In news: Panama Canal

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Panama Canal

 

Why in the News?

US President-elect Donald Trump criticized Panama for charging excessively for US ships’ use of the Panama Canal and threatened a US takeover of the canal.

In news: Panama Canal

About Panama Canal:

Geographical Location:

  • Located in Central America, connecting the Atlantic Ocean (via the Caribbean Sea) to the Pacific Ocean.
  • 80 km long, spanning across the Isthmus of Panama.
  • Uses a system of locks to raise and lower ships across an elevation of 85 feet (26 meters).

Historical Significance:

  • French started construction in 1881, led by Ferdinand de Lesseps, but failed.
  • Completed by the U.S. in 1914, under engineers George Washington Goethals and John Stevens.
  • Control transferred from the U.S. to Panama in 1999 under the Torrijos-Carter Treaties (1977).
  • Present Significance:
    • Crucial for global trade, reducing travel time between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
    • Strategic military value, especially during the World Wars.
    • Major contributor to Panama’s economy through tolls and trade-related activities.

Present Geopolitics:

  • Trump raised concerns about China’s influence in the region, especially Panama’s role in China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
  • In recent years, Chinese companies have been involved in infrastructure projects around the Panama Canal, including logistics and energy sectors.
  • Panama’s 2018 signing of the BRI furthered its ties with China, a development that some view as a challenge to US influence in the region.

 

PYQ:

[2011] Between India and East Asia, the navigation time and distance can be greatly reduced by which of the following?

1. Deepening the Malacca straits between Malaysia and Indonesia.

2. Opening a new canal across the Kra isthmus between the Gulf of Siam and Andaman Sea.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both I and 2

(d) Neither I nor 2

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OBOR Initiative

Chancay Port Project in Peru

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Chancay Port Project, OBOR

Why in the News?

The Chancay Port was inaugurated in Peru by Chinese President Xi Jinping.

About Chancay Port Project:

  • The Chancay Port Project was inaugurated in Peru as part of a new land-sea corridor linking China with Latin America.
  • It is funded under Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), with a total cost of $3.6 billion.
  • The port can accommodate vessels up to 18,000 TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent unit), the largest shipping vessels in the world.
  • Ownership: 60% of the port is owned by China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company (COSCO), with the remaining stake held by a local company.
  • It is expected to generate $4.5 billion annually for Peru, equivalent to 1.8% of the country’s GDP.
  • Key Exports: The port will handle exports like copper, blueberries, soybeans, and lithium from the lithium triangle (Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina).

Geo-strategic Location:

  • Proximity to Lima: Located 78 km north of Lima, Peru’s capital, in the small fishing town of Chancay.
  • Natural Deep-Water Port: Chancay is a natural deep-water port, ideal for accommodating large vessels.
  • Trade Gateway: Positioned strategically to facilitate trade between South America and Asia, reducing transit time for goods between the two continents.
  • Alternative to North America: It eliminates the need for Latin American exports to transit through ports in North America, offering a more direct route to Asia.

Why it is a concern for USA?

  • Chinese Influence in Latin America: The US has traditionally viewed Latin America as its sphere of influence. The Chancay Port increases China’s economic and geopolitical presence in the region.
  • Strategic Gateway for China: The port strengthens China’s access to critical resources in South America, including lithium and copper, raising concerns about China’s growing dominance in the region.
  • US Trade Routes Disruption: The port reduces transportation time between Latin America and Asia, which could disrupt existing US trade routes and diminish its role as a trade facilitator.

PYQ:

[2017] What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India?

(a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase.

(b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened.

(c) India will not depend on Pakistan for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia.

(d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipeline between Iraq and India.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Salt Chimneys discovered in the Dead Sea

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Dead Sea, Salt Chimneys

Salt Chimneys discovered in the Dead Sea

Why in the News?

Researchers have identified unique salt chimneys on the Dead Sea floor.

Key facts about the Dead Sea:

Details
Location • Located between Jordan and Israel, with the eastern shore in Jordan and the western shore in Israel.
• The southern half of the western shore belongs to Israel, and the northern half is in the West Bank.• Divided by Al-Lisan peninsula into two basins: the northern basin is deep (400 m), and the southern basin is shallow (< 3 m).
Geographical Features 430.5 meters below sea level, the Earth’s lowest land-based feature.
• Length: 50 km, Width: 15 km at its widest point.
• Surrounded by the Judaea hills (west) and Transjordanian plateaus (east).
Salinity and Density Salinity: 34.2%, almost ten times saltier than ordinary seawater, making it the fourth saltiest water body in the world.
Density: 1.240 kg/L, which allows people to float easily.
Inlets and Outlets • Main inlet: Jordan River.
• No outlet, water loss occurs primarily through evaporation.
• High salinity and harsh climate result in no life except for algae and microorganisms.

 

About the Salt Chimneys 

  • Salt chimneys are tall, chimney-like structures made of crystallized salt, recently discovered on the Dead Sea floor.
  • They are found by researchers from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) during an underwater survey.
  • These chimneys range from 1 to over 7m in height.
  • Formation Process:
    • Groundwater from surrounding aquifers flows through old salt deposits around the Dead Sea basin, dissolving halite (salt) and carrying it as brine.
    • Despite being saline, the brine is less dense than the Dead Sea water due to its high salinity, causing it to rise as a plume from the lake bed.
    • When this brine contacts the colder Dead Sea water, it rapidly crystallizes, forming chimney structures that can grow several centimeters in height each day.

Potential Role in Sinkhole Forecasting

  • Thousands of sinkholes have appeared near the Dead Sea in recent decades; understanding chimney formation may aid in preventing future collapses in vulnerable areas.
  • Researchers have linked the formation of salt chimneys to underground cavities, which are often the precursors to sinkholes.
  • The location of these chimneys may help predict areas at high risk for sinkhole formation, offering a way to monitor and mitigate potential hazards.

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary

Why in the News?

A decomposed carcass of an elephant was discovered in the Khanapara range of the Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary.

About Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary:

Details
Location Eastern fringe of Guwahati, Assam.

Extends from the Brahmaputra River in the north to the hilly forests of Meghalaya in the south.

Formation Established in 2004 by combining Amchang, South Amchang, and Khanapara reserved forests
Flora and Fauna Tropical moist deciduous forest, with semi-evergreen areas in valleys and river depressions.

  • Fauna: Asiatic elephants, Chinese pangolin, slow loris, Assamese macaque, rhesus monkey, hoolock gibbon, leopard,  Leopard cat, jungle cat, sambar, barking deer, red serow, Malayan giant squirrel, Himalayan porcupine.
  • Vultures and raptors: White-backed vulture, Slender-billed vulture, White-cheeked hill partridge, Grey peacock pheasant,
  • Birds: Kaleej pheasant, Greater adjutant stork, Great pied hornbill, Oriental pied hornbill, Green imperial pigeon.
Conservation Status Recognized as an Important Bird & Biodiversity Area (IBA).

 

PYQ:

[2018] In which one of the following States is Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary located?

(a) Arunachal Pradesh

(b) Manipur

(c) Meghalaya

(d) Nagaland

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Contention over South China Sea

In news: Flashpoint Reef

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Flashpoint Reef

China reasserted its claim over Flashpoint Reef (the Scarborough Shoal) in the South China Sea following Philippines’ establishment of defined sea boundaries.

Why in the News?

China reasserted its claim over Flashpoint Reef (the Scarborough Shoal) in the South China Sea following Philippines’ establishment of defined sea boundaries.

Do you know?

  • Fiery Cross Reef is a rock located in the Spratly Islands. China first took possession of the feature in 1988.
  • Mischief Reef is a Low-Tide Elevation (LTE) within the Philippines’ EEZ. It is part of the submerged continental shelf of the adjacent coastal state, which is the Philippines.

About the Flashpoint Reef 

  • It generally refers to Scarborough Shoal, a contested reef in the South China Sea.
  • Known as Huangyan Dao in China, this reef has become a focal point of territorial disputes between China and the Philippines.
  • It lies close to the Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) but is also claimed by China, which asserts control over nearly the entire South China Sea under its nine-dash line claim.
  • China took control of the shoal in 2012 after a standoff with the Philippines, despite an international tribunal ruling in 2016 that invalidated China’s claims.

Its significance in the South China Sea

  • It is strategically located near key shipping lanes that are essential for global trade, with about one-third of global shipping passing through the South China Sea.
  • Its proximity to the Philippines, Vietnam, and China makes it an ideal location for military outposts, providing control over surrounding waters and a base for monitoring activities in the region.
  • Control over Scarborough Shoal could allow China to extend its air and naval reach, reinforcing its influence and deterrence capabilities over other Southeast Asian nations.
  • The South China Sea, including Scarborough Shoal, is believed to hold vast reserves of oil and natural gas—up to 11 billion barrels of oil and 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.
  • This reef is strategically important due to its proximity to rich fishing grounds and potential undersea mineral resources.

PYQ:

[2011] Southeast Asia has captivated the attention of global community over space and time as a geostrategically significant region. Which among the following is the most convincing explanation for this global perspective?

(a) It was the hot theatre during the Second World War

(b) Its location between the Asian powers of China and India

(c) It was the arena of superpower confrontation during the Cold War period

(d) Its location between the Pacific and Indian oceans and its preeminent maritime character

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Contention over South China Sea

Places in News: Loaita Island

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Loaita Island

Why in the News?

Philippine forces conducted combat exercises in the South China Sea to practice retaking the Loaita Island in the disputed waters.

Loaita Island

About Loaita Island 

  • Loaita Island, also known as Kota Island, has an area of 6.45 hectares and is the 10th largest of the naturally-occurring Spratly Islands.
  • The island is administered by the Philippines as part of Kalayaan, Palawan, and is also claimed by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
  • Loaita Island fringes the Loaita Bank, which includes shoals and reefs, and its western side features calcarenite outcrops visible at low tide.
  • The island is covered with mangrove bushes, coconut palms, and other small trees.
  • On May 22, 1963, a sovereignty stele was rebuilt on Loaita Island by South Vietnam, marking its claim.
  • The Philippines has stationed soldiers on the island since 1968, and the island contains minimal structures serving as shelters for the soldiers.
China also reasserted its claim over Flashpoint Reef (the Scarborough Shoal) in the South China Sea following Philippines’ establishment of defined sea boundaries.

About the Flashpoint Reef 

  • Flashpoint Reef generally refers to Scarborough Shoal (part of the
    Spratly Islands), a contested reef in the South China Sea.
  • Known as Huangyan Dao in China, this reef has become a focal point of territorial disputes between China and the Philippines.
  • Flashpoint Reef lies close to the Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ); which asserts control over the entire South China Sea under its nine-dash line claim.
  • China took control of the shoal in 2012 after a standoff with the Philippines, despite an international tribunal ruling in 2016 that invalidated China’s claims.

Do you know?

  • Fiery Cross Reef is a rock located in the Spratly Islands. China first took possession of the feature in 1988.
  • Mischief Reef is a Low-Tide Elevation (LTE) within the Philippines’ EEZ. It is part of the submerged continental shelf of the adjacent coastal state, which is the Philippines.

 

PYQ:

[2018] Consider the following pairs:

Regions sometimes Country mentioned in news

  1. Catalonia — Spain
  2. Crimea — Hungary
  3. Mindanao — Philippines
  4. Oromia — Nigeria

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 3 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 2 and 4 only

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Baku and South Caucasus Region

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: South Caucasus Region (Transcaucasia); Important places mentioned

South Caucasus Region (Transcaucasia)

Why in the News?

  • The 29th COP to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) will begin on November 11, 2024, in Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan.
    • As global leaders gather near the Caspian Sea, the surrounding region of the South Caucasus faces significant climate challenges.

Key Areas at Risk:

(1) Regional/transboundary areas:

  • Northern Armenia and southern Georgia
  • North-west Azerbaijan and north-east Georgia (Alazani/Ganykh river basin)

(2) Within countries:

  • Yerevan and Ararat Valley (Armenia)
  • Lake Sevan (Armenia)
  • Kura-Ara(k)s lowlands (Azerbaijan)
  • Baku and Absheron peninsula (Azerbaijan)
  • Adjara and the Black Sea coast (Georgia)
  • Tbilisi, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, and Kakheti regions (Georgia)

 

About South Caucasus Region (Transcaucasia):

Details
Location South of the Greater Caucasus Mountains, bordered by Russia (north), Turkey and Iran (south), between the Black Sea (west) and Caspian Sea (east).
Countries Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia; includes disputed territories like Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh), Abkhazia, and South Ossetia.
Mountains Lesser Caucasus Mountains (up to 3,000m); includes the Zangezur Range, Meskheti Range, and Armenian Highlands.
Seas Between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea; Absheron Peninsula (Azerbaijan) extends into Caspian Sea, rich in oil.
Rivers and Lakes Major rivers: Kura River (Georgia & Azerbaijan) and Aras River (Armenia & Azerbaijan). Key lake: Lake Sevan (Armenia).
Climate
  • Continental climate: hot summers and cold winters;
  • Subtropical climate along Georgia’s Black Sea coast;
  • Semi-arid to desert climate near Caspian Sea, especially Azerbaijan.
Natural Resources Rich in oil and natural gas, particularly in Azerbaijan; critical hub for energy pipelines like the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline.
Geopolitical Importance Strategic transit route for energy resources to Europe; region of geopolitical tensions due to conflicts (Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, Abkhazia).

 

PYQ:

[2014] Turkey is located between:

(a) Black Sea and Caspian Sea

(b) Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea

(c) Gulf of Suez and Mediterranean Sea

(d) Gulf of Aqaba and Dead Sea

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Tiger Conservation Efforts – Project Tiger, etc.

Amangarh Tiger Reserve

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Amangarh Tiger Reserve

Why in the News?

The body of an eight-year-old tiger was found on the border of Amangarh Tiger Reserve of Bijnor and Jim Corbett National Park.

About Amangarh Tiger Reserve

Details
Location Bijnor district, Uttar Pradesh, India
Established 2012
Area 80 square kilometers (approx.)
Significance Part of the Corbett Tiger Reserve landscape (buffer zone of Jim Corbett National Park)
Tiger Population Acts as a buffer zone for tigers migrating from Corbett Tiger Reserve
Primary Fauna Tigers, leopards, elephants, deer, and several species of birds
Flora Sal, teak, khair, and several other deciduous trees
Rivers Ganga and Ramganga rivers flow near the reserve
Significance in Conservation Part of “Project Tiger,” contributing to the national conservation strategy for tigers in India

 

PYQ:

[2012] Consider the following areas:

1. Bandipur

2. Bhitarkanika

3. Manas

4. Sunderbans

Which of the above are Tiger Reserves?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 1, 3 and 4 only

(c) 2, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Indian Ocean Power Competition

Why Chagos Islands matter?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Chagos Islands (Archipelago)

Why in the News?

  • British Foreign Minister announced that the deal with Mauritius has settled the long-standing dispute over the sovereignty of the Chagos Islands, the UK’s last overseas territory in Africa.
    • The agreement also ensures the long-term future of the Diego Garcia military base, which is jointly operated by the UK and US.

About Chagos Islands (Archipelago)

  • The Chagos Archipelago is a group of 58 islands located in the Indian Ocean, approximately 500 km south of the Maldives.
  • It is a strategically significant area, with one of its islands, Diego Garcia, serving as a key military base jointly operated by the UK and US.
  • The archipelago has been at the centre of a decades-long sovereignty dispute between the UK and Mauritius.

Key Deals and Agreements Related to the Chagos Archipelago

1. British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) Formation (1965)

  • The UK established the BIOT, incorporating the Chagos Archipelago.
  • The islands were detached from Mauritius before its independence.
  • Mauritius received a grant of 3 million pounds from the UK as compensation for the detachment.

2. UK-US Agreement on Diego Garcia (1966)

  • Britain and the US signed a defense agreement, making the BIOT available for joint military purposes.
  • Diego Garcia became a key military outpost due to its strategic location in the Indian Ocean.
  • The land for the military base was acquired in 1967, and in 1971, the plantation on Diego Garcia was shut down.
  • The BIOT administration passed an Immigration Ordinance, which prohibited residents from remaining on the island without a permit. This led to the forced expulsion of around 2,000 Chagossians, many of whom were resettled in Mauritius and the UK.

3. United Nations and International Court of Justice (ICJ) Involvement

  • 2017: The UN General Assembly requested the ICJ to issue an advisory opinion on the legal status of the Chagos Islands.
  • 2019: The ICJ ruled that the UK’s continued administration of the islands was illegal, and the detachment of the islands from Mauritius in 1965 was not done with the free consent of the Chagossians. The UNGA adopted a resolution calling on the UK to withdraw from the Chagos Archipelago within six months.

4. UK-Mauritius Agreement (2023)

  • After years of dispute, Mauritius and the UK reached an agreement over the sovereignty of the Chagos Islands.
  • Under this agreement:
    • The UK has ceded its claims over the islands.
    • Mauritius is allowed to implement a resettlement program on the islands, excluding Diego Garcia.
    • The UK retains sovereignty over Diego Garcia, allowing the military base to remain operational for an initial period of 99 years.
    • A new trust fund is being created for the benefit of Chagossians.

Why did the UK keep Diego Garcia Base?

  • US-UK Defense Agreement: The base is vital for joint military operations, allowing rapid deployment in critical areas.
  • Global Operations Hub: Key for US air and naval missions during conflicts like the Gulf War and War in Afghanistan.
  • Geopolitical Control: Ensures a strong US-UK presence in the Indian Ocean to counteract other powers, especially China.
  • Strategic Location: Diego Garcia monitors the Malacca Strait and other essential global trade routes, especially energy supplies.

PYQ:

[2013] Discuss the political developments in Maldives in the last two years. Should they be of any cause of concern to India?

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Little Prespa Lake on Albanian-Greek Border slowly dying

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Little Prespa Lake

At the Albanian-Greek border, Little Prespa Lake is slowly drying.

Why in the News?

At the Albanian-Greek border, Little Prespa Lake is slowly drying.

About Little Prespa Lake

  • Little Prespa Lake, also known as Small Lake Prespa, is located on the Albanian-Greek border.
  • The majority of the lake lies in Greek territory, with the southern tip extending into Albania.
  • The total area of the lake is approximately 450 hectares within Albanian territory, though much of this area has now transformed into swamps or dried up.
  • It is the smaller part of the nearby Great Prespa Lake, which lies to the south.
  • Historically, the lake was fed by snowmelt and precipitation, but these have reduced significantly due to climate change and human intervention.
  • In the 1970s, communist authorities in Albania diverted the Devoll River for agricultural irrigation around the city of Korca.
  • This diversion significantly reduced the water inflow to the lake, beginning its ecological decline.

Impact of Little Prespa Lake’s Drying

  • The drying has led to the collapse of the fishing industry, depriving locals of their primary livelihood.
  • The once-thriving aquatic ecosystem has transformed into a marshland, resulting in biodiversity loss as fish populations vanish.
  • The diversion of the Devoll River for agricultural purposes has exacerbated the lake’s decline.
  • The lake could completely disappear if current trends continue, threatening the region’s environmental and economic stability.

PYQ:

[2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?

1. Aral Sea

2. Black Sea

3. Lake Baikal

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 2 only

(d) 1 and 3

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Sri Lanka

Places in news: Palk Strait

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Palk Strait

Why in the News?

The Nagapattinam-Kankesanthurai ferry service has been resumed along the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka after 40 years.

About Palk Strait

Location Narrow water body separating Tamil Nadu, India, and Sri Lanka.
Name Origin Named after Robert Palk, a British Raj-era Governor of Madras Presidency (1755-1763).
Geographic Boundaries Southern boundaries include Pamban Island (India), Adam’s Bridge (shoals), Gulf of Mannar, and Mannar Island (Sri Lanka).
Connection Connects the Bay of Bengal in the northeast with the Gulf of Mannar in the southwest.
Alternate Name Southwestern part of the strait is known as Palk Bay.
Dimensions Width varies from 64 to 137 km, length is approximately 137 km, and depth is less than 330 feet (100 meters).
River Inflows Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu flow into the Palk Strait.
Historic Context
  • Key maritime link between India and Sri Lanka, facilitating trade, cultural exchanges, and religious pilgrimages.
  • Played a vital role in the British colonial trade routes, but ferry services were halted due to the 1964 cyclone and the Sri Lankan civil war in 1983.
Present Significance Supports regional trade, tourism, and people-to-people connections, while fostering economic development in both India and Sri Lanka.

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Wetland Conservation

[pib] Bhoj Wetland

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Bhoj Wetland

Why in the News?

The Madhya Pradesh State Wetland Authority has reported that Bhoj Wetland in Bhopal is not at risk of being removed from the Ramsar Convention List of important international wetlands.

About Bhoj Wetland

  • Bhoj Wetland is located in the center of Bhopal district in Madhya Pradesh.
  • The wetland includes two man-made lakes: the upper lake and the lower lake.
  • Since August 2002, they have been recognized as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.
  • The upper lake, created by King Bhoj in the 11th century, is one of the oldest large man-made lakes in central India.
    • It was formed by building an earthen dam across the Kolans River, which used to be a tributary of the Halali River.
    • Now, the upper part of the Kolans River and the Bhojtal drain into the Kaliasot River through a diversion channel.
    • Bhadbhada Dam, built in 1965, controls the outflow to the Kaliasot River.
  • The lower lake was created in 1794 by Nawab Chhote Khan to beautify the city.
    • It also has an earthen dam and drains into the Halali River through the lower part of the Kolans River, now called the Patra Drain.
    • Both the Kaliasot and Halali Rivers flow into the Betwa River.

Significance of Bhoj Wetland

  • The upper lake provides 40% of Bhopal’s drinking water, while the lower lake supplies raw water and enhances the city’s beauty.
  • It supports over 700 species of plants and animals, including zooplankton and phytoplankton.
  • Both lakes are rich in biodiversity, supporting various fish species, birds, insects, reptiles, and amphibians.

PYQ:

[2018] Which one of the following is an artificial lake?

(a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)

(b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)

(c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)

(d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)

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OBOR Initiative

Niger struggles with Security, Economic Crises

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Niger, Niger Benin Export Pipeline

Why in the News?

  • The China-backed Niger-Benin Export Pipeline that would make Niger an oil-exporting country is being threatened by an internal security crisis and a diplomatic dispute with neighboring Benin.
    • These issues arose after last year’s coup that toppled Niger’s democratic government.

About Niger

  • Niger, located in West Africa, is a landlocked country known for its vast desert landscapes and significant cultural heritage.
  • The northern region of Niger is dominated by the Sahara Desert, comprising more than half of the country.
  • The central part of Niger is characterized by the Sahel, a semi-arid transition zone between the Sahara
  • The Aïr Mountains, located in the northern central part are a significant mountain range with the highest peak, Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès (2,022 m).
  • The Niger River is the country’s primary water source.
  • Lake Chad is a significant body of water shared with Nigeria, Chad, and Cameroon. Its size keep on fluctuating.

About Niger Benin Export Pipeline

  • The 1,930-kilometer pipeline runs from Niger’s Chinese-built Agadem oil field to the port of Cotonou in Benin.
  • It was designed to help Niger achieve an almost 5x increase in oil production through a $400 million deal with China’s state-run national petroleum company.
  • The pipeline faces significant challenges, including a recent diplomatic disagreement with Benin.
  • These issues threaten to strain Niger’s economy, heavily reliant on external support now withheld after a coup.

 

PYQ:

[2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?

  1. Aral Sea
  2. Black Sea
  3. Lake Baikal

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 2 only

(d) 1 and 3

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

In news: Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Project Cheetah, Banni Grasslands, Gandhi Sagar WLS

Why in the News?

  • The Gandhi Sagar sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh is the preferred location for the next batch of cheetah’s relocation plan.
    • However, Banni in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat is also being prepared to house some of them.

Cheetah Reintroduction in India:

  • In India, cheetahs disappeared in the early 1950s due to hunting and the loss of their habitat.
  • The ‘Action Plan for Reintroduction of Cheetah in India /Project Cheetah (2022)’ aims to bring cheetahs from African countries to various national parks.
  • It is spearheaded by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
  • Recently, cheetahs from Namibia were reintroduced in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh.
  • Cheetah are listed as VULNERABLE by the IUCN; Schedule II of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
  • Kuno NP and Gandhi Sagar has an ideal habitat parallel to Maasai Mara (a National Park) in Kenya, suitable for cheetahs.

About Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

  • It is located in western Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 368.62 sq km.
  • It is a flat rocky plateau characterized by shallow topsoil and exposed sheetrock.
  • It is divided by the Chambal River, with the Gandhi Sagar dam and reservoir within its boundaries.
  • Flora and Fauna:
    • Flora: The sanctuary features a savannah ecosystem with open grasslands interspersed with dry deciduous trees. Riverine valleys within the sanctuary support evergreen vegetation.
    • Fauna: The sanctuary is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including species like leopards, sloth bears, striped hyenas, grey wolves, golden jackals, jungle cats, Indian foxes, and marsh crocodiles.

About Banni Grasslands:

  • The Banni Grassland is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, covering around 3,847 square km.
  • The climate is arid and semi-arid, with extremely hot summers (temperatures above 45°C) and mild winters (12°C to 25°C), receiving 300-400 mm of annual rainfall mainly during the monsoon.
    • Flora: Grasses such as Dichanthium, Sporobolus, and Cenchrus species, with salt-tolerant plants, shrubs, and trees like Acacia and the invasive Prosopis juliflora.
    • Fauna: Indian wolf, hyena, chinkara, Great Indian Bustard, flamingos, and various raptors, reptiles, and invertebrates.
  • It is inhabited by pastoral communities like the Maldharis, who rely on livestock grazing (cattle, buffalo, and sheep) for their livelihood.
  • Agriculture is limited due to arid conditions, with some areas used for salt production.

PYQ:

[2024]  Consider the following statements:

1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.

2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.

3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

[2012]  Consider the following: (2012)

  1. Black-necked crane
  2. Cheetah
  3. Flying squirrel
  4. Snow leopard

Which of the above are naturally found in India?

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Reviving Gharials in Kaziranga

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Gharial and its conservation, Kaziranga NP

Why in the News?

In Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve, a lone female gharial has emerged as a significant presence, marking a potential revival for the species in the Brahmaputra River.

About Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve:

  • Located in the state of Assam, Kaziranga is renowned for its biodiversity and conservation efforts.
  • Established in 1905 as a reserve forest and declared a national park in 1974.
  • Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985 for its unique natural environment and successful conservation of the Great One-Horned Rhinoceros.
  • Kaziranga is home to the highest density of tigers among protected areas in the world.
  • It hosts two-thirds of the world’s Great One-Horned Rhinoceros population, a significant conservation success story.
  • The park spans approximately 430 square kilometers (166 square miles) of grasslands, wetlands, and forests.

One-Horned Rhinoceros:

  • OneHorned Rhinos: IUCN Red List Status: Vulnerable; CITES: Appendix I ; WPA, 1972: Schedule I.
  • Mainly found in Assam, West Bengal.
  • Assam hosts about 2,640 rhinos across Pobitora WLS, Rajiv Gandhi Orang NP, Kaziranga NP, and Manas NP.

About Gharial

  • The Gharial is a fish-eating crocodile native to the Indian subcontinent.
  • They are a crucial indicator of clean river water.
  • It is also found in the rainforest biome of Mahanadi in Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary, Odisha.
  • Gharials are ‘Critically Endangered’ in the IUCN Red List of Species.
  • The species is also listed under Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
  • National Chambal Sanctuary along the river Chambal in Madhya Pradesh is the biggest protected area of the species.

Recent findings of Gharial in Kaziranga

  • Gharials, distinguished by their long, narrow snouts, were believed to have disappeared from the Brahmaputra by the 1950s.
  • The female gharial, initially spotted in 2021, has grown to nearly adult size, providing hope for their reintroduction into the ecosystem.

PYQ:

[2013] Consider the following fauna of India :

1. Gharial

2. Leatherback turtle

3. Swamp deer

Which of the above is/are endangered?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3 only

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) None

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Port Infrastructure and Shipping Industry – Sagarmala Project, SDC, CEZ, etc.

What is in Great Nicobar, site of NITI Aayog’s mega Island Project?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Nicobar Triangle, GNI Project

Why in the News?

  • The opposition party has demanded the immediate suspension of all clearances granted to NITI Aayog’s Great Nicobar Island (GNI) Project.
  • It alleged violations of due process, legal and constitutional provisions protecting tribal communities.

Great Nicobar Island: An Overview

  • Geography and Ecology: Southernmost tip of India, part of the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago comprising 600-odd islands.
  • Environment: Hilly, covered with lush rainforests, annual rainfall of around 3,500 mm.
  • Biodiversity: Hosts numerous endangered and endemic species including the giant leatherback turtle, Nicobar megapode, Great Nicobar crake, Nicobar crab-eating macaque, and Nicobar tree shrew.
  • Area: 910 sq km with mangroves and Pandan forests along the coast.
  • Indigenous Communities:
    • Shompen Tribe: Approximately 250 people live in interior forests, predominantly hunter-gatherers, classified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group.
    • Nicobarese Community: Two groups – Great Nicobarese and Little Nicobarese, practice farming and fishing.
    • Resettlement: The Great Nicobarese were resettled in Campbell Bay after the 2004 tsunami.
  • Administrative Hub: Campbell Bay serves as the administrative hub, housing local offices of the Andaman and Nicobar administration and the panchayat.

Back2Basics: “Nicobar Triangle”

It is named after the Nicobar Islands, which are located at the northern apex of this triangular area.

The islands within the Nicobar Triangle include:

  1. Nicobar Islands: This group of islands belongs to India and is situated to the south of the Andaman Islands. They are known for their diverse flora and fauna and are inhabited by indigenous tribes.
  2. Andaman Islands: Located to the north of the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands are also part of India. They are well-known for their lush forests, coral reefs, and indigenous tribes.
  3. Indonesian Archipelago: To the south and southeast of the Nicobar Islands lies the Indonesian archipelago, which includes thousands of islands spanning a vast area between the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

What is GNI Project?

The GNI Project refers to the “Holistic Development of Great Nicobar Island,” a proposed mega project being piloted by NITI Aayog.

  • Implementing Agency: The project is to be implemented by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO).
  • Historical Context: Development plans for a port in Great Nicobar date back to the 1970s, aimed at leveraging its strategic location near the Malacca Strait.
  • The project aims to develop the southern end of the Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands in the Bay of Bengal by constructing –
  1. Transshipment port
  2. Dual-use military-civil international airport
  3. Power plant (450 MVA gas and solar-based) and
  4. A township over a span of 30 years on more than 160 sq. km of land, of which 130 sq. km is primary forest

Features of the Project

  • Transshipment hub of the East: The proposed port will allow Great Nicobar to participate in the regional and global maritime economy by becoming a major player in cargo transshipment.
  • Naval control: The port will be controlled by the Indian Navy, while the airport will have dual military-civilian functions and will cater to tourism as well.
  • Urban amenities: Roads, public transport, water supply and waste management facilities, and several hotels have been planned to cater to tourists.

Significance of the project

  • Economic significance: The proposed port would allow GNI to become a significant player in cargo transhipment, as it is positioned equidistant from Colombo, Port Klang (Malaysia), and Singapore.
  • Strategic significance: The proposal to develop GNI has been on the table since the 1970s, and it has been highlighted repeatedly as a crucial element for national security and consolidation of the Indian Ocean Region.
    • In recent years, the escalating Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean has added greater urgency to this imperative.

Issues with the Project

  • The project entails the deforestation of 130 sq km, and felling 10 lakh trees, threatens biodiversity at Galathea Bay, displaces indigenous tribes, lacks thorough impact assessments, and poses seismic risks to vulnerable communities.

Due-process Violations highlighted by the ‘Opposition’

(1) Did not recognise the grant ownership: The island administration did not recognise or grant ownership of any forest land to local tribespeople as per FRA, a requisite step under the Forest Conservation Rules, 2017, before Stage-I clearance is granted.

  • This is despite the fact that Rule 6(3)(e) of Forest Conservation Rules-2017 (FCR) requires that any diversion of forest land first requires the District Collector to recognise and vest rights to locals under the FRA.
  • The legislation allows forest communities the right to control and manage the use of the forest land over which they hold titles, and their consent is mandatory for diverting it.

(2) Inconsistencies with Stage-I Clearance: The Stage-I clearance for the project was granted in October 2022, two years after the application was received. Monthly progress reports show that the district administration did not process any claims over forest land under the FRA in the 26 months since project sanction.

(3) Withdrawal of Consent: Weeks after the Stage-I clearance was granted, the Tribal Council at Campbell Bay withdrew the consent granted by the Gram Sabha.

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

In news: Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, One-horned Rhino

Why in the News?

The monsoon has brought a measure of relief to animals especially the one-horned rhinoceros in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary dealing with extreme heat.

About Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary 

  • Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary boasts the highest density of one-horned rhinos globally, second only to Kaziranga National Park in Assam.
  • Often dubbed as ‘Mini Kaziranga,’ Pobitora shares a similar landscape and vegetation to its renowned counterpart.
  • The sanctuary shelters various endangered species, including one-horned rhinoceros, leopards, leopard cats, fishing cats, jungle cats, feral buffaloes, wild pigs, and Chinese pangolins.
  • Approximately 72% of Pobitora’s area comprises a wet savannah dominated by Arundo donax and Saccharum grasses, while the rest is covered by water bodies.

About One-Horned Rhino:

  • IUCN Red List Status: Vulnerable.
  • Habitat– Rhinos are mainly found in Assam, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.
    • Assam has an estimated 2,640 rhinos in four protected areas, i.e. Pobitora Wildlife Reserve, Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and Manas National Park.

Note: About 2,400 of them are in the Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve (KNPTR).

 

PYQ:

[2019] Consider the following statements:

  1. The Asian lion is naturally found in India only
  2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only
  3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

In news: Nagarhole Tiger Reserve

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Nagarahole Tiger Reserve, Project Elephant

Why in the News?

  • Ashwatthama, a 38-year-old elephant, died of electrocution near Karnataka’s Nagarahole Tiger Reserve.
    • The High Court of Karnataka suo motu initiated a PIL petition to inquire about this incident attributed to a lack of care and diligence by concerned authorities.

Nagarahole Tiger Reserve

  • Located in the Western Ghats in Karnataka; Spans over 643 square kilometers.
  • Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1955 and a tiger reserve in 1999.
  • Part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) and a Project Tiger, Project Elephant reserve.
  • Managed by the Karnataka Forest Department with efforts focused on conservation, ecotourism, and community engagement.
  • The reserve is crisscrossed by several rivers such as the Kabini River, Lakshmana Tirtha River, and Moyar River.
    • Flora and Fauna: Known for its diverse ecosystem, including tropical and moist deciduous forests, home to a variety of wildlife such as tigers, leopards, elephants, gaur, and several species of deer and birds.

Protective Measures: Project Elephant

  • It was launched in the year 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the following objectives:
    • To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
    • To address issues of man-animal conflict
    • The welfare of captive elephants
  • It covers 23 states across India.
  • The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides financial and technical support to major elephant range states in the country through the project.
  • It contributed to the increase in the wild elephant population from around 25,000 in 1992 to about 30,000 in 2021.

Status of Elephant Conservation in India

Details
Population Estimate
  • India hosts the largest population of wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), with around 29,964 individuals,
  • Approximately 60% of the global population (2017 census).
Leading States Karnataka holds the highest number of elephants, followed by Assam and Kerala.
Conservation Status
  • IUCN Red List:  Endangered.
  • CMS: Appendix I.
  • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I,
  • CITES: Appendix I.

 

PYQ:

[2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:

  1. The leader of an elephant group is a female.
  2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
  3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
  4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 4 only

(c) 3 only

(d) 1, 3 and 4 only

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

UNESCO heritage site of Delos, Greece

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Delos Monuments, World Heritage Sites, Various WHS in India

Why in the News?

  • Delos, a UNESCO World Heritage site situated close to Mykonos, Greece, played a pivotal role as a sanctuary in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations.
    • Scientists warn that Delos faces imminent destruction within the next 50 years due to rising sea levels caused by climate change.

About Delos

  • Delos is a small island located in the Aegean Sea, part of the Cyclades archipelago in Greece.
  • It is considered as the birthplace of Apollo, the god of light, arts, and healing, and his sister Artemis, the goddess of the hunt.
  • Its ancient ruins date back to the 3rd millennium BCE.
  • These ruins include temples, houses, sanctuaries, theatres, and other public buildings.
  • It served as a port and trading hub, connecting the civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean with those of the west.
  • Delos was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990.
  • Ruins and Monuments: 
    • Some of the most notable ruins and monuments on Delos include the Terrace of the Lions, the Temple of Apollo, the House of the Dolphins, the Theater District, and the Sacred Lake.

About UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS)

Details
Definition A WHS is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by UNESCO.
Criteria WHS are designated for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other forms of significance.
World Heritage Convention
  • 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage established the framework for preserving the world’s outstanding heritage.
  • 191 State Parties, including India, have ratified the World Heritage Convention.
Number of Sites There are currently 1,172 World Heritage Sites across 166 countries.
Types of Sites
  • 913 cultural sites
  • 220 natural sites
  • 39 mixed properties
World Heritage Committee Evaluate nominated sites and inscribe them on the World Heritage List.
Preservation Member states commit to protecting their World Heritage Sites.
World Heritage Fund The fund, supported by member contributions, provides assistance for preserving sites.
Selection Criteria Sites must demonstrate Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) by meeting criteria defined in the Convention.
Advisory Bodies International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assess nominated sites.
Criteria for Cultural Sites Six criteria for significance related to human creative genius, cultural interchange, unique testimony, outstanding examples of architecture, tradition, and events.
Criteria for Natural Sites Four criteria for significance related to natural phenomena, Earth’s evolutionary history, ecological processes, and biological diversity.
Legal Status Once inscribed, each site remains the property of the state it belongs to, with shared responsibility for its preservation and protection.
Obligations Member states are obligated to integrate heritage protection into regional planning, report on-site conditions, and preserve sites for future generations.
Enforcement The Committee may provide assistance, deploy experts, or delist sites in extreme cases of endangerment.

Important Sites in India:

  • There are 42 World Heritage Sites in India.
  • Out of these, 34 are cultural, 7 are natural, and 1, Khangchendzonga National Park, is of mixed type.
  • India has the sixth-most sites worldwide.
  • The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and Taj Mahal, all of which were inscribed in the 1983 session of the World Heritage Committee.
  • The most recent sites listed were Santiniketan and the Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas, in 2023.

PYQ:

[2015] Which one of the following National Parks has a climate that varies from tropical to subtropical, temperate and arctic?

(a) Khangchendzonga National Park

(b) Nandadevi National Park

(c) Neora Valley National Park

(d) Namdapha National Park

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

In news: Campi Flegrei Super Volcano 

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Campi Flegrei Super Volcano, Mt. Vesuvius, Volcanic eruptions in news.

Why in the News?

A 4.4 magnitude earthquake struck Italy’s Campi Flegrei super volcano, with Pozzuoli as the epicentre. Felt as far as Naples, it’s the strongest tremor in 40 years

Bradyseism Concerns near Campi Flegrei:

  • Campi Flegrei is prone to bradyseism, where ground elevation changes due to subsurface pressure.
  • The area, located 50 kilometres from Mt. Vesuvius, is undergoing a new cycle of bradyseism, according to volcanologists.
  • Over 500,000 people reside in the red zone adjacent to Campi Flegrei, prompting the Italian Civil Protection Agency to update evacuation plans.

About Campi Flegrei Volcano

  • Campi Flegrei, also known as the Phlegraean Fields, is a large volcanic area located in the western suburbs of Naples, Italy.
  • It is one of the most active volcanic systems in the world and has been active for at least 50,000 years.

Its Volcanic System:

  • Location: Campi Flegrei is situated within the Campanian volcanic arc in southern Italy, extending from the city of Naples to the Gulf of Pozzuoli.
  • Geological Formation: The volcanic system of Campi Flegrei is characterized by a large caldera, which is a collapsed volcanic crater, surrounded by numerous volcanic vents, craters, and lava domes. The caldera has a diameter of about 13 kilometers (8 miles).
  • Volcanic Activity: Campi Flegrei is considered a supervolcano due to its size and potential for large eruptions. It has experienced numerous periods of volcanic activity throughout its history, including explosive eruptions, lava flows, and phreatic (steam-driven) eruptions.
  • Terrain Features: The landscape of Campi Flegrei is characterized by volcanic features such as craters, fumaroles (steam vents), mud pots, and hot springs.

PYQ:

[2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in ‘2021’ and their impact on regional environment.

[2018] Consider the following statements:

  1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
  2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
  3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 only

(d) 1 and 3

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