Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Annual Ground Water Quality Report – 2024
Why in the News?
The Annual Groundwater Quality Report 2024 was released by the Union Minister of Jal Shakti. Conducted by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), the report provides a scientific baseline for groundwater quality across India.
Annual Groundwater Quality Report, 2024: Key Highlights
Monitoring Scale
- Data collected from 15,200 locations and 4,982 trend stations both before and after the monsoon.
Contamination Levels
- Nitrate
- 20% of samples exceeded the safe limit of 45 mg/L.
- Hotspots include Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra (>40% of samples), Telangana (27.48%), Andhra Pradesh (23.5%), and Madhya Pradesh (22.58%).
- States such as Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland remain within safe limits.
- Fluoride
- 9.04% of samples above permissible limits.
- Affected states: Rajasthan, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
- Arsenic
- Detected in Ganga-Brahmaputra floodplains (West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh).
- Linked to cancer and skin lesions.
- Uranium
- 42% of Rajasthan and 30% of Punjab samples exceed 100 ppb.
- Over-exploited zones in Gujarat, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh also show elevated levels, posing kidney damage risks.
Agricultural Suitability
- SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio) & RSC (Residual Sodium Carbonate): 81% of samples suitable for irrigation; 100% suitability in North-Eastern states.
- High Sodium: Elevated levels in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, risking soil degradation.
- Salinity (as a measure of Electrical Conductivity (EC)): High in Rajasthan, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Karnataka.
Temporal Trends
- Seasonal Improvements: Post-monsoon recharge improves EC (salinity) and fluoride levels.
- Stable Nitrate since 2015 in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat.
- Rising Nitrate (2017–2023) in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana.
Hotspots of Contamination
- Nitrate:
- Rajasthan (Barmer, Jodhpur), Maharashtra (Wardha, Jalgaon), Andhra Pradesh (Palnadu), Tamil Nadu (Villupuram), Punjab (Bathinda).
- Uranium:
- Over-exploited aquifers in Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat.
- Arsenic:
- Ganga-Brahmaputra floodplains in West Bengal, Assam, Bihar.
What are the key factors contributing to decline in Groundwater quality?
Groundwater quality declines due to:
- Industrialization, with untreated waste introducing heavy metals and chemicals into aquifers, and agricultural practices, where excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides leads to nitrate contamination.
- Urbanization worsens the problem through improper waste disposal, sewage leakage, and landfill contamination.
- Over-extraction for agriculture and domestic use lowers water tables, exposing aquifers to pollutants like arsenic and uranium.
- Climate change and poor livestock waste management further exacerbate contamination and reduce aquifer recharge.
Government Initiatives to conserve Groundwater
- Jal Jeevan Mission – Groundwater Component (2023): Ensures source sustainability for rural water supply by focusing on groundwater recharge and sustainable extraction with local governance participation.
- Jal Shakti Abhiyan – Catch the Rain (2021): A nationwide campaign promoting rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge, emphasizing the creation of water conservation structures.
- National Aquifer Mapping and Management Program (Updated 2020): Maps groundwater aquifers to guide sustainable management, particularly in over-exploited areas.
- Atal Bhujal Yojana (2019): Focuses on sustainable groundwater management through community participation in seven water-stressed states, with decentralized planning involving Gram Panchayats.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements:
1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater.
2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP)
![[pib] What is Di-Ammonium Phosphate?](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dap.jpg)
Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet has approved the extension of the One-time Special Package on Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) beyond the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) scheme.
What is Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP)?
- DAP is a two-nutrient fertilizer that contains 18% nitrogen (N) and 46% phosphorus (P) as P2O5.
- DAP is highly soluble in water and soil, releasing phosphate and ammonium that plants can use.
- DAP is a popular choice for farming and other industries because of its high nutrient content and physical properties. It’s particularly effective in the early stages of plant development.
|
What is Fertilizer Subsidy in India?
| Details |
- Ensures affordable fertilizers for farmers to boost agricultural productivity.
- Applies to both Urea and Phosphatic & Potassic (P&K) fertilizers, each with distinct pricing/subsidy mechanisms.
Types of Subsidies:
1. Urea Subsidy
- Fixed MRP: Urea is sold at a statutorily notified MRP (₹5,360/ton in 2023), irrespective of production costs.
- Government Compensation: Bridges the cost gap, making urea highly affordable but often leading to overuse.
2. Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) for P&K (2010)
- Nutrient-Based Approach: Subsidies depend on Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) content, promoting balanced fertilization.
- Pricing Revision: Subsidy rates are reviewed annually or bi-annually based on global market prices.
- Objectives: Improve soil health, nutrient efficiency, and ensure affordability of P&K fertilizers.
3. Subsidies as per New Investment Policy (NIP) for Urea (2012)
- Self-Sufficiency Focus: Encourages new urea plants and revival of old ones to reduce imports.
- Investment Incentives: Aim to increase domestic production through favourable policies and pricing.
|
| Concerns Related to Subsidy |
- Overuse of Urea: Low urea prices lead to excessive application, causing soil nutrient imbalance and environmental harm.
- Fiscal Burden: Total subsidy expenditures reached ₹2.25 lakh crore (2023–24), placing a heavy load on public finances.
- Imbalanced Nutrient Use: Heavy reliance on urea discourages the use of P&K fertilizers, degrading soil quality over time.
- Import Dependency: India relies significantly on P&K imports, exposing farmers to global price volatility.
|
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to chemical fertilizers in India, consider the following statements:
1. At present, the retail price of chemical fertilizers is market-driven and not administered by the Government.
2. Ammonia, which is an input of urea, is produced from natural gas.
3. Sulphur, which is a raw material for phosphoric acid fertilizer, is a by-product of oil refineries.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tobacco Board, Tobacco Cultivation in India
Why in the News?
The Tobacco Board of India, established on January 1, 1976, under the Tobacco Board Act, 1975, plays a pivotal role in ensuring the growth and sustainability of the tobacco industry.
About Tobacco Board of India
- It is established under the Tobacco Board Act, 1975, operational from January 1, 1976.
- It functions under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
- It is headquartered in Guntur, Andhra Pradesh.
- Objective: To promote the orderly development of India’s tobacco industry, especially in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
- Functions:
- Regulates the production, curing, grading, and marketing of Virginia tobacco (Flue-Cured Virginia and Burley).
- Issues licenses and registrations for growers, manufacturers, exporters, and dealers.
- Collaborates with research institutes to develop new crop varieties and improve farming practices.
- Engages in market promotion, price stabilization, and quality control to protect farmers and maintain fair trade.
About the Tobacco Production and Trade
India
- Tobacco is drought-tolerant, hardy, and short-duration, cultivable on soils where other crops are less profitable.
- It is grown on 0.45 million hectares, accounting for 0.27% of India’s net cultivated area.
- India produces around 750 million kilograms of tobacco leaf annually.
- India is the second-largest producer globally (after China) and second-largest exporter (after Brazil).
- About 300 million kg of Flue-Cured Virginia (FCV) tobacco is produced on 0.20 million ha, while 450 million kg of non-FCV varieties come from 0.25 million ha.
- India contributes 10% of global tobacco acreage and 9% of world tobacco production
PYQ:
[2008] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists:
| List-I(Board) |
List-II (Headquarters) |
| A. Coffee Board |
1. Bengaluru |
| B Rubber Board |
2. Guntur |
| C Tea Board |
3. Kottayam |
| D Tobacco Board |
4. Kolkata |
Code: A B C D
(a) 2 4 3 1
(b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 2 3 4 1
(d) 1 4 3 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Willow Quantum Processor
Why in the News?
Google has unveiled its latest quantum processor, ‘Willow’, which has sparked excitement about the potential of quantum computers to solve practical problems.
About Willow Quantum Processor:
- Google’s team of researchers developed Willow and shared their results in the scientific journal Nature.
- Willow has 105 qubits, which are the basic units of information in quantum computers.
- Some qubits perform the actual calculations (called data qubits).
- Others check for mistakes and fix them (called measurement qubits).
- It operates at an extremely low temperature—almost absolute zero (-273.15°C)—to keep its qubits stable.
- How fast is It? Willow solved a tough problem in just a few minutes. The same task would take the world’s best regular computer 10 septillion years (that’s 1 followed by 24 zeros!).
- Each qubit can stay stable for 100 microseconds (a tiny fraction of a second), which is a big improvement for quantum computers.
Features and Significance
- Smarter Error Handling:
- Quantum computers are extremely sensitive, and even the tiniest disturbance can cause errors.
- Willow uses a system where some qubits (called measurement qubits) are dedicated to spotting and fixing errors without disturbing the main qubits (called data qubits) that are doing the calculations.
- Bigger, Better Performance:
- Willow has 105 qubits: about half for computations and the rest for error correction.
- Most quantum computers become less reliable as more qubits are added. Willow is different—it actually improves its performance as more qubits are included.
- Longer Stability:
- Qubits in Willow remain stable for 100 microseconds—a significant improvement that allows it to perform more complex tasks.
PYQ:
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services
(b) Quantum Computing
(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies
(d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Simlipal Tiger Reserve
Why in the News?
Tigress Zeenat, originally from Maharashtra’s Tadoba, was relocated to Odisha’s Similipal Tiger Reserve after straying through Jharkhand into West Bengal, complicating tracking efforts.
About Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR)
|
Details |
| Geographical Features |
- Situated in the Mayurbhanj District, Northern Odisha, surrounded by high plateaus and hills.
- Twin peaks Khairiburu and Meghashini, rising to 1515 meters above mean sea level.
- Undulating and hilly terrain, interspersed with open grasslands and wooded areas.
- Inhabited by tribes like Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Gondas, Khadia, Mankadia, and Sahara.
- Declared a Tiger Reserve in 1956; brought under Project Tiger in 1973.
- Included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 2009.
|
| Flora and Fauna |
- Flora: Home to 1078 species of plants, including 94 species of orchids, with Sal as the dominant tree species.
- Fauna: Rich wildlife, including Leopards, Gaurs, Elephants, Langurs, Barking Deer, Spotted Deer, Sloth Bears, Mongoose, Flying Squirrels, Porcupines, Pythons, Sambar, Pangolins, and more.
- It is critical habitat for birds, including migratory species like Bar-Headed Geese and Brahmini Ducks, and home to freshwater snails (Radix genus) in its water bodies.
- Melanistic Tigers:
- Similipal hosts 27 of Odisha’s 30 tigers (AOTE-2023-24), including 13 pseudo-melanistic tigers with unique black-striped patterns due to a mutation in the Taqpep gene.
- It is the only wild habitat in the world with pseudo-melanistic tigers.
|
PYQ:
[2011] Two important rivers – one with its source in Jharkhand (and known by a different name in Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha – merge at a place only a short distance from the coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an important site of wildlife and biodiversity and a protected area.
Which one of the following could be this?
(a) Bhitarkanika
(b) Chandipur-on-sea
(c) Gopalpur-on-sea
(d) Simlipal |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coastal Security Scheme
Why in the News?
Non-operational patrolling boats, insufficient funds for training, and manpower shortages are among the challenges highlighted by 13 coastal states and Union Territories during a review of the Coastal Security Scheme (CSS) phases I and II.
What is the Coastal Security Scheme?
- CSS was launched to strengthen security across India’s 7,516.6 km coastline, including 1,382 offshore islands, in order to prevent unauthorized entry, smuggling, and infiltration.
- It is overseen by the Department of Border Management, Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), in collaboration with coastal States/UTs and the Indian Coast Guard (ICG).
- Core Objective: Bolster coastal security by enhancing infrastructure, resources, and coordination among central and state agencies, ensuring effective maritime surveillance and prompt emergency response.
Implementation Phases
- Phase I (2005–2011)
- Budget: ₹646 crore
- Established 73 coastal police stations, 97 check-posts, 58 outposts, 30 barracks, 204 interceptor boats, 153 jeeps, and 312 motorcycles.
- Phase II (2011–2020)
- Budget: ₹1,579.91 crore
- Added 131 coastal police stations, 60 jetties, 10 marine operational centers, 225 boats, 131 four-wheelers, and 242 motorcycles.
|
Key Features
- Infrastructure Development: Construction of coastal police stations, jetties, outposts, barracks, and marine operation centers.
- Marine Patrolling: Deployment of interceptor boats for rapid response and improved surveillance.
- Manpower & Training: Specialized marine police personnel trained at the National Academy of Coastal Policing (Gujarat).
- Technological Integration: Collaboration with the Coastal Surveillance Network (CSN) for real-time monitoring and swift threat detection.
Current Status
- Phase III Plans:
- Upgraded Boats & Equipment: Introducing larger, more stable vessels and better maintenance.
- More Manpower: Focused recruitment and specialized training for marine police.
- Infrastructure Expansion: Building new jetties and operational centers, backed by adequate funding.
- Insurance Coverage: Proposals to protect marine police personnel operating in high-risk conditions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CPGRAMS
Why in the News?
According to the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG), the Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS) resolved over 70 lakh grievances from 2022 to 2024.
About Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS)
- CPGRAMS is an online platform that allows citizens to register grievances related to government service delivery, functioning 24×7.
- It was established in June 2007 by the Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances (DARPG); the National Informatics Centre (NIC) developed the technical framework.
- The Prime Minister serves as the supreme head of CPGRAMS.
Key Functions
- Grievance Lodging & Tracking: Each complaint gets a unique registration number for monitoring.
- Role-Based Access: Ministries and states can access and resolve relevant grievances.
- Appeal Facility: Citizens can appeal if they are not satisfied with the resolution.
- Feedback Mechanism: Complainants can rate the resolution; a “Poor” rating reopens the case for further appeals.
Exclusions: Subjudice cases, personal/family disputes, RTI queries, matters affecting national/international integrity, and government employees’ service issues.
Key Reforms to Improve CPGRAMS
- Reduced Timelines: Grievance resolution deadlines shortened from 30 days to 21 days, with mandatory interim updates.
- Integrated Platform: A unified portal for all ministries, departments, and states; accessible via web, mobile apps, and UMANG.
- Feedback & Appeals: Citizens can provide feedback through SMS/email; a “Poor” rating escalates unresolved issues.
- AI-Driven Process Improvements: Tools like the Tree Dashboard help identify problems and streamline grievance handling.
- Training & Monitoring: Under SEVOTTAM (Service Excellence through Total Quality Management), Grievance Officers get specialized training, with regular performance reviews to enhance service delivery.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pangong Lake
Why in the News?
The Indian Army has installed a statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj on the bank of Pangong lake at an altitude of 14,300 feet, a region that is close to the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China in the eastern Ladakh sector.
About Pangong Lake (Pangong Tso)
- Its name is derived from the Tibetan term “Pangong Tso,” meaning “high grassland lake.” It is an endorheic (landlocked) lake with no outflow.
- Location & Size:
- Spans 134 km, divided between India (1/3) and the Tibetan Autonomous Region (2/3).
- Situated at an altitude of 4,350 meters, covers 604 sq. km, and is 5 km wide at its broadest point.
- Water & Climate:
- Brackish water that completely freezes in winter.
- The lake’s color shifts with sunlight and weather, displaying shades of blue, green, and red.
- Wildlife: Acts as a breeding ground for Bar-Headed Geese, Brahmini Ducks, and Radix freshwater snails.
- Strategic Importance: Located in the Chushul approach, a key route for potential Chinese offensives, and was a major site of conflict during the 1962 war.
Political Features:
- Border & Control: Lies on the Ladakh-China border, with the Line of Actual Control (LAC) passing through it.
- Contested Terrain: The northern bank is a hotspot due to differing boundary perceptions; China has built roads highlighting the lake’s strategic value.
- 1999 Incident: During Operation Vijay, China constructed a 5-km road inside Indian territory.
- 2020 Standoff:
- Began on May 5, 2020, following a clash in the Pangong Lake area.
- Disengagement on the north and south banks concluded in 2021.
- On October 21, 2024, India and China resolved the final friction points (Demchok, Depsang), ending a four-and-half-year border standoff.
PYQ:
[2020] Siachen Glacier is situated to the
(a) East of Aksai Chin
(b) East of Leh
(c) North of Gilgit
(d) North of Nubra Valley |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise SURYA KIRAN
Why in the News?
The Indian Army contingent has departed for Nepal to participate in the 18th edition of the Battalion-Level Joint Military Exercise SURYA KIRAN.
About the Exercise Surya Kiran
- Exercise Surya Kiran is a bilateral joint military exercise conducted annually between India and Nepal since 2011.
- The 18th edition is being held in Saljhandi, Nepal, from 31st December 2024 to 13th January 2025.
- It alternates between India and Nepal as the host nation.
- The Indian Army contingent, consisting of 334 personnel, is led by a battalion from the 11th Gorkha Rifles.
- The Nepal Army contingent is represented by the Srijung Battalion.
- The exercise aims to enhance interoperability in areas like jungle warfare, counter-terrorism operations in mountainous terrains, and humanitarian assistance under the United Nations Charter.
Features and Significance
- Strengthens combat readiness in jungle warfare and counter-terrorism.
- Facilitates the exchange of ideas, experiences, and best practices between the armies of both nations.
- Reinforces the strong cultural and historical ties shared by India and Nepal.
- Prepares both nations to address shared security challenges effectively.
PYQ:
[2024] Which of the following statements about the Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023 is/ are correct?
- This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
- It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
- Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
- Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 4
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
Why in the News?
The 2014-2016 Pacific marine heatwave (MHW) killed over four million common murres (Uria aalge) (IUCN: Least Concerned) in Alaska. A study published in Science revealed that this event marked the largest recorded vertebrate die-off linked to warming oceans.
About Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
|
Details |
| What is it? |
- As per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), prolonged periods of sea surface temperatures rising 3 to 4°C above average for at least five consecutive days.
- IMD defines a marine heat wave (MHW) as a period when the sea’s temperature is above the 90th percentile(seasonally varying threshold) for at least 5 consecutive days.
- Can last from weeks to years, depending on intensity and extent.
- Frequency: Increasing in both occurrence and intensity due to climate change.
- Identified as one of the most significant stressors on global marine ecosystems, causing large-scale disruptions.
|
| Key Observations on MHWs |
2014-2016 Pacific MHW:
- Caused the death of over 4 million common murres (Uria aalge) in Alaska, the largest vertebrate die-off linked to warming oceans.
- Highlighted rapid and severe population declines in marine birds and a lack of ecosystem recovery even years later.
- Increasing frequency and intensity are reshaping ecosystems, creating new survival challenges for marine species.
- Evidence of shifts in marine environments, disrupting population dynamics.
|
| Impacts of MHWs |
On Ecosystems:
- Mass Mortality: Loss of habitat-forming species like kelps and corals, degrading ecosystems.
- Trophic Cascades: Displacement of lower-trophic species and reduced ecosystem productivity.
On Marine Species:
- Reduced breeding success and increased mortality.
- Example: 2014–2016 Pacific MHW killed half the common murre population in Alaska.
On Biodiversity:
- Loss of key predators disrupts food webs.
- Threatened species face survival challenges due to limited adaptability.
|
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?
- OMT is measured up to a depth of 26ºC isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March.
- OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long term mean.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ISRO SpaDEx PSLV-C60 Launch
Why in the News?
ISRO’s PSLV will launch 2 satellites, SDX01 and SDX02, into a 476-km circular orbit in the first week of January to conduct the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDEx), marking India’s entry into the elite group of nations capable of mastering Space Docking.
What is PSLV-C60 SpaDeX Mission?
- The PSLV-C60 SpaDeX Mission is a landmark mission aimed at demonstrating in-space docking and undocking technology.
- This mission would position India as the fourth country in the world to master space docking, following the US, Russia, and China.
- Objective:
- To demonstrate the docking, undocking, and rendezvous capabilities of two satellites in low-Earth orbit (LEO).
- Facilitate power transfer between docked spacecraft, an essential capability for future space missions.
- Satellites: (Each weighing 220kg.)
- SDX01 (Chaser): Equipped with a High-Resolution Camera (HRC).
- SDX02 (Target): Carries a Miniature Multispectral Payload (MMX) and a Radiation Monitor (RadMon).
- Configuration:
- The satellites will be launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C60) in a core-alone (CA) configuration, meaning without strap-on boosters.
- They will be placed in a 476-km circular orbit with an inclination of 55°.
- Post-Docking:
- After the docking demonstration, the satellites will continue standalone missions for two years, conducting imaging, natural resource monitoring, and radiation environment studies.
- Significance: It is a strategic step towards several ambitious space objectives, including:
- Preparing for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight program
- Enabling Chandrayaan-4 lunar sample return missions
- Developing the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS), India’s proposed space station35
What is Space Docking?
- Space docking refers to the process where two spacecraft in orbit rendezvous and physically connect to form a single entity. It is a highly complex and precise maneuver essential for advanced space missions.
- Key Steps of Space Docking:
- Rendezvous: Involves bringing two spacecraft into the same orbit with minimal distance and velocity difference.
- Docking: Establishing a mechanical connection between the spacecraft using specialized docking systems.
- Power and Resource Sharing: Once docked, the spacecraft can transfer power, fuel, or crew to support joint operations.
|
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
- PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
- Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
- GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER)
Why in the News?
The rupee has been hitting record lows against the US dollar but has simultaneously reached an all-time high in real effective terms. In November 2024, the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) index of the rupee touched 108.14, strengthening by 4.5% during the year, according to the RBI.
What is Effective Exchange Rate (EER)?
- The Effective Exchange Rate (EER) measures the value of a currency relative to a basket of currencies from its major trading partners.
- EER is a weighted average of exchange rates, reflecting the importance of each trading partner in a country’s total foreign trade.
- Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER):
- NEER is the weighted average of a currency’s exchange rates with the currencies of its trading partners.
- It does not adjust for inflation, representing only nominal changes in currency value.
- Higher NEER: Indicates the domestic currency has appreciated compared to the basket of currencies.
- Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER):
- REER adjusts NEER for inflation differentials between the country and its trading partners.
- It measures the real purchasing power of a currency, providing insights into its competitiveness in international trade.
- The base year for REER in India is 2015-16, set at 100.
- REER > 100: Indicates an overvalued currency, making exports less competitive.
- REER < 100: Indicates an undervalued currency, making exports more competitive.
How does it impact Exports?
REER provides a real measure of currency competitiveness, adjusted for inflation:
- REER > 100 (Overvalued Currency):
- Exports suffer, as Indian goods and services become expensive in global markets.
- Imports rise, as foreign goods become cheaper in comparison.
- May lead to a widening trade deficit.
- REER < 100 (Undervalued Currency):
- Exports thrive, as Indian goods and services are priced more competitively in global markets.
- Imports decrease, as foreign goods become relatively expensive.
- Improves the trade surplus and supports domestic industries.
PYQ:
[2022] With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements:
- An increase in Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER) indicates the appreciation of rupee.
- An increase in the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) indicates an improvement in trade competitiveness.
- An increasing trend in domestic inflation relative to inflation in other countries is likely to cause an increasing divergence between NEER and REER.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe
Why in the News?
The Parker Solar Probe has reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface — the closest any human-made object has ever been. At this distance, if the Earth and Sun were 1 meter apart, the probe would be 4 cm from the Sun.
What is the Parker Solar Probe?
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Details |
| About |
- A NASA mission launched on August 12, 2018, as part of the “Living With a Star” program to study the Sun’s corona and solar winds.
- Named after Eugene Parker, the first NASA mission named after a living researcher.
- Size: Comparable to a small car.
- Instruments: Equipped with four instruments to study electric and magnetic fields, plasma, and high-energy particles.
- Completed 21 orbits around the Sun and uses Venus flybys to gradually get closer to the Sun.
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| How did it manage to come so close to the Sun? |
On December 24, 2024, it reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface, the closest any human-made object has been.
Technologies:
- Heat Shield: A 4.5-inch carbon-composite shield withstands temperatures up to 1,377°C while keeping instruments stable at 29.4°C.
- Venus Flybys: Gravitational assists from Venus gradually reduced the orbit.
- Speed: Travels at 6,92,000 km/h, making it the fastest human-made object.
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| Significance of the Mission |
- Scientific Contributions: Provides insights into why the Sun’s corona is much hotter than its surface and the origins of solar winds.
- Practical Implications: Improves predictions of space weather events that affect satellites, power grids, and communications on Earth.
- Technological Feat: Demonstrates advanced spacecraft engineering to withstand extreme solar conditions.
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PYQ:
[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?
(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II
(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India
(d) A space telescope developed by India |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: H-1B Visa
Why in the News?
The US President-elect Donald Trump has expressed support for H-1B Visas but emphasized balancing immigration policies with protecting American jobs.
About H-1B Visa Program
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Details |
| What is it? |
- Allows U.S. employers to hire foreign workers for specialty occupations requiring:
- High expertise.
- A bachelor’s degree or higher.
- Administered by the U.S. Department of Labor to address skill shortages in the U.S. workforce.
- Employment under H-1B is temporary but renewable.
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| Key Features |
- Purpose: Provides access to specialized talent unavailable domestically.
- Annual Cap: 65,000 new H-1B visas + 20,000 for workers with U.S. master’s degrees or higher.
- Exemptions: Workers in higher education institutions, non-profits, or government research organizations are not subject to the cap.
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| How does it benefit in Indians? |
- Indians account for the largest group of H-1B beneficiaries (72.3% in FY 2023, ~2.79 lakh approvals).
- Fields:
- 65% employed in computer-related occupations.
- Others include architecture/engineering (9.5%) and education (6%).
- Median Compensation: $118,000 annually in 2023.
Trends and Policy Changes:
1. Admission Trends:
• Pre-COVID rise (2018: 5.70 lakh; 2019: 6.01 lakh).
• COVID-19 decline (2020: 3.68 lakh; 2021: 1.48 lakh).
• Post-COVID recovery (2022: 4.10 lakh; 2023: 7.55 lakh).
2. Denial Rates:
• Increased during Trump era (2016: 6%; 2018: 24%).
• Declined to 4% by 2021 and stabilized at 2% in 2022.
• High denials during Trump’s term were often overturned upon appeal. |
PYQ:
[2020] Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries’. Comment with examples. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Upper Siang; Brahmaputra River; Three Gorges Dam
Why in the News?
China has announced the construction of world’s largest dam on the Brahmaputra River (known as Yarlung Zangbo in Tibet), sparking concerns in India and Bangladesh, the lower riparian states.
About the Dam
- This project is part of China’s 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) and its long-term development strategy through 2035.
- The dam will be constructed in the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet, near the Indian border.
- It is situated at a massive gorge in the Himalayas, where the river takes a U-turn to flow into Arunachal Pradesh and then to Bangladesh.
- Its investment exceeds $137 billion, dwarfing any other infrastructure project, including China’s Three Gorges Dam.
| Three Gorges Dam: It is a hydroelectric gravity dam that spans the Yangtze River near Sandouping in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province, central China, downstream of the Three Gorges. |
What are the concerns associated with the Dam Construction?
- Geopolitical Control: China’s ability to regulate water flow raises fears of disruption and misuse during conflicts.
- Environmental Impact: Risks to biodiversity, sediment flow, and downstream ecosystems in a fragile Himalayan zone.
- Seismic Hazards: The dam’s location on a tectonic plate boundary increases earthquake risks.
- Livelihood Disruption: Potential harm to agriculture, fishing, and local communities dependent on the river.
- Transparency Issues: Limited data sharing and unilateral decisions heighten distrust among riparian states.
PYQ:
[2011] The Brahmaputra, Irrawady and Mekong rivers originate in Tibet and flow it through narrow and parallel mountain ranges in their upper reaches. Of these rivers, Brahmaputra makes a “U” turn in its course to flow into India. This “U” turn is due to:
(a) Uplift of folded Himalayan series
(b) Syntaxial bending of geologically young Himalayas
(c) Geo-tectonic disturbance in the tertiary folded mountain chains
(d) Both (A) and (B) above |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Communist Party of India (CPI) and its contributions
Why in the News?
December 26, 2024, marks the 100th foundation day of the Communist Party of India (CPI). The CPI has played a pivotal role in India’s freedom struggle, social reforms, and political evolution.
About the Communist Party of India (CPI)
- Reasons for Formation:
- Founded on December 26, 1925, at the Kanpur Conference, inspired by the 1917 Russian Revolution.
- Earlier efforts included the Tashkent group (1920) led by M.N. Roy and Abani Mukherji, supported by the Comintern (Communist International).
- Faced early repression through cases like:
- Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1924).
- Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929–1933).
- Dissatisfaction with Gandhian methods and moderate nationalism.
- Inspiration from the Soviet Revolution (1917) and global socialist movements.
- Split (1964):
- Ideological rift during the Cold War over alignment with the Soviet Union or China.
- Led to the creation of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI(M).
Prominent Leaders and Key Contributions
- Prominent Leaders:
- M.N. Roy (1920s): Founder of the Tashkent group; advocated socialism and anti-colonialism.
- Abani Mukherji (1920s): Drafted the Indian Communist Manifesto.
- S.A. Dange (1924): Founding CPI member; labour leader implicated in the Kanpur Conspiracy Case.
- Muzaffar Ahmed (1920s): Mobilized workers and peasants; key figure in AITUC (1920).
- Shaukat Usmani (1920s–1930s) and M. Singaravelu (1925): Early CPI activists.
- Key Contributions:
- Demand for Poorna Swaraj (1927):
- Advocated for complete independence, influencing the Indian National Congress (INC).
- Workers and Peasants Movements (1920s–1950s):
- Mobilized workers through AITUC (1920) and peasants through All India Kisan Sabha (1936).
- Led uprisings like the Telangana Rebellion (1946–1951).
- Opposition to British Rule (1920s–1947):
- Organized strikes and protests during the Quit India Movement (1942).
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- In the First Lok Sabha (1952–57), CPI was the single largest opposition party.
- In 1957, CPI won the state elections in Kerala, becoming the first democratically elected communist government in independent India.
| Note: The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), India’s oldest trade union federation, was founded in 1920 by Lala Lajpat Rai and others in Bombay to represent India at the ILO (International Labour Organisation). |
PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following events:
- The first democratically elected communist party government was formed in a State in India.
- India’s then largest bank, ‘Imperial Bank of India’, was renamed ‘State Bank of India’.
- Air India was nationalised and became the national carrier.
- Goa became a part of independent India.
Which of the following is the correct chronological sequence of the above events?
(a) 4 – 1 – 2 – 3
(b) 3 – 2 – 1 – 4
(c) 4 – 2 – 1 – 3
(d) 3 – 1 – 2 – 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ken-Betwa Link Project
Why in the News?
PM Modi laid the foundation stone of the Ken-Betwa River Linking National Project, the first project under the National Perspective Plan (NPP) for interlinking rivers, conceptualized in 1980. The project would submerge over 10 per cent of the core area of the Panna Tiger Reserve.
About the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP):
| About |
- Objective: Transfer water from the Ken River to the Betwa River, both tributaries of the Yamuna.
- Ken-Betwa Canal: Envisages a 221 km canal (including a 2-km tunnel) for water diversion.
- Submergence area: Jhansi, Banda, Lalitpur and Mahoba districts of UP and Tikamgarh, Panna and Chhatarpur districts of MP.
- It’s the first interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan (1980).
- Targeted completion within 8 years, as per the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
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| Key Components |
- It will irrigate 10.62 lakh ha (8.11 lakh ha in MP and 2.51 lakh ha in UP) and provide drinking water to ~62 lakh people.
- Power Generation: Aims for 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar power.
Phases:
- Phase-I: Construction of Daudhan Dam, related tunnels, canal, and powerhouses.
- Phase-II: Building of Lower Orr Dam, Bina Complex Project, and Kotha Barrage.
Daudhan Dam:
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- Foundation stone laid in December 2024 by PM Narendra Modi.
- 2,031 m in length and 77 m in height, submerging ~9,000 ha across 10 villages.
- Construction contract awarded to NCC Ltd.
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| Geographical Features of Ken and Betwa River |
Ken River: Rises near Ahirgawan in Madhya Pradesh, flows through Bundelkhand, joins the Yamuna near Chilla village in UP.
Betwa River: Originates in the Vindhya Range (near Hoshangabad, MP), also flows through Bundelkhand, and meets the Yamuna at Hamirpur (UP).
- Both rivers traverse hilly and plateau regions of Bundelkhand, often facing drought-like conditions.
- Both are highly seasonal; flows depend largely on monsoon rainfall.
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| Significance |
- Water Scarcity Mitigation: Aims to alleviate drought-like conditions in Bundelkhand by ensuring year-round irrigation.
- Enhanced Agriculture: 10.62 lakh ha of farmland to benefit, improving crop yields and farm income.
- Drinking Water Supply: Targets ~62 lakh people in MP and UP, improving public health.
- Energy Generation: A total of 130 MW (103 MW hydropower + 27 MW solar), boosting renewable energy capacity in rural areas.
- Bundelkhand Development: Expected to spur socio-economic growth, reduce rural distress and migration, and aid industrial expansion.
- Template for Future Projects: As the first interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan, its success could pave the way for additional river-linking schemes nationwide.
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PYQ:
[2020] The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AIMC system and its features
Why in the News?
- The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) is moving toward large-scale use of Automated & Intelligent Machine-aided Construction (AIMC) for National Highway projects.
- AIMC will provide real-time data at each stage of road construction, which will be sent directly to stakeholders, including MoRTH.
About Automated & Intelligent Machine-aided Construction (AIMC) System
|
Details |
| What is it? |
- A technology-driven approach for road and infrastructure projects, employing advanced machinery (GPS, sensors, real-time data tools) to automate and monitor construction tasks.
- Integrates machine automation, real-time data reporting, and precision engineering to enhance quality and speed of highway construction.
- In India, explored by the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) to reduce project delays and ensure consistent construction quality.
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| Features of the System |
- GPS-Aided Equipment: Motor graders, intelligent compactors, and stringless pavers use GPS/digital designs for precise alignment and compaction.
- Automated Surveys: Drones or sensor-fitted machinery capture topographical data, enabling continuous verification of design parameters.
- Real-Time Documentation: Every stage (embankment, subgrade, sub-base, paving) is monitored and instantly shared with stakeholders.
- Integrated Software Platforms: Centralized software creates a digital twin of the site for analytics and alerts.
- Adaptive Workflows: Machines can operate 24/7, guided by digital models and real-time data.
- Precision & Safety Controls: AI-driven predictive maintenance and automated tasks reduce worker risk.
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| Significance of the System |
- Faster Project Completion: Real-time monitoring cuts down manual checks and paperwork, expediting construction.
- Improved Quality & Precision: Sensor-based feedback loops align construction closely with design specifications.
- Real-Time Data Sharing: Construction progress and quality metrics are instantly communicated, enabling immediate corrective actions.
- Reduced Human Error: Automated machinery limits inconsistencies from manual oversight.
- Better Accountability: Detailed digital records promote transparency and performance tracking.
- Cost-Efficiency: Minimizes delays and rework, lowering overall project expenses.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maharashtra Prisons and Correctional Services Act, 2024
Why in the News?
The Maharashtra Legislative Assembly passed the Maharashtra Prisons and Correctional Services Act, 2024, aiming to modernize and reform the State’s prison system. It is based on the Model Prisons Bill, 2023, issued by the Government of India (GoI).
Maharashtra Prisons and Correctional Services Act, 2024: Key Highlights :
- Repeal of Outdated Acts:
- The Prisons Act, 1894, the Prisoners Act, 1900, and the Transfer of Prisoners Act, 1950 stand repealed.
- The new legislation consolidates laws related to regulation of prisons, correctional services, and prisoners in Maharashtra.
- Establishment of High-Security Prison in Mumbai:
- Plans are underway to construct a high-security, multi-storey prison with advanced surveillance measures, akin to international standards like Alcatraz in San Francisco.
- Features include fortified walls, electronic tracking, power fencing, watchtowers, and 24×7 CCTV coverage.
- Land parcels for the new Mumbai jail have already been identified.
- Special Categories of Prisons:
- Special Prisons for high-risk inmates.
- Open and Semi-Open Prisons to facilitate rehabilitation.
- Open Colonies designed for reintegration of inmates with society.
- Temporary Prisons for certain categories of offenders.
- Gender-Sensitive Facilities:
- Separate cells and wards for women inmates with provisions for pre- and post-natal care.
- Special child-care areas (Balwadis) for children staying with mothers in prison.
- Dedicated enclosures and healthcare for transgender inmates.
- Rehabilitation, Skill Development, and Welfare:
- Mandatory libraries, sports facilities, yoga, and recreation for inmates.
- Work-based compensation and opportunities to sell inmate-produced goods at on-site outlets.
- Borstal institutions for young offenders, focusing on education and skill-building.
- Early Release and Monitoring:
- A system of parole and furlough for good behavior, with electronic tracking.
- A special committee under district collectors to support bail bond funding for indigent undertrial prisoners (noting that 1,600 accused are still in jail due to lack of funds).
- Detention Centre in Mumbai:
- The State plans to establish a detention centre in Mumbai. The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) has been tasked to identify land for the project.
About Model Prison Act, 2023
- It replaces the colonial-era Prisons Act, 1894, aiming to modernise prison laws and align them with contemporary standards.
- It shifts emphasis from mere detention to reform and reintegration of inmates.
- It serves as a model document for states, since ‘Prisons’ is a State List subject in India.
- It merges relevant provisions of older legislations (e.g., Prisoners Act, 1900 and Transfer of Prisoners Act, 1950).
- It strives to bring India’s prison system in line with international best practices and human rights norms.
- Key features include:
- Specialised Jails: Provides for high-security, open, and semi-open prisons to manage different categories of inmates.
- Rehabilitation Measures: Emphasises vocational training, skill development, counselling, and educational programs to facilitate inmates’ reintegration.
- Legal Aid & Incentives: Outlines provisions for legal assistance, along with parole, furlough, and premature release for good conduct.
- Use of Technology: Encourages CCTV, video conferencing, and e-monitoring systems to enhance transparency and security within prisons.
- Inclusive Accommodation: Mandates separate facilities for women, transgender persons, and other special categories, ensuring safety and dignity.
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Present Prison System: Key Findings of the Supreme Court’s Centre for Research and Planning Report
- The occupancy rate stood at 131.4% as of December 2022, with 75.8% of inmates being undertrials.
- This highlights a pressing need for measures to reduce congestion and expedite trials.
Initiatives taken:
- Modernization of Prisons Project (2021–26): The government provides financial assistance to States and Union Territories to implement advanced security measures in prisons.
- Aims to support reformation and rehabilitation efforts for inmates through various correctional programs.
- Model Prison Manual (2016): Offers detailed guidelines on the legal rights of inmates, including access to free legal services.
- Modernization of Prisons Scheme (2002–03): Introduced to improve living conditions in prisons, address the welfare of inmates, and enhance the working environment for prison staff.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mitochondria, mtDNA
Why in the News?
Recent research indicates that age-related losses in our cell’s mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)—specifically, deletion mutations—could be a major driver of aging. These mutations, once they accumulate, reduce the mitochondrion’s ability to produce energy (ATP), causing cell and tissue dysfunction.
What are Mitochondria?
- Mitochondria generate most of the cell’s energy (hence called the Powerhouse) in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
- They originated from free-living bacteria absorbed by ancient single-celled organisms, retaining a fraction of their own DNA (mtDNA).
- Unlike nuclear DNA, mitochondria have their own circular DNA, though limited in size.
- Humans inherit mitochondria exclusively from the mother’s egg; sperm-contributed mitochondria are generally not passed on.
- They have a double membrane: a relatively permeable outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane (cristae) that maximizes surface area for energy production.
- Their inner compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, houses mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), ribosomes, and enzymes for the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and fatty acid β-oxidation.
- Mitochondria help regulate intracellular calcium levels, which is crucial for various signalling pathways.
- They play a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death) by releasing factors such as cytochrome c when the cell is under severe stress.
Functions of DNA, mRNA, and the gene:
- DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
- Blueprint of Life: Houses genetic instructions in the form of a sequence of bases (A, T, G, C).
- Chromosomal Structure: In the nucleus, it is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans, each carrying numerous genes.
- Base-Pairing: Two DNA strands form a double helix via base-pair bonding (A-T, G-C).
- Gene:
- Functional Unit of DNA: A stretch of DNA containing instructions (a few thousand base-pairs) for making proteins or functional RNA.
- Expression: When active, a gene is ‘read’ and transcribed into mRNA.
- mRNA (Messenger RNA):
- Intermediate Molecule: Carries the gene’s instructions from the DNA (in the nucleus) to the cytoplasm.
- Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes read mRNA sequences, translating them into specific proteins.
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Functions of the Mitochondrial Genome (mtDNA):
- Encodes Key Mitochondrial Proteins:
- The mtDNA has 13 protein-coding genes crucial for mitochondrial energy production (ATP synthesis).
- It also encodes 24 non-coding genes (like rRNAs and tRNAs), essential for mitochondrial protein synthesis.
- Energy Production:
- mtDNA-encoded proteins form part of the electron transport chain, where most ATP is produced.
- Distinct Inheritance Pattern:
- Inherited exclusively from the mother.
- Each cell contains multiple mitochondria, each with multiple copies of mtDNA.
- Implication in Aging and Disease:
- Age-related mutations (deletions, chimeric genes) in mtDNA can lead to functional decline in tissues like muscle and brain.
- Loss of intact mtDNA reduces ATP generation, contributing to cellular and tissue ageing.
PYQ:
[2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:
- Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondria replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of the egg.
- A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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