Policy, India invests in key infrastructure projects like the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project, linking Myanmar and ASEAN.
- Balanced Relations with Junta and Democracy Advocates: Need to principles of non-interference, India maintains ties with Myanmar’s military and democratic groups, addressing security needs while ethically supporting democratic aspirations.
- As per Gujral Doctrine: India should engage constructively with Myanmar, respecting its sovereignty, promoting regional connectivity, and fostering dialogue among all stakeholders to enhance stability and mutual prosperity.
Mains PYQ:
Q Evaluate the economic and strategic dimensions of India’s Look East Policy in the context of the post-Cold War international scenario. (UPSC IAS/2016)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Women Reservation; Implication of reservation in politics;
Why in the News?
The Centre has hinted that the delayed Census might begin next year and finish by 2026, which would play a key role in redrawing constituencies and starting women’s reservations in elected bodies.
What are the implications of the Women’s Reservation Bill for women’s political representation in India?
- Increased Representation: The bill, once implemented, will reserve 33% of seats in the Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies for women, marking a significant increase in women’s representation and fostering a more inclusive legislative environment.
- Long-Term Social Change: With more women in legislative positions, issues relevant to women’s rights, safety, and empowerment could receive greater legislative focus, driving long-term societal shifts toward gender equality.
- Gradual Integration: By mandating women’s reservation for 15 years post-implementation, the bill allows time for systemic integration of women into Indian politics, potentially encouraging more women to enter politics.
Key features of the Women’s Reservation Bill:
- Reservation of Seats: The bill reserves one-third of all seats in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies for women, including those seats already reserved for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
- Implementation Timeline: The reservation will come into effect after the next census is conducted and published, which has not yet been scheduled. The law is set to remain in place for 15 years, with provisions for extension.
- Rotating Constituencies: Reserved seats will be rotated after each delimitation exercise to ensure fair representation across different regions.
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How does the delimitation process affect the implementation of the Women’s Reservation Bill?
- Dependency on Delimitation: The reservation will only be implemented following a census-based delimitation exercise, making the timeline for reservation contingent on the next Census, expected to conclude in 2026.
- Thus, the reservation may only be actionable around the 2029 general elections.
- Impact on Seat Allocation: The delimitation exercise will likely increase the total seats in the Lok Sabha, which could make implementing the 33% reservation less disruptive.
- For example, if Lok Sabha seats rise to around 770, this will allow for a more balanced accommodation of both male and female representatives without substantial loss of seats for male incumbents.
Challenges and Criticisms Surrounding the Women’s Reservation Bill and Its Implementation:
- Delay in Implementation: As the reservation is contingent on delimitation, the immediate impact of the bill remains deferred.
- Critics argue that the reservation could be enacted sooner if it did not depend on the Census and delimitation.
- Intra-Party Resistance: Male incumbents might resist the bill due to concerns over losing their seats, and political parties might face difficulties balancing this resistance with the need for compliance, despite an increase in overall seats.
- Exclusion of Other Marginalized Women: The bill lacks sub-quotas for women from marginalized communities, such as SC/ST/OBCs, sparking criticism that it may predominantly benefit women from privileged backgrounds rather than addressing the political representation gap for all women.
- Dependence on Census Accuracy: Any delays or inaccuracies in Census data could delay the bill’s impact or result in skewed representation due to reliance on outdated demographic data.
Way forward:
- Expedite Delimitation and Census: Streamline Census and delimitation processes to ensure timely data collection and boundary adjustments, enabling earlier implementation of the reservation without prolonged delays.
- Include Sub-Quotas for Marginalized Women: Introduce provisions for SC/ST/OBC sub-quotas within the reservation to ensure fair representation of women from diverse social backgrounds, addressing inclusivity concerns in political representation.
Mains PYQ:
Q “The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local self-government has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process.” Comment. (UPSC IAS/2019)
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