Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 2+2 Dialogues Format
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Indian Defence Minister and External Affairs Minister recently hosted their US counterparts for the fifth annual 2+2 Ministerial Dialogue in New Delhi.
Understanding 2+2 Dialogues
- Purpose: 2+2 dialogues involve the participation of high-level representatives, typically the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Defence, from two nations. This format aims to expand the scope of dialogue and collaboration between these countries.
- Rationale: Such dialogues enable comprehensive discussions on strategic concerns, mutual sensitivities, and political factors. They facilitate a deeper understanding of each other’s geopolitical perspectives and contribute to the development of stronger, more integrated strategic relationships in an ever-changing global environment.
India’s 2+2 Partners
- United States: The United States is India’s foremost and oldest partner in the 2+2 format. The inaugural 2+2 dialogue took place in September 2018 during the Trump Administration.
- Australia: India engages in 2+2 meetings with Australia, further enhancing bilateral security and defence cooperation.
- Japan: The 2+2 talks with Japan commenced in 2019, with the objective of bolstering strategic depth in security and defence cooperation.
- United Kingdom: In October 2023, India initiated its first 2+2 dialogue with the United Kingdom, signifying the growing importance of this partnership.
- Russia: India and Russia also engage in 2+2 dialogues, fostering a mutually beneficial understanding on various regional and international issues.
Significance of 2+2 Dialogues
- Defence and Strategic Agreements: These dialogues have led to significant bilateral agreements and partnerships. India and the United States, for instance, have signed Troika Pacts like:
- Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA)
- Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA)
- Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) for deep military cooperation.
- Addressing Regional Concerns: In the face of common regional concerns, such as China’s increasing assertiveness, 2+2 dialogues have become vital mechanisms for India and its partners to align their strategic interests. This includes cooperation within the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) forum with Japan, Australia, and the United States.
- Expanding Traditional Alliances: India also values its 2+2 dialogues with Russia, acknowledging shared worldviews and goals in promoting a multipolar world order.
Conclusion
- India’s participation in 2+2 Ministerial Dialogues with key global partners underscores its commitment to fostering robust and multifaceted strategic relationships.
- These dialogues are pivotal in addressing regional and global challenges, strengthening military cooperation, and promoting shared interests in a dynamic world order.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Loss and Damage Fund (LDF)
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- In the escalating climate crisis, the terms “adaptation” and “loss and damage” (L&D) have taken center stage.
- While the concept was embraced at COP 27, recent meetings of the Transitional Committee (TC) to operationalize the fund have encountered major roadblocks.
Birth of the L&D Fund
- Historic Pollution Accountability: The call for affluent nations to acknowledge their historical pollution accountability dates back over 30 years.
- COP 19 Agreement: In 2013, at COP 19 in Warsaw, Poland, member countries formalized the creation of the L&D fund. It aimed to provide financial and technical support to economically developing nations grappling with L&D due to climate change.
- Subsequent Developments: COP 25 introduced the Santiago Network for L&D, and COP 26 established the Glasgow Dialogue on finance for L&D. COP 27 in November 2022 saw the creation of the L&D fund and a Transitional Committee (TC) tasked with operationalizing the fund.
Challenges in Creation of the L&D Fund
- Contentious Issues: TC meetings have grappled with contentious issues such as hosting the fund at the World Bank, the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), climate reparations, and eligibility criteria for developing nations.
- Developed vs. Developing Nations: These disagreements have deepened the divide between developed and developing nations, hampering progress.
Outcome of TC4 and TC5 Meetings
- TC4 Impasse: The fourth meeting of the TC concluded without a consensus on how to operationalize the L&D fund, reflecting divisions on key issues.
- TC5 Draft Recommendations: An impromptu fifth meeting of the TC led to draft recommendations forwarded to COP 28. Developing nations conceded to the fund being hosted by the World Bank temporarily, but developed nations, including the U.S., remained non-committal regarding primary donor status and rejected references to CBDR, equity, and liability in the draft.
- Lack of Clarity: The draft does not specify the fund’s size due to pressure from certain developed nations.
A blow to climate multilateralism
- Erosion of Trust: The outcome underscores a severe trust deficit between affluent and emerging economies concerning historical responsibilities, deepening the rift between wealthy and impoverished nations.
- Failure to Fulfill Commitments: The unwillingness of wealthy nations to fulfill intended commitments undermines global climate negotiations, cooperation, and climate justice.
- Humanitarian Consequences: The watering down of the L&D fund can lead to humanitarian crises, food shortages, displacement, conflict, and exacerbate the suffering of vulnerable communities.
- Economic and Environmental Impact: It also has economic consequences, with potential financial crises and environmental degradation, exacerbating global economic instability.
- Security Implications: Climate-induced instability may lead to security implications as conflicts emerge in vulnerable nations, threatening to spill across borders.
L&D as Part of Climate Justice
- Balancing Adaptation and L&D: Adaptation and L&D are not mutually exclusive but coexist on the continuum of climate resilience.
- Moral and Financial Responsibility: Addressing L&D is a moral and financial responsibility of affluent nations, ensuring climate justice, equity, and solidarity.
- Global Climate Action: Failure to meet these obligations can derail global climate action, adding pressure to future COP talks.
Conclusion
- The protracted impasse surrounding the Loss and Damage fund reflects a troubling lack of consensus and trust between nations, hindering climate justice and cooperation.
- As the world grapples with the consequences of climate change, balancing adaptation and addressing L&D remains paramount.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IPMDA Initiative, QUAD
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- The Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) initiative, recently unveiled by the Quad grouping (India, Australia, Japan, and the U.S.), underscores a shared commitment to uphold a free, open, inclusive, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.
What is IPMDA Initiative?
- IPMDA Initiative was announced at the Quad Leaders’ Summit in Tokyo, 2022.
- It primarily aims to track dark shipping.
- Dark ships are vessels with their Automatic Identification System (AIS) – a transponder system – switched off so as not to be detectable.
- It focuses on tracking other tactical-level activities: to respond to climate and humanitarian events and to protect their fisheries, which are vital to many Indo-Pacific economies.
Significance of IPMDA for India
- IPMDA represents a substantial effort to bolster security and stability in the Indo-Pacific, a region of paramount global geopolitical significance.
- India’s Navy, currently possessing over 140 ships and submarines, is on course to achieve a formidable fleet of 170 to 180 vessels by 2028.
Lessons from Recent Events
- Recent global events, including the border standoff with China in eastern Ladakh, conflicts in Ukraine, and turmoil in West Asia, underscore the need for resilience and readiness in the face of uncertainties.
- Indian Navy recognizes the importance of integrated joint operations and a holistic approach to national defense, and a well-coordinated defense strategy involving all three Services.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bletchley Park Declaration
Mains level: Global consensus building on AI Regulation
Central Idea
- The recent AI Safety Summit held at Bletchley Park, the historic site of World War II code-breakers, brought together nations, computer scientists, and tech leaders to address the challenges and opportunities posed by artificial intelligence (AI).
- India, a significant participant alongside countries like the US, UK, and China, played a pivotal role in shaping the global AI governance landscape.
Bletchley Park Declaration
- Global Agreement: The Bletchley Park Declaration aims to establish a shared understanding of the risks and opportunities posed by “frontier AI.”
- Partners: The summit led to a groundbreaking agreement signed by 28 major countries, including India, the US, China, and the European Union.
- Frontier AI Defined: Frontier AI refers to highly advanced generative AI models with potentially dangerous capabilities that can pose significant risks to public safety.
India’s Stance
- Global Action: India emphasized the importance of international cooperation to address AI risks effectively, aligning with the views of other participating nations.
- Prioritizing Safety and Trust: Indian Minister of State for IT, Rajeev Chandrasekhar, highlighted the need to ensure that AI represents safety and trust. India’s perspective has evolved from initially hesitating to regulate AI to actively formulating risk-based regulations.
- Global Framework: India’s PM had earlier called for a global framework on “ethical” AI tools, signalling a shift towards proactive regulation.
Global Opinion on AI Governance
- Diverse Responses: The AI policy response varies across nations. The EU has proposed a comprehensive AI Act, while the UK adopts a “light-touch” approach to foster innovation. The US positions itself between these extremes, focusing on safety and ethics.
- Regulatory Scrutiny: Policymakers worldwide have increased regulatory scrutiny of generative AI tools, prompted by concerns related to privacy, bias, and intellectual property rights.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 1951 Refugee Convention
Mains level: Refugee crisis in the world
Central Idea
- Pakistan’s government has recently implemented an order mandating the expulsion of all foreigners, with a significant impact on Afghan refugees, the largest refugee group in Pakistan.
- This move has raised questions about the fate of Afghan migrants returning to a country facing numerous challenges, including a collapsed economy, natural disasters, food insecurity, and human rights issues under Taliban rule.
Afghan Refugees in Pakistan
- Historical Background: Afghan refugees have sought shelter in Pakistan since the late 1970s, primarily due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Subsequently, they fled during the Afghan civil war in the 1990s and the Taliban regime’s rule.
- Afghan Refugee Population: Pakistan is home to over 4 million Afghans, with an estimated 1.7 million lacking proper documentation.
- Deportation Deadline: The government set a deadline of October 31 for illegal migrants to leave Pakistan, after which they would face arrest and expulsion.
- Deportation Process: Hours before the deadline, authorities began rounding up undocumented migrants, demolishing some homes to compel them to leave.
- Border Crossings: Thousands of Afghans crossed into Afghanistan through border crossings, including Torkham and Chaman.
Reasons for Deportation
- Economic Concerns: Pakistan cites economic strain as a key reason for deportation, asserting that undocumented migrants who do not pay taxes strain its limited resources.
- Security Concerns: Authorities claim that Afghan migrants have been involved in terror attacks, street crimes, and organized crimes like drug trafficking. They are accused of participating in attacks against the government and the army.
- Political Timing: The deportation coincides with Pakistan’s caretaker government, insulating it from potential political or electoral repercussions.
Refugee Convention,1951
- The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees is one of the cornerstone instruments of refugee protection. It defines who a refugee is and outlines their rights and responsibilities.
- It also provides a non-refoulement principle, which prohibits states from returning refugees to a country where they would face persecution.
- The 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees expanded the geographic scope of the 1951 Convention and removed the temporal and geographic limitations, making the Convention universally applicable.
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Challenges for Returnees
- Uncertain Future: Afghan migrants returning to Afghanistan face an uncertain future amid economic collapse, earthquakes, food shortages, and human rights violations under Taliban rule.
- Education and Employment: Women and girls returning to Afghanistan may be denied education and job opportunities.
- US-Affiliated Migrants: Those who worked for the US before the Taliban’s takeover are particularly vulnerable.
Taliban’s Response
- Criticism and Request for Time: The Taliban has criticized the deportations and asked for more time to prepare for the returnees.
- Humanitarian Efforts: Afghan authorities are establishing temporary camps near the border to provide food, shelter, healthcare, and SIM cards to returnees. The Taliban has expressed a willingness to assist them in finding jobs.
Conclusion
- This deportation is a contentious move driven by economic and security concerns.
- The international community, including the Taliban, is grappling with the challenges posed by this situation, particularly as winter approaches and Afghanistan faces additional hardships.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Commerce and Industry Minister has strongly criticized the European Union’s (EU) proposed Carbon Tax on imports, deeming it “ill-conceived” and warning of potential consequences for the EU’s manufacturing sector.
- He asserted that even if the plan, set to take effect in 2026, proceeds, India will counter it by imposing its own carbon tax.
What is the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?
| Proposed by |
European Union (EU) |
| Purpose |
To reduce carbon emissions from imported goods and prevent competitive disadvantage against countries with weaker environmental regulations |
| Objectives |
Reduce carbon emissions from imported goods
Promote a level playing field between the EU and its trading partners
Protect EU companies that have invested in green technologies |
How does CBAM work?
| Coverage |
Applies to imported goods that are carbon-intensive |
| Integration |
Covered by the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS), which currently covers industries like power generation, steel, and cement |
| Implementation |
CBAM taxes would be imposed on the carbon content of imported goods at the border, and the tax rates would be based on the carbon price in the EU ETS |
| Exemptions |
Possible exemptions for countries that have implemented comparable carbon pricing systems |
| Revenue Use |
Revenue generated from CBAM taxes could be used to fund the EU’s climate objectives, such as financing climate-friendly investments and supporting developing countries’ climate efforts |
Who will be affected by CBAM?
|
Details |
| Countries |
Non-EU countries, including India, that export carbon-intensive goods to the EU |
| Items |
Initially covers iron and steel, cement, aluminium, fertilisers, and electric energy production |
| Expansion |
The scope of the CBAM may expand to other sectors in the future |
Advantages offered
- Encourages non-EU countries to adopt more stringent environmental regulations, reducing global carbon emissions.
- Prevents carbon leakage by discouraging companies from relocating to countries with weaker environmental regulations.
- Generates revenue that could be used to support EU climate policies.
Challenges with CBAM
- Difficulty in accurately measuring the carbon emissions of imported goods, especially for countries without comprehensive carbon accounting systems.
- Potential for trade tensions with the EU’s trading partners, especially if other countries implement retaliatory measures.
Consequences for EU Manufacturing
- Auto Sector Impact: The minister suggested that the European auto sector could be one of the first casualties, particularly affecting steel and aluminum usage.
- Opportunity for India: Goyal saw this as an opportunity for India to develop a robust auto sector, leveraging cost advantages in the global market.
India’s Response and Carbon Tax Strategy
- Counteractive Measures: India intends to neutralize the impact of the EU’s carbon tax by imposing its own.
- Investing in Green Energy: Revenue from the Indian carbon tax would be channelled into the country’s green energy transition, which, indirectly, could help exporters transition to cleaner energy and reduce their carbon footprint.
- Negotiations with EU: The government is engaged in dialogues with EU counterparts regarding the levy’s fairness and pricing disparities.
Conclusion
- The EU’s proposed Carbon Tax and India’s counterstrategy highlight the complexities of international trade, environmental concerns, and the potential consequences for various industries.
- India’s strong stance underscores its commitment to safeguarding its economic interests while engaging in constructive negotiations with the EU to ensure a fair and mutually beneficial outcome.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UNGA Resolutions
Mains level: India's stance on Palestinian War
Central Idea
- The recent United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) vote on a resolution calling for an immediate humanitarian truce in the Israel-Hamas conflict saw India abstaining from the vote.
What are UNGA Resolutions?
|
UNGA Resolutions and Voting |
| What is it? |
Cover diverse global issues, including disarmament, climate change, and humanitarian aid. |
| Types |
Include regular, consensus (adopted without a vote), and procedural resolutions. |
| Who can initiate? |
Originates from member states, UN committees, or regional groups after negotiations and debates. |
| Nature of Enforcement |
Non-binding but hold moral and political influence on member states and UN bodies. |
| Significance |
Shape international norms, public opinion, and state behavior despite lacking legal enforcement. |
| Features of UNGA Resolutions |
Discussed and adopted during annual sessions, with possible special sessions when required. |
| Equal Voting Rights |
Each member state has an equal vote, ensuring equality regardless of size or influence. |
| Majority Requirements |
Typically adopted with a two-thirds majority of present and voting member states (e.g., 128 votes if all 193 are present). |
| Varied Majority Types |
Some require a simple majority, while others, like UN Charter amendments, need a two-thirds majority of all member states. |
| Abstentions |
Member states can abstain, signifying neutrality without supporting or opposing. |
| Challenges and Divisions |
Resolutions may face opposition or receive no votes, leading to international discussions and divisions. |
Resolution over Israel-Hamas War
- The resolution, titled “Protection of civilians and upholding legal and humanitarian obligations,” was proposed by Jordan on behalf of the Arab League and co-sponsored by approximately 40 countries.
- It called for an immediate humanitarian truce, cessation of hostilities, and unhindered humanitarian access to Gaza.
- However, it did not specifically refer to the cowardly terror attacks by Hamas, which resulted in numerous Israeli casualties and hostages.
- Ultimately, the resolution passed with 120 votes in favor, 14 against (including US and UK), and 45 abstentions, with India among the abstaining nations.
India’s Abstinent
- India defended its abstention by citing the absence of “explicit condemnation” of the October 7 terror attacks in Israel in the resolution.
- Since India’s concerns regarding these omissions were not addressed in the final text of the resolution, abstaining was the chosen course of action.
- The government emphasized that there should be no ambiguity when it comes to condemning terrorism and that its position on this matter remains “steadfast and consistent.”
- Key elements of India’s statement include-
- Condemnation of violence, including the October 7 attacks by Hamas.
- Acknowledgement of the humanitarian crisis in Gaza and support for international de-escalation efforts.
- Concern about the security situation and a call for all parties to exercise restraint.
- Reiteration of India’s support for a negotiated two-state solution in the Israel-Palestine issue.
- Encouragement for diplomacy and dialogue to create conditions for peace negotiations.
Why so furore over India’s action?
- India’s abstention differed from its previous vote in favour of a UNGA resolution calling for a ceasefire in Gaza in 2018 and other similar votes in the past.
- Opposition parties in India criticized the government for refusing to take a stronger stand on the humanitarian issue.
- They argued that India’s abstention stood alone among countries in the Global South, South Asia, and BRICS, all of which had voted in favour of the resolution.
Significance of India’s action
- Balanced Position: India’s abstention mirrors its approach to other global conflicts, such as the Russia-Ukraine war, where it seeks to maintain a diplomatic balance between opposing sides.
- Not Legally Binding: Unlike UN Security Council resolutions, UNGA resolutions are not legally binding, meaning that Israel and the US are not obligated to act on it.
- Weight and Moral Authority: Despite its non-binding nature, the resolution carries significant moral weight, with 120 votes in favour signifying support for international law and proportionate use of force.
- India’s Principled Stand: India reiterated its support for a negotiated two-state solution to the Israel-Palestine issue and called for diplomacy and dialogue to resolve the conflict.
Conclusion
- India’s abstention in the recent UN General Assembly vote reflects its balanced and nuanced approach to international conflicts.
- While it has drawn criticism from some quarters, it underscores India’s commitment to principles of diplomacy and its focus on a negotiated resolution to complex global issues.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ISA, Solar Stocktake
Mains level: Solar Energy Transition
Central Idea
- The International Solar Alliance (ISA), a coalition of 116 member nations committed to advancing global solar technology adoption, is set to unveil its inaugural ‘global solar stock-take report.’
- This initiative is inspired by the United Nations’ inaugural ‘Global Stocktake’ event, slated for Dubai later this year.
About International Solar Alliance (ISA)
- The ISA is an alliance of more than 121 countries, most of them being sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
- It is headquartered in Gurugram, India.
- The primary objective of the alliance is to work for efficient exploitation of solar energy to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
- The alliance is a treaty-based inter-governmental organization.
- The initiative was launched by PM Modi at the India Africa Summit and a meeting of member countries ahead of the 2015 UN Climate Change Conference in Paris in November 2015.
ISA’s Solar Stocktake
- First-Ever Report: The ISA’s ‘solar stocktake’ report marks a historic endeavor, with its release scheduled for mid-November.
- Assessing Progress: The report will comprehensively evaluate the strides made by nations in the adoption of solar energy.
- Global Solar Investment: Notably, investments in solar energy have surged, reaching nearly $300 billion in 2020 and approximately $380 billion in 2022. However, there is significant manufacturing concentration in China.
- Diversifying Solar Manufacturing: The ISA aims to explore strategies for diversifying solar manufacturing beyond China.
ISA’s Commitment to Solar Expansion
- Leadership: The ISA, co-led by India and France, is gearing up for its sixth annual meeting, scheduled in Delhi.
- Africa Solar Focus: One of the ISA’s primary objectives is to expand solar installations in Africa. To facilitate this, the Global Solar Facility (GSF) has been established.
- Global Solar Facility (GSF): The GSF consists of three funds: a payment guarantee fund, an insurance fund to mitigate project risks, and an investment fund for technical assistance.
- Expanding to Other Regions: Following its work in Africa, the ISA aims to extend its efforts to West Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
Global Solar Energy Landscape
- Growing Solar Capacity: As of 2022, global solar photovoltaic installations reached 1,133 gigawatts (GW), with an impressive addition of 191 GW in 2022.
- Chinese Dominance: China, despite not being an ISA member, accounts for nearly a quarter of global solar installations, at around 350 GW. The United States, an ISA member, follows with 111 GW. India, also an ISA member, ranks among the top five countries globally, with 62 GW of solar capacity.
Conclusion
- The ISA’s ‘solar stocktake’ report represents a significant milestone in the global push for solar energy adoption.
- As the world grapples with the imperative to transition to renewable energy sources, this initiative offers insights into progress and challenges.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: United Nations, League of Nations
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- On this day in 1945, the United Nations (UN) was established amid a backdrop of global turmoil, emerging from the shadows of two devastating world wars.
- This article traces the birth of the UN, its historical evolution, and highlights both its notable achievements and challenges.
Birth of the UN
- Post-World War Turmoil: Following the devastation of both World War I and World War II, global powers were grappling with the need for a more effective international organization to prevent future conflicts.
- Predecessor: The League of Nations, established in 1919 after World War I, laid the foundation for the UN’s creation but faltered during World War II.
- The Atlantic Charter: In August 1941, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and UK PM Winston Churchill issued the Atlantic Charter, an affirmation that paved the way for the UN. It articulated shared principles for a better world.
- Birth of the Term ‘UN’: The term ‘UN’ was first coined by President Roosevelt in 1941 to identify the Allied nations against the axis powers.
- Declaration of the UN: On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 Allied nations gathered in Washington DC to sign the Declaration of the UN, outlining the war objectives of the Allied powers. India, under British colonial rule, was among these nations.
Inception and Charter
- Formation and Ratification: The UN officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, with ratification by 51 nations, including five permanent members (France, Republic of China, Soviet Union, UK, and US).
- General Assembly Inauguration: The first meeting of the General Assembly took place on January 10, 1946.
- UN’s Core Goals: The UN was founded on four key goals: maintaining international peace and security, fostering friendly relations among nations, promoting international cooperation in problem-solving, and coordinating global actions toward common objectives.
Evolution and Impact
- Membership Growth: Initially comprised of 51 member states, the UN’s membership expanded as independence movements and decolonization unfolded. Today, it boasts 193 member countries.
- Broadened Scope: Over 75 years, the UN has tackled numerous global issues, including health, environment, and women’s empowerment.
Achievements of the UN
- Peace and Security: Prevented conflicts, mediated peace agreements, and conducted peacekeeping missions in places like Bosnia and Kosovo.
- Humanitarian Aid: Provided vital aid through agencies like WFP and UNICEF, offering food, shelter, and healthcare during crises.
- Human Rights: Established the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and monitors violations globally through mechanisms like the Human Rights Council.
- Health: Led efforts against diseases like smallpox and HIV/AIDS through WHO, addressing current threats like COVID-19.
- Refugee Support: UNHCR aids refugees and internally displaced persons while advocating for their rights.
- Environmental Advocacy: Raised awareness about climate change, negotiated the Paris Agreement, and promotes sustainability via UNEP.
Failures and Criticisms of the UN
- Genocide Prevention: Failed to prevent genocides like Rwanda and Srebrenica despite early warnings.
- Peacekeeping Challenges: Faced issues like misconduct allegations and difficulties in halting violence in missions like South Sudan.
- Veto Powers: Criticized for Security Council veto powers that hinder action and maintain power imbalances.
- Enforcement Limits: Reliant on member states for enforcement, leading to limited action in cases of non-compliance, as seen in the Iraq War.
- Lack of Representation: Critiqued for underrepresenting Global South countries in key decision-making bodies.
- Neoliberal Influence: Accused of promoting neoliberal economic policies, which can exacerbate inequalities, through associated organizations like the World Bank and IMF.
Future Plan
- 2020 Declaration: In a high-level UN General Assembly meeting commemorating 75 years of the UN, a declaration was adopted outlining goals for the next decade. These include protecting the environment, promoting peace, gender equality, digital cooperation, and sustainable financing.
- Decade of Action: The next ten years, designated as the “decade of action and delivery for sustainable development,” are considered critical for addressing global challenges, especially in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Conclusion
- The UN, born out of the ashes of conflict, has played a significant role in shaping the world’s course over the past 75 years.
- Its journey has been marked by both notable achievements and formidable challenges.
- As it enters a new decade with a renewed commitment to global betterment, the UN continues to evolve as a pivotal force in promoting international cooperation and addressing humanity’s most pressing issues.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Tax Evasion Report
Mains level: Call for tax on billionaires
Central Idea
- The release of the ‘Global Tax Evasion Report’ marks a pivotal moment in the global fight against tax evasion.
- This report serves as a comprehensive analysis of the state of global taxation and its implications.
About Global Tax Evasion Report
- The ‘Global Tax Evasion Report’ is compiled by the EU Tax Observatory, a research institution specializing in international tax matters, established in 2021.
- This inaugural edition of the report is the result of collaborative efforts involving over 100 researchers from across the globe, working alongside tax authorities.
- It represents the first systematic attempt to analyze available data in the field of taxation.
Global Minimum Tax for MNCs
- Established in October 2021 by 136 countries, including India, setting a 15% global minimum tax rate for MNCs.
- Major economies are aiming to discourage multinational companies from shifting profits – and tax revenues – to low-tax countries regardless of where their sales are made.
|
Tax Haven
A tax haven is a foreign country or corporation used to avoid or reduce income taxes, especially by investors from another country. A tax haven is a country or place that has a low rate of tax so that people choose to live there or register companies there in order to avoid paying higher tax in their own countries. |
Key Findings of the GTE Report
The report uncovers the following pivotal findings:
- Reduction in Offshore Tax Evasion: Wealthy individuals’ offshore tax evasion has significantly declined over the past decade, primarily due to the automatic exchange of bank information, resulting in a three-fold reduction in evasion.
- Profit Shifting to Tax Havens: MNCs shifted approximately $1 trillion to tax havens in 2022, accounting for 35% of their global profits. This has led to a substantial loss in global corporate tax revenues, impacting approximately 10% of total collections, with U.S. multinationals playing a prominent role.
- Global Minimum Tax Impact: The expected positive impact of the 15% global minimum tax rate on MNCs has been weakened by various loopholes.
- Low Taxation for Billionaires: Billionaires globally often experience effective tax rates ranging from 0% to 0.5% of their wealth, utilizing shell companies to evade income taxes.
- Aggressive Tax Competition: New forms of aggressive tax competition have emerged, eroding government revenues and exacerbating inequality.
Proposed solutions
- Empowering ‘Automatic Exchange of Bank Information’: Launched in 2017 to combat offshore tax evasion by affluent individuals. Facilitated the sharing of deposit information with foreign tax authorities.
- Global Minimum Tax on Billionaires: Proposes a 2% global minimum tax on billionaires, mirroring the model for MNCs, ensuring minimum tax rates for the wealthiest individuals.
- Strengthening Global Minimum Tax for MNCs: Advocates for reinforcing the global minimum tax for MNCs while eliminating existing loopholes, potentially augmenting global corporate tax revenues by $250 billion annually.
- Fair Allocation of Additional Revenues: Proposes mechanisms for equitable distribution of additional tax revenues generated by these measures among countries.
Conclusion
- The GTE report illuminates substantial progress in curbing tax evasion while underscoring persistent challenges and reform opportunities.
- The proposed solutions aim to foster international collaboration in addressing tax-related issues and promoting fiscal equity on a global scale.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vienna Convention
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The India-Canada crisis took a fresh turn as 41 diplomats were withdrawn from the country.
- India insisted that its actions are consistent with the tenets set forth in Article 11.1 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.
What is the Vienna Convention?
- The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations is an international treaty signed by 61 countries in 1961.
- It puts forth a framework for diplomatic interactions between independent nations and aims to ensure the ‘development of friendly relations among nations’.
- At present 193 countries are party to the document including India.
Key Features
|
Explanation |
| Diplomatic Immunity (Articles 29 to 36) |
- Diplomats and their families are granted immunity from the jurisdiction of the host country’s legal system for their official actions.
- Extends to criminal and civil matters and ensures that diplomats cannot be prosecuted or sued in the host country’s courts.
|
| Inviolability of Diplomatic Premises (Articles 22 to 27) |
- Diplomatic premises, such as embassies and consulates, are considered inviolable.
- They cannot be entered or searched by the host country’s authorities without the permission of the sending state.
|
| Non-Interference (Article 41) |
- Diplomatic agents are expected not to interfere in the internal affairs of the host country.
- This principle promotes peaceful coexistence and respectful relations between states.
|
| Protection of Diplomatic Missions (Articles 22 to 27) |
- Host country is responsible for ensuring the security and protection of diplomatic missions and their staff.
- Includes safeguarding the physical premises and preventing any intrusion or damage.
|
| Termination of Diplomatic Relations (Articles 45 to 50) |
- Outlines procedures for the termination of diplomatic relations between states.
- Includes orderly withdrawal of diplomatic personnel and the closure of diplomatic missions.
|
What is Article 11.1 about?
- It deals with the size of international missions within other countries.
- In the absence of a specific agreement as to the size of the mission, the receiving State may require that the size of a mission be kept within limits considered to be reasonable and normal.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Olympic Games
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Prime Minister Modi recently confirmed India’s formal bid to host the 2036 Olympic Games, raising questions about the financial implications and benefits of hosting this prestigious event.
About Olympics
| Origins |
Began in ancient Greece in 776 BCE in Olympia. |
| Revival |
Revived by Pierre de Coubertin in 1896 in Athens, Greece. |
| Five Rings |
Olympic flag features five interlocking rings representing unity among 5 continents. |
| Olympic Motto |
“Citius, Altius, Fortius” (Faster, Higher, Stronger) reflects the pursuit of excellence. |
| Sports Included |
Features a diverse range of sports, from athletics and swimming to archery and gymnastics. |
| Discontinued Sports |
Some sports, like tug of war and live pigeon shooting, have been removed. |
Selecting the Olympics Host City
- International Olympic Committee (IOC) Decision: The host city is chosen by the International Olympic Committee members through a secret ballot, with the majority vote determining the winner.
- Competition and Diplomacy: Securing the opportunity to host the Olympics involves significant financial resources and diplomatic efforts. Typically, winners are announced 7-8 years before the event.
Cost of Hosting the Olympics
- Expensive Endeavor: Bidding for the Olympics is a costly proposition, with countries spending $50-100 million, even for unsuccessful bids. In case of a successful bid, the expenses can soar into billions of dollars.
- Examples of Expenditure: Tokyo spent $150 million for its failed 2016 bid and even more for the successful 2020 bid. Toronto refrained from bidding due to the $60 million cost for the 2024 bid.
- Infrastructure Investment: Hosting the Olympics entails building stadiums and enhancing infrastructure to accommodate athletes and tourists.
Funding the Olympics Expenses
- Local Government Responsibility: The majority of expenses, especially on infrastructure, are shouldered by the local government and are spread across the country’s budget.
- Borrowing for Cost Overruns: Countries often resort to borrowing to cover cost overruns. The IOC contributes some revenue to the host country, but it constitutes a relatively small amount, e.g., $1.5 billion for Rio De Janeiro in 2016.
Assessing the Worth of Hosting the Olympics
- Benefits of Hosting: Hosting the Olympics elevates a country’s global status, promotes it as an investment and tourist destination.
- Cautions on Overspending: Excessive spending can have dire consequences, as seen with Canada’s 30-year debt from the 1976 Montreal Games, the impact on Greece’s financial crisis after the 2004 Athens Olympics, and Rio’s $900 million bailout request from the Brazilian government.
- Positive Outcomes: In some cases, such as Beijing, hosting the Olympics led to significant GDP growth acceleration, by at least 0.8%.
India’s Prospects
- Favorable Timing: India’s bid aligns well with its status as the world’s most populous and fastest-growing major economy.
- Past Experience: Having previously hosted the 1982 Asian Games and the 2010 Commonwealth Games, India possesses a favorable track record, which the IOC takes into consideration.
- Gujarat’s Bid: Gujarat is contemplating bidding for the 2026 Commonwealth Games, which could further demonstrate India’s hosting capabilities.
- Economic Power: India’s ascent as an economic powerhouse enhances its candidacy’s appeal to other nations.
Conclusion
- While India’s bid to host the 2036 Olympics presents an opportunity to boost its global profile and economic prospects, it is essential to strike a balance between ambition and fiscal prudence.
- The economic implications, positive and negative, of hosting such a monumental event should be carefully evaluated to ensure that the effort and investment yield substantial long-term benefits for the nation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: RCEP
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Sri Lanka and Bangladesh are considering joining the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) after India’s withdrawal from the trade agreement in 2019.
Recent update on RCEP
- Sri Lanka’s Application: Sri Lanka has applied for RCEP membership and seeks support from China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Japan, and Thailand.
- Bangladesh’s Decision: Bangladesh is expected to make a final decision on RCEP membership after its elections in January 2024.
What is Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)?
| Scope |
Free trade agreement among 15 Asia-Pacific countries |
| Member Countries |
Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, Vietnam |
| Negotiations and Signing |
Negotiations started in 2012,
Officially signed on November 15, 2020 |
| Entry into Force |
Effective from January 1, 2022 |
| Objectives |
Reduce trade barriers, promote economic growth, enhance economic cooperation |
| Trade Facilitation |
Includes tariff reductions, trade in services, rules of origin, customs procedures, and trade remedies |
| Market Access |
Improves market access for goods and services among member countries |
| Accession Rules |
Expected to be finalized by 2024 |
| Global Significance |
Significant due to large economies like China, Japan, and South Korea |
| India’s Withdrawal |
India initially participated but withdrew in 2019 citing concerns about trade deficits and domestic industries |
India’s Stance on RCEP
- Past Withdrawal: India withdrew from RCEP talks in 2019 due to concerns over services mobility, potential flood of Chinese goods, and objections from domestic agriculture and small businesses.
- No Indication of Return: India has not indicated any reconsideration of its decision to withdraw from RCEP.
Reasons for Sri Lanka and Bangladesh’s Interest
- Learning from Crisis: Sri Lanka realizes the importance of regional markets during crises and hopes to spread its market and enhance competitiveness.
- Bangladesh’s Graduation: As Bangladesh approaches graduation from the list of Least Developed Countries in 2026, joining RCEP could offset potential export losses and simplify FTA negotiations.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Evapotranspiration, Water Cycle
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) issued a report highlighting the significant impact of climate change and human activities on Earth’s water circulation systems.
- This has direct consequences leading to droughts, extreme rainfall events, and disruptions in water cycles.
What is the Water Cycle?
- The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth’s surface.
- It involves various processes that allow water to circulate between the atmosphere, land, oceans, and other bodies of water:
| Evaporation |
Sun’s heat turns surface water into vapor. |
| Condensation |
Vapor forms clouds as it cools in the atmosphere. |
| Precipitation |
Clouds release moisture as rain, snow, or hail. |
| Runoff & Infiltration |
Water flows over land or seeps into the ground. |
| Transpiration |
Plants absorb and release water vapor. |
| Sublimation |
Ice transforms directly into vapor in specific conditions. |
| Transport |
Winds move moisture globally. |
| Collection |
Water gathers in oceans, lakes, and underground sources. |
Why is it under stress?
- Diverse Impact: Climate change and human activities have led to an erratic hydrological cycle, resulting in both droughts and extreme rainfall events, causing widespread disruptions affecting livelihoods and economies.
- Melting Snow and Glaciers: Ongoing melting of snow, ice, and glaciers further exacerbates the risk of extreme weather events, such as floods, posing long-term threats to water security, particularly for millions already facing severe water scarcity.
Global Impact
- Global Deviations: Over 50% of global catchment areas experienced deviations from normal river discharge conditions in 2022, primarily due to climate anomalies, such as heatwaves, droughts, La Nina, and El Nino events.
- Horn of Africa Drought: Severe drought in the Horn of Africa led to reduced river discharge, affecting food security for 21 million people, while other regions, like the Niger Basin, saw above-average discharge and major floods.
- Water Reservoirs Affected: More than 60% of major water reservoirs experienced below-normal inflow, posing challenges to water availability in a changing climate.
Impact on Asian Water Tower
- The term “Asian Water Tower (AWT)” typically refers to the vast network of high mountain regions across Asia, particularly in countries like India, China, Nepal, Bhutan, and parts of Central Asia.
- These high mountain regions are the source of many major rivers in Asia, such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Indus, and Amu Darya.
- The melting snow and glaciers in these mountains provide a continuous supply of freshwater to downstream areas.
- This AWT witnessed substantial glacial melting in 2022.
- Rising temperatures accelerate water cycle disruptions, leading to heavier precipitation, flooding, and intensified droughts, significantly impacting the water balance.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- The Centre seeks to include traditional Indian medicines in the 11th revision of the World Health Organisation’s International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
- The traditional Indian medicine system is categorized into Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Yoga, Naturopathy, and Homoeopathy
About International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
| Purpose |
Standardized system for classifying and coding diseases, health conditions, and related information. |
| Established |
1893, by International Statistical Institute (WHO’s predecessor) |
| Authority |
Developed and maintained by the World Health Organization (WHO). |
| Scope |
Covers a wide range of diseases, health conditions, injuries, and health-related factors. |
| Coding System |
Assigns unique alphanumeric codes to each health condition for consistent recording and reporting. |
| Global Applicability |
Internationally recognized and used for health data collection, analysis, and reporting. |
| Updates |
Periodically updated to reflect advances in medical knowledge and changing health trends. |
| Latest Version |
ICD-11 became effective in January 2022. |
| Uses |
Clinical diagnosis, health record documentation, research, health policy, and resource allocation. |
India’s quest to update ICD-11
- Universal Language: The ICD provides a universal language that enables healthcare professionals worldwide to share standardized information.
- Traditional Medicine Module: The 11th revision includes a module dedicated to traditional medicine conditions, offering a standardized way to collect and report data on these conditions internationally.
- Formal Recognition: Ayurveda and related Indian traditional healthcare systems are formally recognized and widely practised in India, making a strong case for their inclusion.
- Chinese Medicine Inclusion: After a decade of consultations, ICD-11 included Module-1, covering traditional medicine conditions originating in ancient China.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 1949 Geneva Conventions
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The ongoing conflict between Israel and Palestinian forces, triggered by Hamas’ barbaric assault, has resulted in a distressing and increasing death toll on both sides.
- This conflict operates within a multifaceted international system of justice that has evolved since World War II.
Various War Crime Laws
- 1949 Geneva Conventions: Internationally accepted rules of armed conflict emerged from these conventions, ratified by all UN member states and complemented by decisions at international war crimes tribunals.
- “Law of Armed Conflict”: A series of treaties collectively known as the “Law of Armed Conflict” or “International Humanitarian Law” governs the treatment of civilians, soldiers, and prisoners of war. It applies to both government forces and organized armed groups, including Hamas militants.
- ICC Jurisdiction: The International Criminal Court (ICC) in The Hague holds the authority to bring charges against alleged perpetrators if domestic courts do not or cannot do so.
Role and Jurisdiction of the ICC
- Establishment: The ICC, a permanent war crimes tribunal, was established in 2002 in The Hague. It has jurisdiction over war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide committed in its 123 member states or by their nationals.
- Notable Absences: Major global powers like China, the United States, Russia, India, and Egypt are not ICC members. Israel rejects the court’s jurisdiction and does not formally engage with it.
- Ongoing Investigation: ICC prosecutors have been investigating allegations of war crimes and crimes against humanity in the occupied Palestinian territories since 2021, although no arrest warrants have been issued.
Acts Potentially Violating War Crimes Law
- Deliberate Targeting of Civilians: Human Rights Watch identified potential war crimes, including the intentional targeting of civilians, indiscriminate rocket attacks, and the hostage-taking of civilians by Palestinian armed groups.
- Israeli Counter-Strikes: Israeli counter-strikes in Gaza, resulting in the deaths of numerous Palestinians, could also fall under scrutiny as potential war crimes.
- Geneva Conventions Prohibitions: The Geneva Conventions explicitly prohibit acts such as taking hostages, murder, and torture, regardless of the conflict’s complexity.
Application of the Geneva Conventions
- Right to Respond: US President Joe Biden acknowledged Israel’s right and duty to respond to the conflict while emphasizing the importance of acting within the rule of law.
- Siege Considerations: A siege may be considered a war crime if it disproportionately targets civilians rather than undermining Hamas’ military capabilities or if it is found to be disproportionate.
- Proportionality: Attacks on military targets must be proportionate, meaning they should not result in excessive civilian casualties or damage compared to the expected military advantage.
Conclusion
- The Israel-Palestine conflict unfolds against a backdrop of intricate international legal frameworks and considerations.
- Navigating the complexities of determining war crimes in this context requires a meticulous examination of actions on all sides, considering proportionality, deliberate targeting of civilians, and adherence to the Geneva Conventions.
- As the conflict’s toll continues to rise, scrutiny of potential violations of international humanitarian law remains essential for justice and accountability.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
Mains level: CPEC and India's sovereignty issue
Central Idea
- As China celebrates the 10th anniversary of its ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2023, the progress of one of its flagship projects, the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), appears to have slowed down.
- Despite its initial promise, challenges related to economic, security, and political factors have led to a reevaluation of the CPEC’s future.
CPEC Overview
- Inception: Signed in 2015, the CPEC aimed to facilitate Chinese goods’ transportation from Xinjiang through Pakistan to the Gwadar port on the Arabian Sea.
- Investment: It involves significant Chinese investments in rail and road infrastructure and energy development in Pakistan.
Reasons behind CPEC Slowdown
(A) Economic Factors
- Pakistan’s Economic Crisis: Pakistan’s deteriorating economic situation has impacted the viability of new CPEC projects.
- China’s Economic Slowdown: China’s economic slowdown has also contributed to a reduction in new investments.
(B) Overpromising and Under-delivering
- High Expectations: CPEC faced criticism for generating high expectations but delivering limited tangible benefits to the Pakistani people.
- Debt Burden: Pakistan has incurred substantial public debt and payments to Chinese companies, further straining its finances.
(C) Political Instability in Pakistan
- Imran Khan’s Ouster: The political instability following the ousting of former Prime Minister Imran Khan in 2022 has raised concerns about political stability.
- Lack of Clarity: The uncertainty surrounding the timing of future elections adds to China’s worries.
(D) Security Concerns
- Threats to Chinese Workers: Security threats to Chinese workers and projects, including attacks by militants, have raised alarm.
- Expanding Threat Landscape: China faces a range of security threats, including Baloch insurgents, the Pakistani Taliban (TTP), and Islamic State-Khorasan province (IS-K).
China’s Response and Concerns
- Security Measures: China is increasingly concerned about security threats to its Belt and Road investments and has taken measures to safeguard its personnel and infrastructure.
- Potential Political Fallout: China’s potential deployment of its security forces to protect its assets in Pakistan could have political implications.
Conclusion
- The CPEC, a vital component of China’s BRI, faces a complex set of challenges.
- Economic pressures, overpromising, political instability in Pakistan, and security threats have contributed to its slowdown.
- While some maintain optimism about the project’s future, addressing these multifaceted issues will be crucial for the CPEC to realize its full potential and continue as a significant driver of regional development.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Sri Lanka is set to take over Chair of the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) succeeding Bangladesh.
- It will hold this prestigious position for the next two years.
About Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)
- Establishment: Founded in 1997, IORA serves as a regional forum aimed at fostering understanding and mutually beneficial cooperation through a consensus-based, non-intrusive approach.
- Membership: IORA comprises 23 member states, including Australia, Bangladesh, Comoros, India, Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, UAE, and Yemen.
- Secretariat: The association’s Secretariat is based in Cyber City, Ebene, Mauritius, responsible for managing, coordinating, servicing, and monitoring policy decisions, work programs, and projects adopted by member states.
Significance of IORA
- IORA’s significance is underscored by the Indian Ocean’s pivotal role in global trade, handling half of the world’s container ships, one-third of bulk cargo traffic, and two-thirds of oil shipments.
- It forms the lifeline of international trade and transport, controlling major sea-lanes.
Agenda for Collaborative Action
The Council of Ministers will engage in discussions to foster collaboration across six priority areas highlighted by the IORA:
- Trade and Investment
- Maritime Safety and Security
- Fisheries Management
- Disaster Risk Management
- Blue Economy
- Strengthening Regional Ties
Strategic Significance for Sri Lanka
- Navigating Geopolitical Dynamics: Sri Lanka often finds itself managing complex strategic interests involving India and China within the Indian Ocean Region, positioning it as a crucial player in the IORA.
- Regional Inclusivity: Sri Lanka’s active participation in the forum aligns it with neighboring nations, fostering regional inclusivity and cooperation. This engagement extends to countries such as Pakistan, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Afghanistan.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Russia has indicated that it may revoke the ratification of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
- The CTBT, a landmark multilateral agreement, stands at the crossroads of global nuclear security, aiming to curtail nuclear weapons testing and the dangers associated with it.
Genesis of CTBT:
- Nuclear Arms Race: The nuclear arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union in the mid-20th century led to over 2,000 nuclear tests between 1945 and 1996.
- Growing Concern: The international community expressed mounting concerns about the radioactive fallout from these tests and their detrimental effects on health and the environment.
(A) Early Attempts to Curb Nuclear Testing
- Limited Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (LTBT): In 1963, the LTBT prohibited nuclear testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater while permitting underground tests.
- Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT): In 1974, the TTBT limited nuclear tests that produced yields exceeding 150 kilotons, aiming to reduce the explosive power of new nuclear warheads.
(B) CTBT Takes Shape
- Post-Cold War Opportunity: Following the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the United Nations seized the opportunity to negotiate the CTBT.
- Comprehensive Ban: The CTBT, adopted on September 10, 1996, ushered in a comprehensive ban on all explosive nuclear testing, marking a pivotal moment in nuclear disarmament efforts.
- China, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, North Korea, Pakistan, and US: They remain the eight Annex II States whose ratifications are essential for the CTBT’s entry into force, as per the United Nations.
Impact of CTBT
- Reducing Nuclear Tests: Since the CTBT’s adoption, there have been only 10 nuclear tests, with notable tests conducted by India, Pakistan, and North Korea, whereas major nuclear powers like the United States, China, France, and Russia refrained from further testing.
- Outstanding Ratifications: For the CTBT to enter into force, it requires ratification by 44 specific nuclear technology holder countries. Eight crucial nations, including the United States, China, India, and Pakistan, are yet to ratify the treaty, hindering its full implementation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 'Freedom on the Net 2023' Report
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Freedom House’s latest report highlights the 13th consecutive year of declining global Internet freedom.
- This decline has seen deteriorations in the human rights online situation in 29 countries, with only 20 countries registering improvements.
Report: ‘Freedom on the Net 2023: The Repressive Power of Artificial Intelligence’
- Key Concerns: The report underscores the escalating use of artificial intelligence (AI) by governments worldwide, emphasizing its role in censorship and the dissemination of disinformation.
- Scope: Covering events from June 2022 to May 2023, the 13th edition evaluates Internet freedom in 70 countries, collectively accounting for 88% of global Internet users.
Regional Findings
- Iran’s Sharp Rise in Digital Repression: Iran witnessed the sharpest escalation in digital repression. Authorities resorted to Internet shutdowns, blocked WhatsApp and Instagram, and intensified surveillance to quell anti-government protests.
- China’s Perennial Status: For the ninth consecutive year, China retained its position as the world’s worst environment for Internet freedom, followed by Myanmar, the second most repressive nation concerning online freedoms.
Legal Repercussions and Arrests
- Global Crackdown on Expression: The report highlights that individuals faced legal consequences for online expression in a record 55 countries this year.
- Widespread Arrests: The number of countries conducting widespread arrests and imposing multi-year prison terms for online activities has surged, growing from 18 in 2014 to 31 in 2023.
- Elections as Triggers: Elections emerged as triggers for digital repression. Ahead of elections, incumbent leaders in various countries criminalized speech, restricted access to independent news sites, and imposed information controls to influence the electoral outcome in their favor.
AI-Enabled Repression in India
- Censorship in Legal Framework: The report spotlights India’s inclusion of censorship, including AI-based systems, within its legal framework. The Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules mandate large social media platforms to employ AI-based moderation tools for diverse types of content.
- Example – BBC Documentary: The report cites the Indian government’s directive to YouTube and Twitter to restrict access to a BBC documentary on communal violence. The IT Rules compel these platforms to use automated scanning tools to remove related content.
Censorship Methods in India
- 5 Censorship Methods: The report evaluates countries on five censorship methods:
- Internet connectivity restrictions,
- Blocks on social media platforms,
- Blocks on websites,
- Blocks on VPNs, and
- Forced content removal.
- Further Censorship Actions: India has also been involved in blocking websites featuring political, social, or religious content, disrupting ICT networks, deploying pro-government commentators to manipulate online discussions, and conducting technical attacks against government critics and human rights organizations.
- Digital Freedom Index: On a scale of 1 to 100, where ‘100’ represents the highest digital freedom and ‘1’ signifies the worst repression, India received a score of 50. In contrast, Iceland emerged as the leader with a score of 94, boasting the best climate for Internet freedom.
Implications for India
- Uneven Playing Field: As India prepares for general elections in 2024, the government’s expanding censorship regime is highlighted as a threat to Indian democracy.
- Curb on free speech: It suppresses criticism and independent reporting on the ruling party.
Conclusion
- The report’s findings underscore the global decline in Internet freedom, driven partly by the increasing use of AI for censorship and disinformation campaigns.
- The implications of this trend on freedom of expression, privacy, and democracy necessitate vigilant monitoring and international action to protect digital rights in an increasingly interconnected world.
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