Why in the News?
With recent cuts in USAID funding the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Development Fund (SDF), with a capital base of $672 million and $1.5 billion in authorized funds, is gaining attention.
About the SAARC Development Fund (SDF):
- The SDF was established in 2010 by SAARC member countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
- It focuses on social, economic, and infrastructure development across SAARC countries.
- It has evolved from SAARC Fund for Regional Projects (SFRP) and SAARC Regional Fund (SRF) proposed in 1990.
- In 2005, the SDF was reconstituted as the umbrella financial mechanism for all SAARC projects.
- Finally, it was endorsed in 2006; Charter signed in 2008 during the 15th SAARC Summit in Colombo.
- Its permanent Secretariat opened in Thimphu, Bhutan, in 2010.
Funding Mechanism:
- The SDF has authorized funds of $1.5 billion, with a capital base of $672 million.
- It aims to expand its credit portfolio to $300 million in the coming years.
- Member countries contribute to the SDF’s capital, and the funds are allocated for regional projects based on proposals from member states.
- It operates on a collaborative funding model, with contributions from both the government and development partners.
| [UPSC 2016] The term ‘Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership’ often appears in the news in the context of the affairs of a group of countries known as:
(a) G20 (b) ASEAN (c) SCO (d) SAARC |
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Why in the News?
On April 8, 2025, Lok Sabha Speaker Om Birla delivered the keynote address at the 150th Assembly of the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.
About the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU):
- The IPU is the global organization that connects national parliaments, promoting democracy and cooperation among countries.
- Moto: “For democracy. For everyone.”
- It is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
- Establishment:
- It was established in 1889 as the first multilateral political organization aimed at fostering international cooperation and dialogue.
- It was founded by Englishman William Randal Cremer and Frenchman Frederic Passy, two visionaries who believed in resolving international disputes through peaceful arbitration.
- Both went on to win the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901.
- Structure and Mandate:
- It comprises 181 national Member Parliaments and 15 Associate Members (mostly regional parliamentary bodies).
- It is funded by its members out of public funds.
- The Governing Council is made up of 3 MPs from each Member Parliament.
- Core Functions:
- It advocates for stronger, more inclusive, and diverse parliaments.
- It defends the human rights of parliamentarians and organizes biennial assemblies to bring together parliamentary delegates and partners from around the world.
- It works on issues like global governance, the United Nations, and the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
Key Milestones Achieved:
- The first IPU conference was held in 1889 in Paris, with participation from MPs across Europe and beyond.
- The IPU played a key role in establishing the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1899.
- It laid the groundwork for the creation of the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.
India’s Participation in the IPU:
- India’s membership in the IPU is facilitated through the Indian Parliamentary Group, which serves as the National Group of the IPU.
- The IPG was established in 1949 following a motion adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India.
- The Speaker of the Lok Sabha serves as the ex-officio President of the IPG, while the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha serve as Vice Presidents.
| [UPSC 2005] Consider the following statements:
1. The Charter of the United Nations Organization was adopted at Geneva, Switzerland in June 1945; 2. India was admitted to the United Nations Organization in the year 1945; 3. The Trusteeship Council of the United Nations Organization was established to manage the affairs of territories detached from Japan and Italy after WWII.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maternal Mortality trends, Schemes
Why in the News?
In 2023, India had the second-highest maternal deaths globally, with 19,000 deaths, tied with the Democratic Republic of Congo, and second only to Nigeria. This equated to 52 fatalities daily according to the UN Report.
About the UN Report
- The report, titled ‘Trends in Maternal Mortality 2000-2023’, was prepared by the World Health Organisation (WHO), UNICEF, UN Population Fund, World Bank, and the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (population division).
- It provides global data on maternal mortality and highlights the countries with the highest rates of maternal deaths.
Note:
- Maternal Mortality refers to the death of a woman during pregnancy, childbirth, or within 42 days after delivery, due to complications related to pregnancy or childbirth, as per WHO.
- Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) refers to the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in a given time period, usually over a year.
|
Key Highlights of the Report:
- Nigeria had the highest number of maternal deaths with 75,000 deaths, accounting for 28.7% of global deaths in 2023.
- The top four countries (India, Nigeria, DRC, Pakistan) accounted for 47% of global maternal deaths.
- Despite a population similar to India, China had only 1,400 maternal deaths in 2023.
- Maternal mortality globally declined by 40% between 2000 and 2023, due to improved healthcare access.
- COVID-19 caused an additional 40,000 maternal deaths in 2021 due to service disruptions.
- The global MMR remained high, with 260,000 maternal deaths in 2023, one death every two minutes.
India’s Progress in Reducing Maternal Mortality:
- India’s MMR declined by 78% from 362 in 2000 to 80 in 2023 (NFHS 2019-21).
- Institutional deliveries increased from 79% in 2015-16 to 89% in 2019-21, with Kerala achieving 100%.
- Eight states (including Kerala, Maharashtra, Telangana, Tamil Nadu) reduced MMR to below the SDG target of 70 per 100,000 live births.
Various Schemes for Maternal Health in India:
| Scheme |
Launched |
Objective |
Notable Features |
Target Beneficiaries |
| Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) |
2005 |
To reduce maternal and neonatal mortality by promoting institutional deliveries. |
Cash incentives, Focus on rural areas, Increased access to institutional deliveries. |
Pregnant women from poor socio-economic backgrounds. |
| Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) |
2017 |
To provide maternity benefits and promote institutional deliveries. |
Cash benefit of ₹5,000 for the first child, Additional incentives for girl child under PMMVY 2.0. |
Women pregnant with their first child after 01.01.2017. |
| Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK) |
2011 |
To eliminate out-of-pocket expenses for pregnant women and sick infants. |
Free delivery services, Free transport, Free post-delivery services. |
Pregnant women and sick infants in public health institutions. |
| Surakshit Matritva Aashwasan (SUMAN) |
2019 |
To provide assured, dignified, and quality healthcare at no cost. |
Zero denial policy, Quality of care, Focus on respectful care. |
All pregnant women and newborns visiting public health institutions. |
| LaQshya |
2017 |
To improve the quality of care in labor rooms and maternity operation theatres. |
Focus on improving infrastructure, Monitoring and evaluation, Quality assurance. |
Pregnant women receiving care in labor rooms and maternity OT. |
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements in relation to Janani Suraksha Yojna:
1. It is safe motherhood intervention of the State Health Departments.
2. Its objective is to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality among poor pregnant women.
3. It aims to promote institutional delivery among poor pregnant women.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Technology and Innovation Report
Why in the News?
The Technology and Innovation Report, 2025 was recently issued by United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
About the Technology and Innovation Report
- The report is released by the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
- It addresses critical issues related to science, technology, and innovation, with a particular focus on developing countries. The report emphasizes policy-relevant analysis and conclusions.
- The theme for the 2025 edition is “Inclusive Artificial Intelligence for Development.”
Key Highlights of the Report:
- Global Highlights:
- Developed countries lead in technology preparedness, but nations like China, India, and Brazil outperform their income levels.
- AI market projected to reach USD 4.8 trillion by 2033, fuelling global digital transformation.
- 100 companies, mostly in the U.S. and China, account for 40% of global corporate R&D spending.
- AI will affect 40% of jobs globally, raising concerns over automation and job displacement.
- U.S. leads in AI investment with USD 67 billion, followed by China (USD 7.8 billion) and India (USD 1.4 billion).
- AI Governance Gap: 118 countries, mainly from the Global South, are absent from global AI governance discussions.
- Indian Prospects:
- India ranks 36th in the Readiness for Frontier Technologies Index in 2024, up from 48th in 2022. It ranks 10th globally with USD 1.4 billion in AI investments.
- India has a talent pool of 13 million AI developers, contributing significantly to open-source platforms like GitHub.
- The India AI Mission (2024) focuses on AI innovation through collaborations with the private sector and academia.
- India leads in nanotechnology and has AI excellence centres like IIT Hyderabad and IIT Kharagpur.
| [UPSC 2019] The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the:
(a) International Monetary Fund (b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (c) World Economic Forum (d) World bank |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ottawa Convention
Why in the News?
NATO members including Poland, Finland, and the three Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) have recently expressed intentions to withdraw from the Ottawa Convention.
About the Ottawa Convention
- The Ottawa Convention is an international treaty adopted in 1997 aimed at banning the use, production, stockpiling, and transfer of anti-personnel mines.
- It is also known as the ‘Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Treaty.’
- It specifically targets anti-personnel mines and EXCLUDES anti-vehicle mines, remote-controlled mines, and other types of munitions.
- Signatories: 165 countries had joined by March 2025.
- But major powers like the United States, China, Russia, India, and Israel have not signed.
- Key Features: Signatories must destroy all stockpiled anti-personnel mines within 4 years of ratification, with some allowances for mines retained for training.
Objectives of the Treaty
- End Human Suffering: The primary goal is to end the human suffering caused by landmines.
- Prevent Civilian Casualties: It seeks to prevent civilian casualties, especially long after conflicts have ended.
- Rehabilitation and Restoration: The treaty also aims to assist in the rehabilitation of victims and the restoration of land previously mined for civilian use.
Significance of the Convention
- Victims’ Profile: According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), more than 80% of mine victims are civilians.
- Convention Provisions: The convention includes provisions to assist victims, many of whom suffer permanent disabilities such as loss of limbs.
| [UPSC 2015] Which among the following are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons, commonly known as Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)?
1. China 2. France 3. India 4. Israel 5. Pakistan
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
Why in the News?
March 26, 2025, marked the 50th anniversary of the entry into force of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.
About the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
- The BWC also known as the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty aimed at banning biological and toxin weapons.
- It prohibits activities related to the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use of biological and toxin weapons.
Negotiation and Adoption of BWC:
- Negotiated in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1969 to 1971.
- Draft versions were tabled by the USA and USSR in August 1971.
- The treaty was opened for signature on April 10, 1972, in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C.
- It entered into force on March 26, 1975, after the required ratifications.
Key Provisions of BWC:
- Article I: Prohibits development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.
- Article II: Requires destruction or conversion of biological agents, toxins, and weapons to peaceful purposes before joining.
- Article III: Prohibits transfer or assistance in acquiring biological weapons.
- Article VI: Allows states to file complaints with the UN Security Council about treaty violations.
- Article X: Promotes the exchange of materials and information for peaceful purposes.
Structure and Membership of BWC:
- Depositaries: United States, United Kingdom, and Russian Federation are the depositary governments.
- Membership: As of February 2025, 188 states are parties to the treaty, with 4 states having signed but not ratified, and 9 states have neither signed nor ratified.
- Review Conferences: Held every 5 years to assess the treaty’s implementation and strengthen confidence-building measures.
India and the BWC:
- India is a party to the BWC.
- India has implemented national measures and established legal frameworks to comply with the provisions of the BWC, preventing the development or use of biological weapons.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to the Biological Weapons Convention, consider the following statements:
1.It prohibits the development, production, stockpiling or use of biological and toxin weapons.
2. It has a verification mechanism to check compliance by member States.
3. It is an umbrella treaty under the aegis of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)
Why in the News?
The 20th meeting of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA-20) is currently underway in Rome.
About Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)
- The CGRFA is the only permanent intergovernmental body addressing all components of biodiversity-related to food and agriculture.
- It was established in 1983 as the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
- It operates under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
- It aims to create international consensus on managing biodiversity in food systems and ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from these genetic resources.
- Membership: 179 countries (including India) and the European Union
- Focus: Coordinates global efforts on biodiversity affecting agriculture, forestry, livestock, and aquatic species, including pollinators, soil organisms, and other vital species for food production.
Structure and Mandate
- Structure:
- Governed by a biennial session where member countries discuss and make decisions.
- A bureau, elected by member states, guides the Commission’s work.
- The CGRFA Secretariat, hosted by FAO, offers technical and logistical support.
- Mandate:
- Policy Formulation: Develops global action plans, codes of conduct, and policy instruments for sustainable use and conservation of genetic resources for food and agriculture.
- Global Assessments: Guides preparation of periodic assessments to monitor the status and trends of genetic resources and biodiversity.
- Sustainable Use of Biodiversity: Promotes biodiversity use for food security, sustainable agriculture, and climate adaptation.
- Fair and Equitable Benefit Sharing: Ensures fair distribution of benefits from genetic resources, especially plant materials under international treaties.
-
- International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA): Adopted in 2001, it recognizes farmers’ contributions to crop diversity and provides a global system for accessing plant genetic materials for breeders, farmers, and scientists.
| [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
3. The World Heritage Convention
Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UN World Water Development Report, 2025
Why in the News?
On March 21, 2025, the United Nations marked the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, and in conjunction, the United Nations World Water Development Report issued a disturbing warning about the rapid loss of glaciers.
Key Highlights of the Report:
- Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) Glacier Loss: Glaciers are melting 65% faster (2011-2020) than the previous decade, with up to 50% shrinkage by 2100 if global temperatures rise by 1.5-2°C.
- WMO’s Climate Report: The 2024 climate year was the warmest in 175 years, reinforcing the link between rising temperatures and accelerated glacier melt.
- Unprecedented Glacier Mass Loss: Over 9,000 billion tonnes of ice lost since 1975, with 450 gigatons lost in 2024 alone.
- Rising Sea Levels: Melting glaciers contribute to sea level rise, displacing 200,000 to 300,000 people annually and increasing coastal flooding risks.
- Increased Wildfires and Dust Storms: Rising wildfires and dust storms accelerate glacier melt by darkening their surfaces.
- Permafrost Thawing: Thawing permafrost releases carbon and nutrients, worsening climate change and increasing landslide risks.
- Declining Snow Cover: A 7.79% global decline in persistent snow cover from 1979-2022 affects water resources.
About World Glaciers Day
- March 21, 2025, marked the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, aimed at raising awareness about glaciers and the risks posed by their loss due to climate change.
- It was declared by the UN in its resolution A/RES/77/158 along with the International Year of Glaciers 2025.
- The day calls for governments, organizations, and individuals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adopt sustainable water management practices.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits.
2. Large deposits of ‘methane hydrate’ are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor.
3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Happiness Index
Why in the News?
India has improved its position in the World Happiness Report 2025, climbing to 118th place among 147 countries, up from 126th last year.
About the World Happiness Index (WHI)
- The WHI is part of the World Happiness Report, a global survey conducted by the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN), an initiative of the United Nations.
- The report ranks countries based on citizens’ self-reported happiness, focusing on life satisfaction and overall well-being.
- The rankings are primarily based on data gathered from the Gallup World Poll, where individuals rate their own lives on a 0-10 scale using the Cantril Ladder method.
- 6 key factors influence these evaluations:
- GDP per capita
- Healthy life expectancy
- Social support
- Freedom
- Generosity
- Perception of corruption
Key Highlights of the World Happiness Report 2025:
- Top Countries: Finland remains the happiest country for the eighth consecutive year. Denmark, Iceland, and Sweden are also in the top ranks. Costa Rica (6th) and Mexico (10th) entered the top 10 for the first time. Israel ranked 8th despite conflicts.
- Declining Happiness in Western Nations: The United States dropped to 24th, and the United Kingdom fell to 23rd, with both countries experiencing increased social isolation.
- Least Happy Countries: Afghanistan remains the least happy, with Sierra Leone and Lebanon also in the bottom three.
- India’s Improvement:
- India improved its ranking from 126th to 118th, with its happiness score rising from 4.054 to 4.389.
- Despite its economic growth, technological advancements, and improvements in healthcare and education, it continues to rank lower than its neighboring countries like Pakistan (109th).
PYQ:
[UPSC 2004] Human Development Index comprises literacy rates, life expectancy at birth and-
(a) Gross Domestic Product per head in US dollars
(b) Gross National Product per head in US dollars
(c) Purchasing Power Parity in US dollars
(d) National Income per head in US dollars |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Free Speech Index
Why in the News?
A global survey by The Future of Free Speech, a US -based think tank, has ranked India 24th out of 33 countries in terms of support for free speech.
| The right to freedom of speech and expression is guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution, allowing citizens to express their opinions freely. This right includes various forms of expression like speech, writing, art, and digital media, RTI, and even the right not to speak. However, it is subject to reasonable restrictions as outlined in Article 19(2), including security, public order, and decency. |
About the Free Speech Index
- The Future of Free Speech, an independent U.S.-based think tank released this report titled ‘Who in the World Supports Free Speech?’.
- It evaluates public attitudes towards free speech across 33 countries, highlighting trends, regional variations, and challenges to freedom of expression worldwide.
- It emphasized the decline in support for protecting controversial speech, despite strong abstract support for free speech in many countries.
India’s Ranking:
- India is ranked 24th out of 33 countries in the 2024 Global Free Speech Index, with a score of 62.6.
- While Indians generally consider free speech important, 37% of respondents support restrictions on criticizing government policies, which is the highest percentage among the surveyed countries.
- India is an exception to the general trend, as public support for free speech does not align with actual protections, pointing to increasing government restrictions on expression.
Global Highlights:
- Norway (87.9) and Denmark (87.0) lead the rankings, demonstrating strong commitment to free speech and dissent.
- Indonesia (56.8), Malaysia (55.4), and Pakistan (57.0) showed the biggest improvements, although they still ranked lower on the scale.
- Several democratic nations, including the US, Israel, and Japan, have seen a decline in free speech support since 2021.
- Countries like Hungary (85.5) and Venezuela (81.8) scored high, indicating a disconnect between government-imposed restrictions and public attitudes towards free speech.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.
[2018] Right to Privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty. Which of the following in the Constitution of India correctly and appropriately imply the above statement?
(a) Article 14 and the provisions under the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution.
(b) Article 17 and the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV.
(c) Article 21 and the freedoms guaranteed in Part III.
(d) Article 24 and the provisions under the 44th Amendment to the Constitution. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)
Why in the News?
New Zealand has expressed its willingness to join the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI).
About Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)
- India launched the IPOI at the East Asia Summit in November 2019 to promote cooperation for a free, open, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.
- The initiative aims to strengthen maritime security, stability, and development in the region by fostering multilateral engagement among Indo-Pacific nations.
- It builds on India’s Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) vision, which emphasizes the importance of collaborative efforts in regional maritime governance.
- The IPOI operates as a voluntary, non-treaty-based arrangement, relying on existing frameworks like the EAS mechanism, ensuring flexibility and adaptability in cooperation.
- The IPOI is structured around 7 key pillars, with specific countries taking the lead in each area:
- Maritime Security: UK and India
- Maritime Ecology: Australia and Thailand
- Maritime Resources: France and Indonesia
- Capacity Building and Resource Sharing: Germany
- Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: India and Bangladesh
- Science, Technology, and Academic Cooperation: Italy and Singapore
- Trade, Connectivity, and Maritime Transport: Japan and the US
Mandate of IPOI:
- The IPOI seeks to establish a rules-based regional order in the Indo-Pacific, facilitating the free movement of goods, services, and people while respecting the sovereignty of nations.
- The initiative enhances regional maritime security by fostering cooperation among countries to tackle shared challenges such as piracy, illegal fishing, smuggling, and other maritime crimes.
- IPOI aims to boost regional capacity for disaster risk reduction and management, encouraging collaboration on disaster preparedness and response, thus minimizing the effects of natural disasters.
- As a non-treaty, voluntary initiative, IPOI offers flexibility, allowing nations to participate according to common interests without adding new institutional responsibilities.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2011] The strategic significance of South-East Asia lies in its:
(a) It was the hot theatre during the Second World War.
(b) Its location between the Asian powers of China and India.,
(c) It was the arena of superpower confrontation during the Cold War period.,
(d) Its location between the Pacific and Indian Oceans and its preeminent maritime character. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Seabed Authority (ISA)
Why in the News?
The 30th Session of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has officially commenced in Kingston, Jamaica, on March 17, 2025.
About the International Seabed Authority (ISA)
- ISA is an autonomous international organization created under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1994 Agreement relating to Part XI of the UNCLOS.
- It regulates and manages mineral-resource activities in the “Area”—the seabed and ocean floor beyond national jurisdictions.
- It is headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica
- It has 168 Member States, including India, and the European Union
- Mandate:
- Regulate exploration and exploitation of deep-sea minerals.
- Protect the marine environment from harmful effects of seabed activities.
- Encourage marine scientific research and promote the sustainable use of oceans.
- The ISA manages about 54% of the world’s oceans, ensuring activities are carried out for the benefit of all humankind and to protect the marine environment.
Role in Regulating Deep-Sea Mining
The ISA is responsible for enforcing the Mining Code, which governs all mineral activities in the International Seabed Area. It includes:
- Regulation of Exploration: Grants exploration licenses for assessing mineral deposits in deep-sea areas, ensuring scientifically responsible activities.
- Environmental Protection: Sets environmental standards and ensures impact assessments before mining starts.
- Development of Mining Code: Continuously updates the Mining Code to address scientific, technological, and environmental concerns.
- Oversight and Compliance: Monitors activities of contractors and member states, ensuring regulatory compliance and environmental safeguards.
India and ISA
- In January 2024, India submitted two exploration applications in the Indian Ocean for:
- Polymetallic sulphides in the Carlsberg Ridge.
- Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount.
- India holds two active exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules and sulphides in the Central Indian Ocean Basin and Ridge.
- India seeks access to critical minerals for energy transition and technological growth, balancing economic needs with sustainable practices.
- India actively participates in Mining Code negotiations, aligning its actions with international legal standards and environmental protocols.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters
3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Criminal Court (ICC) and its jurisdiction
Why in the News?
The International Criminal Court (ICC) has taken into custody former Philippines President Rodrigo Duterte on charges of crimes against humanity, linked to his infamous “war on drugs”.
About the International Criminal Court (ICC)
- The ICC is the world’s first permanent international court established to prosecute individuals responsible for the gravest crimes of global concern.
- Founded under the Rome Statute in 1998, it became operational in 2002 and is headquartered in The Hague, Netherlands.
- The ICC has jurisdiction over 4 core international crimes:
- War crimes
- Crimes against humanity
- Genocide
- Crimes of aggression
- It has 125 member states, signatories to the Rome Statute, though major powers like India, the US, China, Russia, Israel, and Ukraine are NOT members due to concerns over sovereignty and political misuse.
- The ICC’s budget, primarily funded by member states with additional voluntary contributions, for 2025 is approximately €195 million.
- The ICC structure includes 18 judges elected for 9-year terms and an independent Office of the Prosecutor responsible for investigations and prosecutions.
- Key bodies include the Trust Fund for Victims, a Detention Centre, and the Assembly of States Parties, which oversees its administrative functions.
- The ICC lacks an enforcement mechanism and depends on member states’ cooperation for executing arrest warrants, gathering evidence, and enforcing sentences.
Reach of an ICC Warrant:
- Applicability:
- Applies to crimes committed by nationals of member states or on member state territories.
- Maintains jurisdiction over crimes committed before a state withdraws from membership.
- State Obligations:
- Member states must execute ICC arrest warrants under the Rome Statute.
- Non-compliance can lead to reporting to the Assembly of States Parties and potential escalation to the UN Security Council (UNSC).
- This applies particularly in cases involving UNSC-mandated probes, like Darfur and Libya.
- Challenges to Enforcement:
- Non-member states (e.g. US, Russia, China) are not bound by ICC warrants.
- Political considerations lead to inconsistent compliance.
- Special Mechanisms:
- In 2016, the ICC formed an Arrest Working Group to improve intelligence-sharing and warrant execution.
- Duterte Case Implications:
- Even after Philippines’ withdrawal in 2019, the ICC retains jurisdiction for crimes committed from 2011-2019.
- Duterte’s arrest highlights how domestic politics, such as the collapse of the Duterte-Marcos alliance, can influence warrant execution.
PYQ:
[2019] Consider the following statements:
1.The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute nationals of even those States that have not ratified the Rome Statute.
2. The International Criminal Court is a ‘court of last resort’ intended to complement national judicial systems.
3. The United Nations Security Council can refer a situation to the Prosecutor of the ICC even if the State concerned is not a party to the Statute.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MAHASAGAR Initiative
Why in the News?
PM Modi has unveiled ‘MAHASAGAR’ (Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth Across Regions) during his March 2025 visit to Mauritius, outlining India’s expanded vision for security and development across the Global South.
What is MAHASAGAR?
- Mahasagar is India’s expanded strategic vision aimed at enhancing security, trade, and development cooperation across the Global South.
- It builds on India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) policy, which focused on the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
- Three Core Pillars:
- Trade for Development: Enhancing economic ties through technology-sharing and trade facilitation.
- Capacity Building for Sustainable Growth: Supporting nations with infrastructure, education, and economic partnerships.
- Mutual Security for a Shared Future: Strengthening regional security, maritime cooperation, and defense ties.
- It seeks to address China’s expanding presence in the Indo-Pacific and Indian Ocean by promoting India-led cooperation models.
- It aims to position India as a champion of the Global South, amplifying their voice in global policymaking (e.g., G20, IORA, BRICS).
How Mahasagar builds on SAGAR (2015)?
- India’s SAGAR policy (2015) was a regional framework focused on maritime security and economic cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
- Mahasagar broadens this vision to global engagement with the Global South.
|
SAGAR (2015) |
Mahasagar (2025) |
| Geographic Scope |
Indian Ocean Region (IOR) |
Global South, Indo-Pacific, Africa, Latin America |
| Focus Areas |
Maritime security, economic ties, blue economy, regional stability |
Trade-driven development, technology-sharing, capacity building, global security |
| Strategic Partnerships |
Mauritius, Seychelles, Maldives, Sri Lanka, IOR countries |
Expands to Africa, ASEAN, Latin America, Pacific Island Nations |
| Security & Defense Cooperation |
Anti-piracy, maritime domain awareness, EEZ protection |
Joint naval exercises, cyber security, defense partnerships |
| Economic & Developmental Focus |
Blue economy, infrastructure, trade corridors in IOR |
Technology transfer, concessional loans, trade in local currencies |
| Diplomatic Strategy |
Regional cooperation through IORA, BIMSTEC |
Voice of the Global South in G20, BRICS, UN initiatives |
PYQ:
[2017] Consider the following in respect of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS):
1. Inaugural IONS was held in India in 2015 under the chairmanship of the Indian Navy.
2. IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase maritime co-operation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW)
Why in the News?
India’s Delegation led by Union Minister for Women and Child Developments will participate in the 69th session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW).
About United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW):
|
Details |
| Establishment and Mandate |
- Founded in 1946 by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) through Resolution 11(II).
- Initially focused on women’s political, economic, civil, social, and educational rights.
- Expanded in 1996 to include monitoring the Beijing Declaration and integrating gender perspectives into UN activities.
|
| Structure and Membership |
- Composed of 45 member states elected by ECOSOC based on geographical representation.
- 13 from Africa, 11 from Asia, 9 from Latin America and the Caribbean, 8 from Western Europe and other States, 4 from Eastern Europe.
- Members serve a four-year term.
|
| Key Roles and Responsibilities |
- Policy Formulation: Establishes global norms and standards for gender equality.
- Monitoring Progress: Reviews gender-related commitments, including the Beijing Declaration.
- Advocacy and Awareness: Conducts research, publishes reports, and promotes women’s rights globally.
- Collaboration: Works with UN entities, NGOs, and civil society organizations to strengthen gender equality.
|
| Major Contributions |
Drafted key conventions like:
- Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1953)
- Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (1957)
- Convention on Consent to Marriage (1962)
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (1979).
- Influenced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
- Led preparatory work for the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing (1995).
|
| Annual Sessions and Key Themes |
- Held annually at UN Headquarters, New York.
- Engages member states, NGOs, and UN agencies in discussions on gender-related policies.
|
PYQ:
[2009] With reference to the United Nations, consider the following statements:
- The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of UN consists of 24 member States.
- It is elected by a 2/3rd majority of the General Assembly for a 3-year term.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3)
Why in the News?
India launched the Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3), a multi-nation alliance for city-to-city collaboration, knowledge-sharing, and private sector partnerships for sustainable urban development.
What is the Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3)?
- The C-3 is a multi-nation alliance launched by India at the 12th Regional 3R and Circular Economy Forum in Asia and the Pacific in Jaipur.
- It aims to facilitate city-to-city collaboration, knowledge-sharing, and private sector partnerships to promote circular economy principles and sustainable urban development.
- It is led by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (India), United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD), and the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES).
- The forum will adopt the Jaipur Declaration (2025-2034), which is a non-political, non-binding commitment that will guide efforts towards resource efficiency and sustainable urban growth in the next decade.
Key Features of C-3:
- Supported by International Organizations: Backed by UNESCAP, Japan’s Ministry of Environment, and other global partners.
- Circular Economy Focus: Encourages reuse, recycling, remanufacturing, and composting to reduce waste.
- Global Collaboration: Involves local governments, private sector actors, and academia to drive policy and innovation.
- Integration with SDGs: Aligns with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those related to climate action and responsible consumption.
PYQ:
[2018] “Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is the sine qua non to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)”. Comment on the progress made in India in this regard. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cali Fund
Why in the News?
A new international biodiversity fund, the ‘Cali Fund’, was launched at the 16th Conference of Parties (COP16) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Rome.
What is the Cali Fund?
- The Cali Fund is an international biodiversity financing mechanism launched on February 25, 2025, at COP16 of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Rome.
- It collects funds from private companies that utilize Digital Sequence Information (DSI) from nature in their businesses.
- The fund supports biodiversity conservation, scientific research, and indigenous communities.
Key Features of the Cali Fund:
- Funding Source: Businesses using genetic data (DSI) from plants, animals, and microorganisms will contribute financially.
- Utilization of Funds:
- 50% allocated to indigenous and local biodiversity projects.
- Supports scientific research and developing nations’ biodiversity action plans.
- Global Management: Managed by UNDP and UNEP, with MPTFO handling finances.
- Alignment with Global Goals: Supports Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) to reverse biodiversity loss by 2030.
- First-of-Its-Kind: Direct private sector contributions to a global UN biodiversity fund.
What is Digital Sequence Information (DSI)?
- DSI refers to genetic data extracted from plants, animals, and microorganisms.
- Used extensively in industries such as:
- Pharmaceuticals (medicine development).
- Cosmetics (natural ingredient research).
- Agriculture (crop improvement, pest resistance).
- Biotechnology (genetic engineering, bioinformatics).
|
About the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
- The CBD, with 196 contracting parties, stands as the most comprehensive international agreement focused on nature conservation and the sustainable use of natural resources.
- It was opened for signing at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro.
- The CBD has 3 main objectives:
- Conservation of biological diversity (including genetic, species, and habitat diversity).
- Sustainable use of biological diversity.
- Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
- It addresses biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
- The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the CBD’s governing body, and it meets biennially to assess progress, set priorities, and develop action plans.
- The Secretariat of the CBD is located in Montreal, Canada.
- To further its goals, the CBD includes two binding protocols:
- The Cartagena Protocol (2000), which regulates the transboundary movement of living modified organisms (LMOs) and came into force in 2003.
- The Nagoya Protocol (2010), which provides a legal framework for the access to genetic resources and the fair sharing of benefits from their use.
PYQ:
[2014] With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are correct?
(a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’
(b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental issues at global level
(c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer of technology and funds to underdeveloped countries with specific aim to protect their environment.
(d) Both A and B |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BOBP-IGO
Why in the News?
India has taken over the Chairmanship of the Bay of Bengal (BOB) Inter-Governmental Organisation from Bangladesh at the 13th Governing Council Meeting in Male, Maldives.
What is BOBP-IGO?
- BOBP-IGO is a regional fisheries body promoting sustainable fisheries management and improving the livelihoods of small-scale fishers in the Bay of Bengal region.
- It was established in 2003 and is headquartered in Chennai.
- It evolved from the Bay of Bengal Programme (BoBP), which was launched in 1979 under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
- Members:
- Full Members: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Sri Lanka.
- Cooperating Non-Contracting Parties: Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand.
- Objectives: Enhance marine fisheries management, build fisher capacities, promote policy cooperation, and combat Illegal, Unreported & Unregulated (IUU) fishing.
Significance of India’s Chairmanship in BOBP-IGO
- India will lead policies for sustainable fisheries management and marine conservation across member nations.
- This would strengthen monitoring, surveillance, and enforcement to prevent overfishing and illegal activities.
- It will facilitate collaboration among member nations, exchange best practices, and integrate advanced technology in fisheries.
- It would promote scientific research, innovation, and economic growth while reinforcing India’s influence in the Indian Ocean Region.
PYQ:
[2022] Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation? |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SOUL Conclave
Why in the News?
Prime Minister inaugurated the first edition of the School of Ultimate Leadership (SOUL) Leadership Conclave at Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi.
Bhutan’s PM Tshering Tobgay was the keynote speaker, emphasizing India’s leadership role in shaping governance and public service.
What is the SOUL Leadership Conclave?
- The SOUL Leadership Conclave (School of Ultimate Leadership Conclave) is a premier leadership summit inaugurated by PM Modi.
- It is aimed at cultivating transformational leaders beyond traditional political hierarchies.
- The event is designed to bring together leaders from diverse sectors, including politics, business, sports, media, spirituality, and public policy, to share their insights and experiences on leadership.
- The conclave serves as the foundation for the upcoming SOUL Leadership Institution, an exclusive leadership training academy in Gandhinagar, Gujarat.
Key Features of SOUL Conclave:
- Multi-Sector Leadership: Brings together leaders from various fields to promote cross-sector collaboration and knowledge-sharing.
- Training & Development: Focuses on nurturing ethical and globally competent leaders, beyond traditional political dynasties.
- SOUL Leadership Institute: A 22-acre, ₹150 crore campus is being developed in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, for formal leadership training.
- Global Leadership Insights: Discusses policymaking, governance, and leadership challenges with national and international leaders.
- Strengthening India’s Leadership Pipeline: Aims to train future leaders in governance, economics, diplomacy, and innovation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Corruption Perceptions Index, 2024
Why in the News?
India has ranked 96 out of 180 countries in the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) 2024, released by Transparency International on February 11, 2025.
About the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), 2024
- The CPI is an annual ranking published by Transparency International, assessing public sector corruption perceptions across 180 countries and territories.
- The CPI score ranges from 0 to 100:
- 0 = Highly Corrupt
- 100 = Very Clean
- The index is based on expert analysis and business surveys from reputable institutions such as the World Bank and World Economic Forum.
- It highlights trends in corruption levels worldwide, enabling comparisons between countries and regions.
Significance of the CPI:
- The CPI helps assess the effectiveness of anti-corruption policies across countries.
- Corruption affects foreign investment, ease of doing business, and economic growth.
- The CPI 2024 emphasizes corruption as a major threat to climate action.
- Funds for climate mitigation and adaptation are often misused, delaying environmental progress.
- Countries with low scores face pressure to strengthen anti-corruption laws.
India’s Ranking in CPI, 2024:
- Overall Performance:
- India ranked 96 out of 180 countries, with a CPI score of 38 (dropping from 39 in 2023 and 40 in 2022).
- The decline highlights ongoing governance challenges, enforcement gaps, and institutional corruption issues.
- Comparison with Other Countries:
- China (76), Sri Lanka (121), Pakistan (135), and Bangladesh (149) ranked below India.
- Denmark remains the least corrupt nation, while over two-thirds of countries scored below 50, indicating widespread corruption.
- Challenges & Areas for Improvement:
- Weak enforcement of anti-corruption laws, regulatory loopholes, and opacity in political funding remain concerns.
- Strengthening institutional accountability, judicial independence, and transparency in governance is essential.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to the ‘Prohibition of Benami Property Transactions Act, 1988 (PBPT Act)’, consider the following statements:
- A property transaction is not treated as a benami transaction if the owner of the property is not aware of the transaction.
- Properties held benami are liable for confiscation by the Government.
- The Act provides for three authorities for investigations but does not provide for any appellate mechanism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 3 only |
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