From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kadalundi Mudflats
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Kadalundi’s mudflats are shrinking drastically with sands cover.
These mudflats have been a vital source of sustenance for thousands of migrant shorebirds, offering abundant prey like polychaetes and crustaceans.
About Kadalundi Mudflats
Kadalundi Mudflats are situated in the Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary, which is located in the Kozhikode district of Kerala, along the southwestern coast of India. The sanctuary encompasses estuarine wetlands, mudflats, and mangrove forests.
The mudflats are part of the estuarine ecosystem formed at the confluence of the Kadalundi River and the Arabian Sea.
This unique environment is influenced by both freshwater from the river and saline water from the sea, creating a diverse habitat.
Ecological significance
Kadalundi Mudflats are renowned for their rich biodiversity, especially in terms of avian species.
The Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary and the mudflats are protected under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
The mudflats serve as a critical habitat for various resident and migratory birds.
It is estimated that over 100 species of resident and migratory birds visit the area, making it a paradise for birdwatchers and ornithologists.
They are a crucial stopover point for migratory birds travelling along the East Asia-Australasia Flyway.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mount Etna
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Volcanic eruptions often make headlines only when iconic volcanoes like Etna, Kilauea, or Eyjafjallajokull erupt.
However, throughout any given year, our planet witnessed numerous volcanic eruptions, with as many as 50 to 80 occurring worldwide.
About Mount Etna
Mount Etna, located in Italy, holds the title of Europe’s most active volcano and ranks among the world’s largest.
Its recorded volcanic activity dates back to 1500 B.C., with over 200 eruptions documented since then.
Etna’s recent eruptions have disrupted air travel, leading to flight cancellations at the nearby Catania airport.
Additionally, the accumulation of volcanic ash on roads prompted authorities to temporarily ban the use of cars and motorbikes due to safety concerns.
Volcanic Eruptions this Year
Many of the world’s most active volcanoes are concentrated in the Pacific Ring of Fire, encompassing regions like New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Japan, and the western coast of the Americas. This volatile area also experiences about 90% of all earthquakes globally.
Kilauea, Hawaii: The Kilauea volcano in Hawaii captivated the world with a nearly nonstop eruption that began in 1983 and continued for an astonishing 35 years until 2018. Remarkably, it rekindled in 2021, with the eruption still ongoing.
Dukono, Indonesia: Erupting since August 1933, Dukono volcano in Indonesia stands as a testament to long-term volcanic activity, defying the passage of time.
Santa Maria, Guatemala: The eruption of Santa Maria in Guatemala commenced in June 1922 and persists to this day, underscoring the enduring nature of certain volcanic phenomena.
Yasur, Vanuatu: Yasur in Vanuatu first erupted around 1270 and has maintained its volcanic activity, continuing as of June 9, 2023.
Understanding Volcanoes
Volcanoes are geological features characterized by openings or vents through which lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt onto the Earth’s surface.
They result from both their own eruptions and the broader processes of tectonic plate movement.
Volcanic eruptions are essentially the result of magma, or molten rock, beneath the Earth’s surface rising, bubbling, and ultimately overflowing, much like boiling milk spilling out of a pot on a stove.
The magma seeks pathways to vents within the volcano, where it erupts and is expelled across the land and into the atmosphere, a phenomenon referred to as lava.
Types of Volcanoes
Appearance
Formation
Eruption Style
Notable Examples
Cinder Cones
Small, steep, conical
Formed from basaltic magma with high gas content
Often explosive eruptions with cinders/scoria
Paricutin (Mexico), Sunset Crater (USA)
Composite/Stratovolcanoes
Tall and symmetrical
Result from alternating layers of lava, ash, etc.
Both explosive and effusive eruptions
Mount St. Helens (USA), Mount Fuji (Japan)
Shield Volcanoes
Broad and gently sloping
Primarily formed from basaltic magma
Primarily non-explosive with extensive lava flows
Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea (Hawaii)
Lava Domes
Rounded dome-like shape
Formed from slow extrusion of viscous magma
Typically non-explosive but can be dangerous
Novarupta Dome (Alaska), Mount St. Helens’ Lava Dome (USA)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The Goa bench of the Bombay High Court issued directives to the Goa government, compelling the establishment of a tiger reserve within Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS).
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) had identified Goa’s Cotigao-Mhadei forest complex, which encompasses several protected areas, as an ideal habitat for tigers.
About Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary
Location
Western Ghats, spanning Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
Establishment
Designated as a wildlife sanctuary in 1999.
Area
Approximately 208.5 square kilometers.
Ecological Significance
Located within the UNESCO World Heritage-listed Sahyadri mountain range. Comprises various forest types and grasslands, supporting diverse flora and fauna.
Flora
Rich in plant species, including medicinal plants and endemic flora.
Fauna
Home to Tigers, Indian gaur, sambar deer, leopards, barking deer, wild boars, reptiles, amphibians, and birds.
Conservation Importance
Crucial for conserving endangered species and maintaining biodiversity in the Western Ghats. Promotes genetic diversity through wildlife corridors.
Legal Dispute
Ongoing disagreement between Goa and Karnataka regarding Mhadei/Mahadayi (Mandowi) River water diversion, with concerns about its impact on the sanctuary’s ecology.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dagestan
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
A recent incident involving anti-Israel protesters storming an airport in Makhachkala, Dagestan, has drawn international attention.
This incident highlights the unique position of Dagestan, which, while sounding like a country, is actually a province within Russia.
About Dagestan
Dagestan, officially known as the Republic of Dagestan, is a province within the Russian Federation, dispelling any confusion arising from its name.
Situated in the southernmost part of Russia, it holds strategic importance for the country.
Geographical Location
Land of Mountains: Dagestan’s name translates to “land of the mountains,” emphasizing its mountainous terrain.
North Caucasus: Located in the eastern part of the North Caucasus, it shares borders with Georgia and Chechnya to the west and Azerbaijan to the south. To the east lies the Caspian Sea.
Inaccessible Terrain: Some areas within Dagestan’s mountains are so remote that reaching them requires helicopters.
Ethnic Diversity
Over 40 Ethnicities: The province is home to at least 40 different ethnic groups.
30+ Languages: More than 30 languages are spoken in this region.
Prominent Ethnic Groups: The largest ethnic group in Dagestan is the Avars, comprising approximately one-fifth of the population. Other significant groups include Dargins, Kumyks, and Lezgins.
Ethnic Russian Presence: Despite the ethnic diversity, around 10% of Dagestan’s population is ethnically Russian.
Capital: Makhachkala
Strategic Coastal City: Makhachkala, the capital of Dagestan, is situated along the Caspian Sea coast.
Historical Significance: Once a major trading port, Makhachkala was conquered by the Russian Imperial Army in the 19th century.
Oil and Gas Hub: Today, Dagestan serves as a crucial conduit for oil and gas pipelines connecting the Caspian Sea to Russia’s heartland, possessing its own reserves of these resources.
Challenges: The region has grappled with organized crime and instability, with Russian security forces combating armed insurgencies and militant groups in Dagestan and neighboring areas.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rafah Crossing
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Palestinians have been gathering at the Rafah border crossing with Egypt in the southern Gaza Strip.
Meanwhile, Egypt has opened the borders for UN humanitarian aid for Palestinians.
What is Rafah Crossing?
The Rafah Crossing is a border crossing point between the Gaza Strip and Egypt, located in the southern Gaza Strip.
It serves as one of the few access points for people and goods to enter or exit the Gaza Strip, which is a Palestinian territory along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
Egypt has maintained strict movement restrictions at the Rafah crossing for years, raising concerns that it indirectly supports Israel’s Gaza blockade, which began in 2007 after Hamas took control.
Egypt’s Role and Restrictions
Security Concerns: Security concerns in North Sinai, where Egypt has battled jihadists linked to Al Qaeda, have largely justified these restrictions.
Avoiding Exodus: Egypt may be reluctant to open the crossing without clear conditions and guarantees to avoid a mass exodus of Palestinians from Gaza.
Responsibility Concerns: Egypt is concerned about being responsible for a large influx of Gazans if the crossing is opened indefinitely.
Permanent Resettlement: Egypt is reluctant to facilitate a permanent resettlement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians from Gaza.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dhanauri Wetland
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The National Green Tribunal has given the UP government four weeks to inform it about the status of the Ramsar tag for Dhanauri wetlands.
Dhanauri Wetland
The Dhanauri Wetlands is a bird-watching area located in Dhanauri village near Dankaur in Uttar Pradesh.
It is home to over 120 Sarus cranes (Sarus Cranes is the state bird of Uttar Pradesh).
It is a sanctuary for 23 species of endangered, critically endangered, and threatened birds, with special significance as a habitat for the majestic Sarus crane.
Ecological Significance
Dhanauri is a natural wetland that hosts more than 217 bird species, including over 150 Sarus cranes, and serves as a vital birding and nesting site.
It has received recognition as an Important Bird Area by Bird Life International and has been documented by the BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society).
During peak migratory seasons (November to March), the wetland hosts over 50,000 waterfowls.
Why in news?
Dhanauri plays a crucial role in supporting the vulnerable Sarus crane population.
The wetland fulfills two key Ramsar site criteria out of nine:
It hosts over 1% of the biogeographic Sarus crane population.
The area serves as a congregation site for 20,000+ waterfowls and various other species.
Ramsar Wetlands
The Ramsar Convention, also known as the ‘Convention on Wetlands,’ is an intergovernmental environmental treaty founded by UNESCO in 1971.
It derives its name from the city of Ramsar in Iran, where it was initially signed.
Ramsar sites are wetlands of global significance recognized under this treaty.
The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the brink of ecological changes and in need of close monitoring under the Ramsar Convention.
Ramsar Site Designation Criteria:
Ramsar site designation hinges on several factors:
Representing rare or unique natural wetland types.
Supporting endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
Maintaining biodiversity in specific biogeographic regions.
Offering refuge during adverse conditions.
Regularly accommodating 20,000 or more waterbirds.
Sustaining 1% of a population of a single water-bird species.
Serving as a critical source of food, spawning grounds, nurseries, and migration paths for fish.
Regularly supporting 1% of a population of non-avian wetland-dependent animal species.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India-Sri Lanka Ferry
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
PM Modi inaugurated an international, high-speed passenger ferry service in Palk Strait between Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu, India, and Kankesanthurai, near Jaffna in Sri Lanka.
India-Sri Lanka Ferry
The service is operated by the Tamil Nadu Maritime Board and Shipping Corporation of India.
It will operate daily, covering the 60-nautical mile (110-km) journey in approximately 3.5 hours.
Passengers are entitled to a 50kg free baggage allowance.
The Indo-Ceylon Express or Board Mail used to operate between Chennai and Colombo via Thoothukudi port.
However, this was stopped in 1982 due to the civil war in the island country.
About Palk Strait
Location
Narrow water body separating Tamil Nadu, India, and Sri Lanka.
Name Origin
Named after Robert Palk, a British Raj-era governor of Madras Presidency (1755-1763).
Geographic Boundaries
Southern boundaries include Pamban Island (India), Adam’s Bridge (shoals), Gulf of Mannar, and Mannar Island (Sri Lanka).
Connection
Connects the Bay of Bengal in the northeast with the Gulf of Mannar in the southwest.
Alternate Name
Southwestern part of the strait is known as Palk Bay.
Dimensions
Width varies from 40 to 85 miles (64 to 137 km), length is approximately 85 miles, and depth is less than 330 feet (100 meters).
River Inflows
Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu flow into the Palk Strait.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kanwar Lake
Central Idea
Kawar Lake, Bihar’s only Ramsar Site, is experiencing a significant decrease in water levels and degradation.
However, it is drying up due to negligence.
About Kanwar Lake/ Kabartal Wetland
The Kanwar Lake is Asia’s largest oxbow lake situated in the Begusarai district of Bihar.
It is a residual oxbow lake, formed due to the meandering of Gandak River, a tributary of Ganga.
It was declared a Ramsar site in 2020, making it the first wetland in Bihar to be included in the Ramsar convention.
This lake draws water from the confluence of the Gandak, the Bia and the Kareh river – is situated near Manjhaul, 22 km northwest of Begusarai, the district headquarters.
Various threats to Kanwar Lake
Challenges include migratory bird hunting, agricultural activities around wetland areas, and government policies related to wetland management and conservation.
This decline has negatively impacted the livelihoods of around 20,000 Nishad community members in nearby villages who depend on fishing.
Bihar’s Wetland Potential
Bihar possesses a substantial area of wetlands, covering around 4.4% of its total geographical area, according to data from ISRO.
Despite its wetland potential, Bihar has only one recognized Ramsar site out of a total of 75 in India.
Potential Wetlands
Bihar has proposed several wetlands for Ramsar designation, including Kusheshwarsthan, Barela, Goga Bil, Nagiand Nakti dams, Udaipur Lake, Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, and Gokul Reservoir.
These wetlands are home to a range of wildlife, including migratory birds and endangered species like dolphins.
Back2Basics:
Ramsar Convention
Purpose
International treaty aimed at conserving and promoting the sustainable use of wetlands.
Establishment
Established on February 2, 1971, in Ramsar, Iran.
Participating Countries
171 contracting parties (countries) as of September 2021.
India and Ramsar Convention
The first Ramsar Site in India, the Chilika Lake in Odisha, was designated in 1981.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gurez Valley
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The high-altitude passes within the Gurez valley, located in northern Kashmir, are now linked to the Mushkoh valley in the Drass Sector of Kargil, Ladakh. This region was a significant site during the 1999 war.
The newly established 130-kilometer road has been opened to tourists, and one of its highest passes, Kaobal Gali, situated at an elevation of 4,166.9 meters in Gurez, serves as the vital link connecting these two valleys.
About Gurez Valley
Found in the Kashmir valley, Gurez is positioned near the Line of Control, which separates it from Pakistan-administered Kashmir’s Astore and Neelum districts.
The local inhabitants are primarily ethnic Dards/Shins who speak the Shina language and share similar dress and cultural traditions with their counterparts in Pakistani-administered Gilgit-Baltistan.
The Buduaab village within Gurez valley is known for its Zumba yak, a smaller breed compared to other yaks.
Gurez valley played a significant role in the Kargil war.
It is closely situated to the Line of Control (LoC), with the Kishanganga river delineating the border in multiple areas.
Unique to the Gurez valley is the presence of villages constructed entirely of log houses, devoid of modern urban construction materials.
The region boasts diverse fauna and wildlife, including species such as the Himalayan brown bear, snow leopard, ibex, musk deer, and marmots.
With approximately 38,000 inhabitants, the Gurez valley has already welcomed an impressive 50,000 tourists this year.
Back2Basisc: Mushkoh Valley
Located in Dras, Ladakh, the Mushkoh valley is also renowned as the “valley of wild tulips.”
The valley gained notoriety due to the fierce battle at Tiger Hill during a conflict between India and Pakistan, resulting in numerous casualties on both sides.
Mushkoh valley’s meadows are adorned with vibrant wild tulip flowers, and it is home to the endangered Himalayan yew.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflict
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Azerbaijan announced the continuation of military actions in Nagorno-Karabakh for the second consecutive day, describing it as “anti-terror” operations.
The government asserts that these operations will persist until ethnic-Armenian separatists’ surrender.
Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflict
Persistent Tensions: The South Caucasus region has experienced prolonged tensions over the disputed enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh, which is internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan.
Lachin Corridor Blockade: Over the past nine months, Azerbaijan has effectively imposed a blockade on the Lachin Corridor, the sole route from Armenia into Nagorno-Karabakh.
Nagorno-Karabakh: The Epicenter
Historical Conflict: Nagorno-Karabakh broke away from Azerbaijan during the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Ceasefire in 1994: A ceasefire was established in 1994 after significant casualties and displacement occurred.
Frequent Accusations: Azerbaijan and Armenia frequently accuse each other of attacks around Nagorno-Karabakh and along the separate Azeri-Armenian frontier.
Economic Implications of Conflict
Global Diplomacy: The clashes have spurred diplomatic efforts to prevent a new outbreak of a long-standing conflict between Christian-majority Armenia and mainly Muslim Azerbaijan.
Energy Pipelines: Pipelines transporting Caspian oil and natural gas from Azerbaijan to global markets pass near Nagorno-Karabakh.
Regional Instability: The conflict raises concerns about instability in the South Caucasus, a vital corridor for pipelines facilitating the transport of oil and gas to international markets.
India’s Role: Interests and Challenges
Asymmetric Relations: India maintains a friendship and cooperation treaty with Armenia (signed in 1995), which restricts India from providing military or any other assistance to Azerbaijan.
Investments in Azerbaijan: Indian companies, such as ONGC/OVL and GAIL, have made investments in oilfield projects and LNG exploration in Azerbaijan.
Connectivity Potential: Azerbaijan lies on the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), linking India to Russia via Central Asia. It also offers connectivity to Turkey through the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars rail link.
Kashmir Dynamics: While Armenia unequivocally supports India’s stance on the Kashmir issue, Azerbaijan opposes it and aligns with Pakistan’s narrative.
India’s South Caucasus Policy: India lacks a publicly articulated policy for the South Caucasus, and the region remains on the periphery of its foreign policy focus.
Balancing Act for India
Conflict of Principles: The conflict centers on two international principles: territorial integrity, advocated by Azerbaijan, and the right to self-determination, supported by Nagorno-Karabakh and Armenia.
India’s Dilemma: India faces a dilemma as it cannot openly endorse Azerbaijan’s territorial integrity, considering Azerbaijan’s disregard for India’s territorial integrity in Jammu and Kashmir.
Avoiding Misuse: However, India must be cautious not to publicly support Nagorno-Karabakh’s right to self-determination, as it could have implications for India’s territorial integrity and be exploited by adversaries like Pakistan.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Liptako-Gourma , Sahel Region
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
Military leaders from Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger signed a significant mutual defense pact known as the Liptako-Gourma Charter, marking a crucial step in addressing the security challenges plaguing the Sahel region.
Liptako-Gourma Charter
This pact establishes the Alliance of Sahel States (AES) and aims to create a framework for collective defense and mutual assistance among these nations.
The Liptako-Gourma region, where the borders of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger converge, has been severely affected by jihadist activities and instability in recent years.
The AES seeks to combine military and economic efforts to confront common security threats and advance the well-being of their populations.
Liptako-Gourma Charter: Key Provisions
Mutual Assistance: The charter binds signatory nations to provide mutual assistance, including military support, in the event of an attack on any one of them.
Security Restoration: It specifically allows the use of armed force to restore and ensure security in the face of aggression.
Rebellion Prevention: The agreement also commits the 3 countries to collaborate on preventing or resolving armed rebellions within their borders.
Need for such alliance
Shared Objective: The primary focus of the alliance is to combat terrorism within the three member countries.
Jihadist Insurgency: The Sahel region has grappled with a jihadist insurgency that initially emerged in northern Mali in 2012 and later spread to Burkina Faso and Niger in 2015.
Back2Basics: Sahel Region
The Sahel is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south.
Having a semi-arid climate, it stretches across the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.
The name is derived from the Arabic term for “coast, shore”; this is explained as being used in a figurative sense in reference to the southern edge of the vast Sahara.
The Sahel part includes from west to east parts of northern Senegal, southern Mauritania, central Mali, northern Burkina Faso, the extreme south of Algeria, Niger, the extreme north of Nigeria, the extreme north of Cameroon and the Central African Republic, central Chad, central and southern Sudan, the extreme north of South Sudan, Eritrea and the extreme north of Ethiopia.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Phanigiri Buddhist artefacts
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The Phanigiri artefacts belonging to 200 BCE-400 CE are on display at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
About Phanigiri
Phanigiri, which means “hillock of snake hood,” is a small village located around 150 km from Hyderabad.
A treasure trove of ancient Buddhist art was discovered in 1942, and it re-emerged into the world’s spotlight in 2003.
Phanigiri’s Artefacts
Stupa-like architecture: The discoveries at Phanigiri, particularly the thoranas (archways), have rewritten the narrative of Buddhism in southern India.
Presence of sects: These thoranas are among the earliest found south of Sanchi and provide evidence of both Mahayana and Hinayana schools of thought coexisting in Phanigiri.
Deification of Buddha: Phanigiri reveals a crucial transition in the perception of Buddha, from a historical and spiritual figure to a deity. This transformation is etched in the artifacts discovered here.
The Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary in Assam, home to the endangered western hoolock gibbon, is facing habitat fragmentation due to a railway track that divides the sanctuary.
Hoolock Gibbons
They are a unique primate species, inhabit various regions across India’s northeastern part, particularly in states like Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.
These arboreal creatures are known for their distinctive vocalizations and tree-dwelling behavior.
There are two recognized species of hoolock gibbons found in India: the eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys) and the western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock).
These gibbons play an essential role in the ecosystem by aiding in seed dispersal and maintaining forest health.
Conservation status
IUCN Red List:
Western Hoolock Gibbon: Classified as Endangered
Eastern Hoolock Gibbon: Classified as Vulnerable
Indian (Wildlife) Protection Act 1972: both listed on Schedule 1 of the
About Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary
The HGS is located in the Jorhat district of Assam, India.
It was established in 1997 as a protected area primarily to conserve the western hoolock gibbon, an endangered primate species.
The sanctuary covers an area of approximately 20.98 square kilometers.
Set aside initially in 1881, its forests used to extend to the foothills of the Patkai mountain range.
It contains India’s only gibbons – the hoolock gibbons, and Northeastern India’s only nocturnal primate – the Bengal slow loris.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Northern Sea Route
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
Murmansk, the gateway to the Arctic and the starting point of the Northern Sea Route (NSR), is witnessing a growing Indian presence in cargo traffic.
Why discuss this?
India accounts for 35% of the cargo handled by the Murmansk port in the first seven months of 2023.
This surge in Indian engagement in the Arctic holds significant implications for India’s economic and water security.
About Northern Sea Route
The Northern Sea Route (NSR) is a maritime shipping route that runs along the northern coast of Russia, connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.
The North Sea lies between Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France.
It traverses the Arctic Ocean and Siberian coastline, providing a shorter route between Europe and Asia compared to the traditional routes through the Suez Canal or the Panama Canal.
NSR stretches from the Barents Sea, near the Arctic archipelago of Novaya Zemlya, to the Bering Strait, separating Russia from Alaska
Significance of the Arctic for India
Climate Impact: The Arctic’s susceptibility to climate change holds potential consequences for India, impacting economic and water security.
Resource Prospects: The Arctic region harbors substantial untapped hydrocarbon reserves, including oil, gas, coal, zinc, and silver, making it an enticing prospect for India’s energy needs.
Sustainable Approach: India’s Arctic Policy of 2022 underscores adherence to UN Sustainable Development Goals in the region’s economic development.
India’s Arctic Journey
Historical Engagement: India’s connection with the Arctic dates back to the signing of the Svalbard Treaty in 1920.
Scientific Endeavors: India has undertaken various scientific studies and research initiatives in the Arctic, including atmospheric, marine, and glaciological studies.
Observations and Research: Notably, India’s research station “Himadri” in Ny-Alesund and its multi-sensor moored observatory and atmospheric laboratory demonstrate its commitment to Arctic research.
Reviving the NSR
NSR Overview: The NSR is the shortest shipping route connecting Europe and Asia-Pacific countries, traversing the Arctic Ocean.
Distance Advantage: The NSR boasts potential distance savings of up to 50% compared to traditional routes via Suez or Panama, gaining prominence after the 2021 Suez Canal blockage.
Russia’s Role: Russia, equipped with a nuclear-powered icebreaker fleet, ensures safe navigation by breaking ice along the NSR.
Drivers for India’s NSR Engagement
Cargo Traffic Growth: India’s involvement is fueled by the consistent rise in cargo traffic along the NSR, coupled with a 73% growth rate between 2018-2022.
Energy Imports: As India increasingly imports energy resources from Russia, the NSR offers a reliable and secure transportation avenue.
Strategic Transit: The Chennai-Vladivostok Maritime Corridor (CVMC) project aligns with India’s geographical position, enabling efficient transit routes and shorter transport times.
Conclusion
India’s burgeoning involvement in the Arctic, underscored by its significant role in the Northern Sea Route’s cargo traffic, exemplifies its strategic pursuit of diversified energy resources and enhanced trade corridors.
As India forges partnerships with Russia and navigates the challenges of a changing Arctic landscape, it’s poised to play a pivotal role in shaping the future of Arctic trade and sustainable development.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Umiam Lake
Mains level: Not Much
Umiam Lake
Central Idea
A recent case involving Umiam Lake in Meghalaya highlights the delicate balance between economic growth and ecological preservation in Northeast India.
Umiam Lake
Umiam Lake, locally known as Dam Sait, is a reservoir situated in the hills 15 km (9.3 mi) north of Shillong in Meghalaya, India.
The lake was created by damming the Umiam River during the early 1960s.
The principal catchment area of the lake and dam spans over 225 square km.
The Umiam Dam was constructed by the Assam State Electricity Board primarily for hydroelectric power generation.
The Umiam Stage I powerhouse, located north of the lake, consists of four 9-MW turbine generators that began operating in 1965.
It was the first reservoir-storage hydroelectric project commissioned in the northeastern region of India.
Umiam Lake and the Environment
PIL on Cleanliness: The Meghalaya High Court heard a PIL concerning Umiam Lake’s cleanliness, emphasizing the need to protect natural beauty amid development.
Guidelines Insufficiency: The court noted that the Meghalaya Waterbodies Guidelines did not address the pressing issue of unchecked construction around waterbodies.
Ecological Significance of North East
Biodiverse Region: Northeast India boasts abundant natural resources, including oil, gas, minerals, and fresh water. It features vital biodiversity hotspots like the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia hills and the Brahmaputra valley.
Environmental Challenges: Despite being industrially underdeveloped, deforestation, floods, and existing industries threaten the region’s fragile ecosystem.
Legal Framework for Environmental Protection
Environmental Laws: India has formulated several environmental laws, particularly in the 1980s. Offences against the environment are treated as “public nuisance” under sections of the Indian Penal Code.
District Council Autonomy: The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution grants District Councils autonomy, limiting state authority over matters like land use. This lack of regulation impacts land preservation around water bodies.
Role of PILs and Judicial Activism
Environmental Litigation: PILs and judicial activism under Articles 32 and 226 have led to impactful environmental litigation, imposing penalties and guidelines.
National Green Tribunal: The National Green Tribunal imposed heavy fines on states like Meghalaya and Manipur for illegal mining and improper waste management.
Sustainable Development and Ecology
Negative List in NEIDS: The North East Industrial Development Scheme (NEIDS) incorporates a “Negative List,” excluding entities without compliance with environmental standards from incentives.
Holistic Policy Approach: The “Act Fast for Northeast” policy should encompass both trade and commerce and the preservation of the environment to achieve balanced development.
Need for Comprehensive Legislation: A uniform and comprehensive environmental legislation that addresses environmental concerns at all levels of governance is crucial.
Conclusion
The delicate balance between development and environmental preservation is crucial for Northeast India’s future.
Sustainable policies, strict enforcement of guidelines, and holistic development approaches are vital to ensure the region’s rich ecology thrives alongside economic growth.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Yasuni National Park
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
Ecuadorians made a historic decision by rejecting oil drilling by a referendum in Yasuni National Park, a biodiverse Amazonian region.
About Yasuni National Park
Yasuni National Park, declared a UNESCO biosphere reserve in 1989, spans 1 million hectares and harbors exceptional biodiversity.
It is part of the Amazon rainforest, which itself is a global hotspot for species diversity.
It is situated in the northeastern part of Ecuador, within the Napo and Pastaza provinces.
It covers an area of approximately 9,820 square km (3,791 square miles).
The park is considered one of the most biologically diverse areas on Earth.
Unique features
Biodiversity: It is estimated that Yasuni contains around 670 species of birds, over 150 species of amphibians, and numerous large mammals like jaguars, pumas, and tapirs.
Indigenous Communities: Yasuni is home to several indigenous communities, including the Waorani and Kichwa peoples, who have lived in the area for generations and have a deep connection to the land.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: North Sea
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
Recent endorsement by U.K. Prime Minister of plans for fresh fossil fuel drilling off Britain’s coast has sparked a debate among environmental experts.
Amidst global concerns about climate change, the decision raises questions about the country’s commitment to sustainability and its impact on climate goals.
Evolution of North Sea Drilling
Origins and Legislation: The North Sea drilling history dates back to the 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf, which set the stage for exploration in the region.
Continental Shelf Act: The U.K. Parliament’s enactment of the Continental Shelf Act in 1964 established the country’s jurisdiction over oil and gas resources beneath its seabed.
Milestones and Concerns in Drilling
Early Exploration and Challenges: British Petroleum (BP) was granted the first exploration license in 1964, leading to natural gas discovery the following year.
Forties Field Discovery: BP’s breakthrough commercial oil discovery in the Forties Field in 1970 marked a significant milestone.
Expanding Operations and Safety Revamp: The following years witnessed increased exploration activities and installation of oil platforms. The Piper Alpha disaster in 1988 prompted crucial safety reforms.
Rationale and Concerns
Government’s Position: In an official statement, the government justified the move as a strategy to enhance Britain’s energy independence.
Environmental Alarm: However, environmental experts express apprehension, especially given the global push towards averting irreversible climate change.
North Sea Transition Authority and Offshore Licensing
NTSA’s Role: The North Sea Transition Authority (NTSA) is responsible for regulating the oil, gas, and carbon storage sectors.
Offshore Licensing Round: The NTSA is currently conducting the 33rd offshore oil and gas licensing round, aiming to award more than 100 licenses.
Timing and Awards: The first licenses are expected to be granted in the autumn, furthering the expansion of drilling operations.
Shaping Geopolitical Energy Dependence
Energy Security Concerns: The Prime Minister emphasized the necessity of domestic oil and gas sources, even as the country aims to reach net-zero emissions by 2050.
Strategic Implications: The decision is portrayed as an effort to reduce reliance on oil and gas imports, which could originate from potentially unfavourable sources.
Ecological Concerns and Climate Impact
Adverse Environmental Effects: Offshore drilling poses risks to workers, marine ecosystems, and climate health. It contributes to ocean warming, rising sea levels, and threatens marine biodiversity.
Carbon Pollution Impact: Carbon pollution settling into oceans contributes to acidification, endangering coral reefs and shellfish.
Evaluating UK’s Climate Commitments
Climate Change Committee Report: The Climate Change Committee (CCC) pointed out deficiencies in the U.K.’s preparations for climate change under the National Adaptation Programme.
Adaptation Implementation: The CCC’s assessment highlighted a lack of substantial implementation of adaptation measures to address climate risks.
Inconsistent with Paris Agreement: The Climate Action Tracker assesses the U.K.’s climate action as not fully aligned with the Paris Agreement.
Long-Term Targets: The U.K.’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and long-term targets do not reflect a fair share of global efforts to mitigate climate change.
Incompatibility with Limits: Licensing new oil and gas extraction plans contradicts the 1.5°C temperature rise limit set by the Paris Agreement.
Conclusion
The UK’s endorsement of offshore drilling reflects a complex balancing act between energy security, economic considerations, and environmental stewardship.
As the world grapples with the imperative of combating climate change, the decisions made today hold the potential to shape the course of a sustainable future.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sulina Canal
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
As Russia threatens ships in the Black Sea, a Romanian route ‘Sulina Channel’ provides a lifeline for Ukraine’s grain exports.
Sulina Channel
The Sulina Channel is located in the southeastern part of Romania, specifically within the Danube Delta region.
It connects the Danube River, one of Europe’s major rivers, with the Black Sea, providing a direct route for maritime transportation.
The channel is approximately 64 km long, making it a significant watercourse for shipping and navigation.
It is a vital trade route for cargo vessels, commercial ships, and other maritime traffic entering or leaving the Black Sea region.
The construction of the Sulina Channel dates back to the 19th century when it was developed to improve the navigation of large ships and vessels in and out of the Danube Delta.
Significance for Ukraine
The Sulina Channel, the only deep and wide channel among the Danube’s branches, serves as a crucial “riverine expressway” for transporting goods from inland Ukrainian ports to the Black Sea.
Ukrainian grain ships sail from ports like Izmail and Reni on the Chilia Channel to Sulina, where the cargo is transferred to larger vessels.
These vessels proceed to Constanta, Romania’s major seaport, for further transport into the Mediterranean.
This route falls under NATO’s surveillance and protection, ensuring a degree of security against Russian aggression.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Murmansk Port
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
India’s engagement with Russia’s Arctic region has been strengthening with India-bound goods constituting the maximum share of cargo handled this year by Murmansk, located about 2,000 km northwest of Moscow.
About Murmansk Port
Murmask Port is a major seaport located in northwestern Russia, specifically in the city of Murmansk.
The port was established in 1916 as a supply point for the Russian military during World War I.
It is situated in the city of Murmansk, which is the largest city north of the Arctic Circle in Russia.
It is located on the Kola Peninsula on the shores of the Barents Sea.
The port serves as a crucial gateway to the Arctic region.
The port is an important node along the Northern Sea Route, a shipping route that connects Europe and Asia via the Arctic Ocean.
Its ice-free waters enable year-round maritime activities, making it an important hub for shipping and trade in the Arctic.
Significance of the Port
Murmansk Port is strategically located near rich natural resources, including minerals, oil, and gas in the Arctic region.
It plays a role in facilitating the export of these resources.
The port is well-connected to various transportation networks, including railroads, pipelines, and roads.
It serves as a hub for moving goods to and from the Arctic and the rest of Russia.
