Type: Prelims Only

Bills/Act/LawsDOMREthicsExplainedHistorical SitesIOCRop-ed snapPIBPlaces in newsPrelims OnlySC JudgementsSchemesSpeciesStatesworld map

Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

PM Modi at Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree

Why in the News?

PM Narendra Modi recently visited the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi temple in the historic city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

About the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree

  • The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree is considered the oldest living cultivated plant globally.
  • It is believed to have grown from a branch of the original Bodhi Vruksha in Bodhgaya under which Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment.
    • This branch was carried to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitra, eldest daughter of Emperor Ashoka and his first wife, Queen Devi.
    • The original tree under which Buddha meditated was reportedly destroyed, possibly by Ashoka’s wife Tishyarakshita in some legends.
  • Sanghamitra’s arrival in Sri Lanka with the tree is commemorated during the Uduvapa Poya, a festival observed annually on a full moon night in December.

Legend of Sanghamitra’s Journey to Sri Lanka

  • Sanghamitra, originally named Ayapali, lived from 282 BC to 203 BC.
  • Following the Third Buddhist Council (held in 250 BC in Pataliputra) during Ashoka’s reign, it was decided to send missionaries to various regions, including Sri Lanka, to spread Buddhism.
  • The mission to Sri Lanka was led by Mahinda (Mahendra), Ashoka’s son, who converted King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura to Buddhism.
  • After several royal ladies expressed interest in joining the Buddhist monastic order, Mahinda sent for his sister, Sanghamitra, to initiate them.
    • Both siblings lived in Anuradhapura for the rest of their lives.
  • She played a pivotal role in establishing the Order of Nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha or Meheini Sasna) in Sri Lanka, which later spread to other Theravada Buddhist countries like Burma, China, and Thailand.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism. 2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism. 3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Railway Reforms

PM inaugurates New Pamban Bridge 

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Pamban Bridge

pamban bridge

Why in the News?

The newly constructed Pamban Bridge was inaugurated by PM Modi to replace a 110-year-old structure that connected Rameswaram to the Indian mainland.

About the Pamban Bridge  

  • Originally completed in 1914, it connected Rameswaram on Pamban Island to the mainland of India.
  • It was India’s first sea bridge and an engineering marvel of its time, featuring a double-leaf bascule span, also known as a Scherzer rolling lift bridge.
  • It allowed ships to pass through by lifting the bridge.
  • The bridge stood 12.5 meters above sea level and stretched across 145 piers.
  • The bridge faced significant challenges, including severe cyclones and the impact of cholera on the workforce during its construction.
  • Despite these challenges, it stood resilient against vertical tectonic movements and catastrophic events, like the cyclone in 1964, which necessitated major repairs.
  • In 2022, excessive vibrations were detected, indicating the bridge was unsafe for train operations, leading to its closure in December 2022.
  • The New Pamban Bridge:
    • The new bridge includes a vertical lift span that can be raised in just 5 minutes to allow ships to pass, addressing the limitations of the old bascule design.
    • It features a significantly higher clearance of 22 meters above sea level (compared to the old bridge’s 1.5 meters), allowing larger vessels to pass underneath.
    • The bridge is designed for trains to travel at speeds up to 75 km/h, a substantial increase from the previous 10 km/h limit.

Why is it being modernized?

  • The old bridge had become unsafe for transit due to severe corrosion and structural weaknesses, as evidenced by excessive vibrations detected in 2022.
  • The old bridge’s limited speed and weight capacities were inadequate for modern transportation demands and safety standards.
  • Modernizing the bridge is crucial for enhancing the economic development and touristic appeal of Rameswaram and surrounding areas, known for their religious and cultural significance.
  • Given the area’s vulnerability to cyclones and high winds, the new bridge’s design incorporates features that ensure durability and operational reliability in extreme weather conditions.

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Cyber Security – CERTs, Policy, etc

CAPTCHA: a digital border between Humans and Bots

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Cyber Security
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: CAPTCHA

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

What is CAPTCHA?

  • CAPTCHA stands for Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart.
  • It is a security measure used to differentiate humans from automated bots on websites.
  • It helps protect websites against spam and misuse by ensuring that the user performing actions is a human.
  • It was developed in the early 2000s by Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas J. Hopper, and John Langford as a response to the proliferation of automated bots on the internet that created fake accounts, spammed websites, and stole data.
  • The first patent for CAPTCHA was filed in 2003.

How Does CAPTCHA Work?

  • CAPTCHA presents tasks that are easy for humans to solve but hard for machines.
  • These tasks typically involve recognizing distorted text, images, or sounds that machines cannot interpret as reliably as humans.
  • It operates on the principle of the Turing test, designed by British mathematician Alan Turing in the 1950s.
    • This assesses a machine’s ability to exhibit human-like behaviour.
  • Over the years, CAPTCHA has evolved from simple text recognition to more complex tests:
  1. Image Recognition CAPTCHA: Users are asked to identify specific objects within images, such as cars, traffic lights, or storefronts.
  2. reCAPTCHA: Launched by Google in 2009, this system not only serves as a CAPTCHA but also helps digitize text from scanned documents. Users transcribe words that OCR software has been unable to recognize.
  3. Invisible reCAPTCHA: Introduced by Google in 2014, this version analyzes the user’s interaction with the website, such as mouse movements, to determine if they are human without needing them to complete a specific challenge.

Limitations of CAPTCHA

  • Accessibility Issues: CAPTCHA can be challenging for people with disabilities, such as visual or hearing impairments.
  • User Inconvenience: The need to solve CAPTCHAs can be cumbersome, particularly on mobile devices, and may detract from user experience.
  • Advancing Bot Technology: As bots become more sophisticated with AI, they are increasingly capable of bypassing CAPTCHA systems, necessitating more complex solutions.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements: A digital signature is

1. an electronic record that identifies the certifying authority issuing it

2. used to serve as a proof of identity of an individual to access information or server on Internet.

3. an electronic method of signing an electronic document and ensuring that the original content is unchanged

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

India’s Subsea Cable Infrastructure

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Undersea Cables

Why in the news?

India is gradually expanding its undersea cable infrastructure, with new systems like Airtel’s 2Africa Pearls and SEA-ME-WE-6 boosting its international internet bandwidth.

What are Undersea Cables?

  • Undersea cables are fiber optic cables laid on the ocean floor that connect internet networks between countries.
  • These cables are heavily insulated and contain fiber optic strands for transmitting data.
  • They surface at landing points, connect to landing stations, and then link to broader terrestrial networks.
  • Approximately 600 undersea cables exist globally.
  • These cables handle 90% of global data, 80% of world trade, and $10 trillion in financial transactions.

India’s Current Undersea Cable Ecosystem:

  • India’s two main hubs for subsea cables are Mumbai and Chennai.
    • 17 international cables land in India, with 95% of subsea cables concentrated in a 6-km stretch in Versova, Mumbai.
  • India has two domestic cable systems:
  1. Chennai–Andaman–Nicobar Islands (CANI)
  2. Kochi–Lakshadweep Islands
  • While current bandwidth is considered sufficient, rising data traffic may soon outpace available capacity.
    • Experts warn that India’s current capacity may become inadequate in the near future.
  • India contributes only 1% of global cable landing stations and 3% of subsea cable systems, highlighting its underrepresentation in the global network.

Challenges in Undersea Cable Deployment in India

  • India faces high risks from cuts, especially at chokepoints like the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait in the Red Sea, where past disruptions, such as Houthi attacks in 2024, have affected cables.
  • Many cables follow traditional shipping routes, limiting redundancy and increasing the risk of large-scale outages. Disruptions could affect 25% of India’s internet.
  • Deploying subsea cables requires navigating about 51 permissions from various departments, such as the Department of Telecom, Ministry of Environment, and Ministry of Home Affairs.
  • Meta reports that 80% of project time is spent dealing with regulatory requirements in territorial waters.
  • India lacks domestic repair capabilities and relies on foreign ships for cable repairs, making the system vulnerable to prolonged outages.
[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It uses light as the medium for high speed data transmission.

2. It is wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Indian Army Updates

Exercise INDRA 2025

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Exercise INDRA 2025

Why in the News?

The bilateral naval exercise INDRA 2025 between the Indian and Russian navies was held from 28 March to 02 April 2025.

About Exercise INDRA

  • INDRA is a biennial joint military exercise that began in 2003.
  • Over time, INDRA transformed into a tri-service exercise involving Army, Navy, and Air Force, making it more comprehensive and multifaceted.
  • Recent Editions of INDRA:
    • 2021 (12th Edition): Held in Volgograd, Russia; Focused on counter-terrorism operations and enhancing operational synergy.
    • 2023 (13th Edition): Conducted in the Bay of Bengal, India; Involved naval forces from both countries, enhancing maritime cooperation and joint operations.
    • 2025 (14th Edition): It is being conducted in two phases: Harbour phase at Chennai and Sea phase in the Bay of Bengal.

Strategic Importance 

  • The exercise reinforced jointmanship between the Indian and Russian forces, strengthening their ability to collaborate in maritime security operations.
  • It highlighted the shared commitment to upholding maritime order and promoting global peace and stability.
  • Best practices were exchanged, fostering a deeper understanding of each other’s operational doctrines and enhancing the capacity to respond effectively to contemporary maritime security challenges.

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Ramakien Murals of the Grand Palace of Bangkok

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Ramakien Murals

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister has highlighted the release of iStamp depicting Ramakien mural paintings by Thai Government.

Ramakien mural

About the Ramakien Murals:

  • The murals were first painted in 1783 during the reign of King Rama I, who commissioned the adaptation of the Indian epic Ramayana into the Thai version called the Ramakien.
    • The Ramakien holds a vital role in Thai culture, influencing literature, dance, and art, and the murals serve as a visual representation of this national epic.
  • The murals are predominantly displayed in the Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) in the Grand Palace complex, Bangkok.
  • It illustrates episodes from the Ramakien, highlighting the eternal battle between good and evil.
  • It is located in the Phra Rabiang gallery, a two-kilometer corridor surrounding the temple, with 178 panels depicting scenes from the epic.

India-Thailand Cultural Connect

Historical and Cultural Ties:

  • Thailand, part of the Suvarnabhumi territory, is mentioned in the Ramayana.
  • Ancient trade links with South India, and kingdoms like Dvaravati and Khmer had strong ties with India.
  • Brahmanism coexisted with Buddhism, and Thai worship includes Indian deities like Ganesha, Shiva, and Vishnu.
    • Emperor Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to Thailand in the 3rd century BCE, deeply influencing Thai culture and religion.
  • The Thai language includes Sanskrit and Pali words, while Thai art and architecture exhibit Indian influences, particularly in temples.
  • Association with Lord Rama:
    • The Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana, is central to Thai culture, with murals depicting episodes in temples.
    • The title Rama has been adopted by all the monarchs of Thailand’s Chakri Dynasty, which began with King Rama I in 1782.
    • Ayutthaya city was the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767) in present-day Thailand, and it is thought that the name is derived from the Indian city of Ayodhya.

Modern Diplomatic and Cultural Relations:

  • Diplomatic Ties were established in 1947, the two countries celebrated 75 years of relations in 2022.
  • Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge (1940) promotes educational and cultural exchanges. Thai citizens visit India for religious and cultural purposes, especially Buddhist sites.

Recent Initiatives:

  • Exhibitions like “Indo-Siam Connect” showcase shared heritage.
  • Joint research and academic exchanges continue to deepen mutual understanding.

 

[UPSC 2010] There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta Caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?

(a) Bagh Caves (b) Ellora Caves (c) Lomas Rishi caves (d) Nasik Caves

 

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GI(Geographical Indicator) Tags

GI Tags Awarded in April 2025

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Intellectual Property Rights
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: GI Tags in news

Why in the News?

Recently, several Geographical Indication (GI) tags have been awarded to unique products, enhancing their protection in the market and giving them a platform for global recognition.

Here is the list of all the GI tags recently Awarded:

State Product Name Description
Meghalaya Ryndia (Meghalaya Handloom Products) Ryndia is an eco-friendly fabric made from Ahimsa Silk by indigenous Khasi, Bhoi, and Jaintia artisans. Known for its durability and luxurious texture, Ryndia is used to make stoles, shawls, and garments with organic dyes from local plants.
Kerala Kannadippaya A traditional tribal handicraft made from the inner layers of reed bamboo. This mat, known for its reflective pattern, provides a cooling effect in summer and warmth during winter. It is woven by various tribal communities, including the Oorali, Mannan, Muthuva, Malayan, and Kadar tribes, primarily in the Idukki, Thrissur, Ernakulam, and Palakkad districts of Kerala.
Tamil Nadu Panruti Cashew This cashew variety is celebrated for its mildly sweet, nutty flavor and its crisp yet tender texture. Grown primarily in Panruti, Tamil Nadu, it has a high demand both domestically and internationally, setting it apart from other cashew varieties due to its unique taste and texture.
Panruti Jackfruit The Panruti jackfruit is a prized agricultural product from Panruti, where commercial cultivation is concentrated. Known for its large size and distinctive flavor, it is available throughout the year, with different varieties ripening at different times. The jackfruit is widely used for making chips, curries, and sweets and has potential for value-added products.
Chettikulam Small Onion Grown in the Aalathur block of Perambalur district, this small onion variety is an important crop in Tamil Nadu, known for its strong aroma and robust flavor. Over 8,000 hectares in the district are dedicated to small onion cultivation, producing 65,000 to 70,000 tonnes annually. This variety is integral to local cooking and is used in various dishes, offering a unique flavor to regional cuisine.
Puliyangudi Acid Lime Known as the Lemon City of Tamil Nadu, Puliyangudi produces acid lime that is small to medium-sized (4–6 cm in diameter) with a vibrant green color and thin, smooth skin. The limes are famous for their tangy taste and are widely used in cooking, especially in Southern Tamil Nadu and Kerala, as well as for producing lime juice and lime-based products.
Virudhunagar Samba Vathal These bright red, spicy sambal chilies from Virudhunagar are renowned for their distinct flavor and are a crucial ingredient in Southern Indian cuisine. They are often used in the oleoresin extraction process, which plays a significant role in the spice industry.
Ramanadu Chithiraikar Rice A red rice variety from Ramanadu, this rice is known for its ability to keep hunger at bay for hours, making it a staple in many households. The rice is commonly consumed as a hearty porridge and is recognized for its nutritional value and ability to provide long-lasting energy.
Kumbakonam Betel Leaf Grown in the fertile Cauvery River basin, Kumbakonam Betel Leaf is known for its distinct taste and aroma. It is used in the preparation of paan and as a symbol of hospitality in the region.
West Bengal Thovalai Flower Garland A handcrafted floral garland made from a mix of white, red, and green flowers, Thovalai Flower Garland is used for festivals and special occasions. It is woven in a mat-like fashion and is celebrated for its artistic beauty.
Murshidabad Chhanobora This sweet from Murshidabad is made from chhena (curdled milk) and flavored with cardamom. It is known for its smooth texture and distinct taste, being a traditional treat prepared during festivals and significant occasions.
Bishnupur Motichur Laddu A traditional Bengali sweet laddu, made from finely ground chickpeas, sugar, and ghee. It has a delicate, aromatic flavor and is often enjoyed during festivals like Durga Puja and Diwali. Its historical roots trace back to the Bishnupur region, known for its unique preparation methods.
Kamarpukur Sada Bode A fried Bengali sweet, Kamarpukur Sada Bode is made from wheat flour, sugar, and ghee. It is an important part of Bengali festivals and local traditions, valued for its crisp texture and sweet, rich taste.
Malda Nistari Silk Yarn Known for its fine texture, durability, and the intricate traditional weaving techniques used, Malda Nistari Silk Yarn is produced in Malda, Bengal. This silk is highly sought after for its luxurious feel and is used for making high-quality garments.
Radhunipagal Rice A local variety of rice from Bengal, Radhunipagal is known for its resilient texture and ability to stay filling for extended periods, making it perfect for hearty meals. This rice is a staple in many traditional Bengali dishes.
Baruipur Guava Baruipur Guava, grown in the fertile soil of West Bengal, is known for its distinct taste and texture. The fruit has a sweet flavor and is used in juices, jams, and desserts.
Jammu and Kashmir 

 

 Kashmir Namda A woolen rug from Kashmir, Namda is known for its thick texture and intricate designs. Traditionally crafted by hand using sheep wool, it is prized for its insulating properties and is a significant part of Kashmir’s textile heritage.
Kashmir Gabba A traditional woolen product from Kashmir, Gabba is used in home decor and textiles. It is made using local wool and features intricate handwoven patterns.
Kashmir Willow Bat Kashmir Willow is used for making high-quality cricket bats, known for their lightweight and durable properties, making it a sought-after material for professional cricket bats.
Kashmir Tweed Kashmir Tweed is a finely woven fabric, made from wool, and is renowned for its warmth and luxury. It has been traditionally used to make winter garments, particularly coats and shawls.
Kashmir Crewel A hand-embroidered fabric from Kashmir, Crewel features intricate floral designs and is traditionally used in making home textiles like curtains, bedspreads, and cushions.
Kashmir Chain Stitch A traditional embroidery technique from Kashmir, Chain Stitch is used to create decorative textiles. The embroidery is vibrant, with floral patterns, and is used in making garments and home furnishings.
Kashmir Shikara The Shikara is a traditional boat from Kashmir used primarily for tourism and transportation in the Dal Lake. It is a symbol of Kashmir’s rich heritage and has been part of the region’s culture for centuries.
Kashmir Wagguv Wagguv is a traditional handcrafted product from Kashmir, made using local materials and is known for its unique craftsmanship and cultural significance in the region.

 

[UPSC 2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ Status?

(1) Banaras Brocades and Sarees (2) Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma (3) Tirupathi Laddu

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

PM gifted with a copy of Tripitaka by Thai PM

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Tripitaka

Why in the News?

Prime Minister was presented with ‘The World Tipitaka: Sajjhaya Phonetic Edition’ by his Thai counterpart, Paetongtarn Shinawatra, in a diplomatic exchange.

About Tripitaka

  • The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon or Tipitaka, is the primary scripture of Theravada Buddhism, containing the teachings attributed to Buddha.
  • It was initially preserved through oral tradition and recited by Buddhist monks after the Buddha’s death.
  • It was first written down in the 1st century BCE during the reign of King Vattagamani of Sri Lanka, ensuring its preservation for future generations.
  • It is central to Theravada Buddhism, which is practiced mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.
  • It is also regarded as an authoritative collection of the Buddha’s words, influencing the practices of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists.
  • Its teachings cover practical aspects of morality (sila), meditation (samadhi), and wisdom (prajna), guiding followers towards nirvana (enlightenment).
  • It is composed of 3 major sections, each known as a “basket” (Pitaka), containing rules, discourses, and doctrinal analyses:
Focus Key Components Key Teachings

Vinaya Pitaka

 Governs the rules and regulations for the monastic community (Sangha), focusing on the conduct of monks and nuns. • Suttavibhanga: The primary text detailing the rules for monks and nuns, including disciplinary measures.

• Khandhaka: A collection of regulations governing the monastic community’s daily life, organizational structure, and interactions.

• Parivara: A summary and analysis of the rules and their interpretations.

• Discusses issues related to ordination, monastic vows, and the ethical conduct of monks and nuns.

 • Establishes a structured framework for maintaining the monastic order.

• Focus on ethical behavior, discipline, and the proper conduct necessary for spiritual growth.

• Importance of the community and the harmonious living of monks and nuns.

Sutta Pitaka

 Contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha, covering various topics like morality, meditation, and wisdom. • Digha Nikaya: The long discourses of the Buddha, including topics on ethics, meditation, and cosmology.

• Majjhima Nikaya: Middle-length discourses, often addressing common people and their concerns, focusing on practical aspects of the Buddha’s teachings.

• Samyutta Nikaya: Connected discourses grouped by topics like impermanence, suffering, and dependent origination.

• Anguttara Nikaya: A collection of numerical discourses, categorized by numbers (e.g., 3, 4, 5), addressing practical guidelines for daily living.

• Khuddaka Nikaya: A minor collection of texts, including the Dhammapada, Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha’s past lives), Therigatha, and others.

 • Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as central teachings for achieving liberation from suffering.

• Instructions on ethical living, mental cultivation, and the development of wisdom.

• Stories of the Buddha’s past lives, which serve to teach moral lessons and virtues.

• Provides practical teachings for both monastics and laypeople on how to live a life conducive to enlightenment.

Abhidhamma Pitaka

 A detailed systematic analysis of the Buddha’s teachings, providing a philosophical and psychological examination of Buddhist concepts. • Dhammasangani: A classification of mental and physical phenomena, offering an in-depth analysis of mental states and experience.

• Vibhanga: Provides a detailed analysis of various doctrines, including virtues, meditation practices, and psychological states.

• Puggalapannatti: Describes different types of persons and their spiritual progress, from ordinary beings to enlightened ones.

• Kathavatthu: A collection of doctrinal debates that addresses differences between early Buddhist schools, offering clarification on certain teachings.

• Yamaka: A set of questions and answers that explores complex doctrinal points in pairs of opposites.

• Patthana: Describes conditional relations between phenomena, offering a complex framework for understanding dependent origination.

 • Mind and consciousness: Detailed study of the nature of the mind, its states, and interactions with the physical world.

• Causality and the law of dependent origination (paticca-samuppada), explaining how phenomena arise and cease based on conditions.

• Analytical psychology: Explores the workings of the human mind, including perception, cognition, and emotion.

• Explores the relationship between mental and physical processes and provides an advanced understanding of reality and experience.

• Essential for understanding advanced Buddhist philosophy and psychology.

 

[UPSC 2024] Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhist monk, who travelled to China at the end of the fourth century AD, was the author of a commentary on:

(a) Prajnaparamita Sutra (b) Visuddhimagga (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya (d) Lalitavistra

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

15th Century Copper Plates from the Vijayanagara Empire discovered

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Vijayanagara Empire

Why in the News?

A set of copper plates from the early 15th Century, dating back to the reign of Devaraya I of the Sangama Dynasty, were recently unveiled by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

About the Sangama Dynasty 

  • The Sangama Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in the 14th century by brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
  • They were the sons of Bhavana Sangama, a chieftain from a pastoralist community with Yadava descent.
  • The Sangama Dynasty was established in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who founded the city of Vijayanagara on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River.
  • The early rulers focused on building the foundations of the empire, both administratively and culturally.

Notable Rulers

  • Harihara I: Known for founding the empire and laying its initial foundations.
  • Bukka Raya I: Expanded the empire’s territories significantly, ruling from 1343 to 1379 CE.
  • Harihara II: Conquered coastal Andhra and important Indian ports like Goa, continuing his predecessor’s expansion.
  • Deva Raya I: Ruled from 1404 to 1422 CE, further expanding the empire.
  • Deva Raya II (Krishnadeva Raya): Regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty, he expanded the empire and promoted art, literature, and diplomacy from 1422 to 1446 CE.

Downfall

  • Internal conflicts, particularly succession disputes, and external pressures from the Bahmani Sultanate and neighboring kingdoms weakened the dynasty.
  • The final blow came when Narasimha of the Saluva Dynasty usurped the throne in 1485 CE, marking the end of the Sangama Dynasty’s reign.

Key Features of the Copper Plates

  • These plates are unique, dating back to the coronation of King Devaraya I of the Vijayanagara Empire.
    • The king granted the village of Gudipalli, along with the hamlets Rajendramada and Udayapalli, during his coronation.
    • The village was renamed Devarayapura-agrahara and divided into 61 shares allocated to various Brahmins with expertise in Vedas and Shastras.
  • They are written in Sanskrit, Kannada and Nagari characters.
  • The seal features an image of Vamana, rather than the usual Varaha (boar), which is the royal insignia of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Historical Significance:

  • Dated to Saka 1328 (November 5, 1406 CE), the plates provide insights into the Sangama Dynasty.
  • It helps trace the lineage from Chandra, Yadu, and Sangama to the five sons of King Harihara: Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mãrapa, and Muddapa.
[UPSC 2023] Who among the following rulers of Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from the river to the capital city?

(a) Devaraya I (b) Mallikarjuna (c) Vira Vijaya (d) Virupaksha

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

What is the Green Credit Programme?

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Green Credit Programme

Why in the News?

The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.

About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)

  • The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
  • It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
  • Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
  • These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
  • It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
  • The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.

Criticisms of the Program:

  • Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
  • Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
  • Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
  • Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
[UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

(a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm

 

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RBI Notifications

RBI celebrates 90 years

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Evolution of RBI's Monetary Policy

Why in the News?

The first monetary policy of RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra in 2025 marks 90 years since the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced its inaugural monetary policy in 1935.

RBI’s First Monetary Policy in 1935

  • On July 3, 1935, RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, reflecting the Imperial Bank’s rate.
  • The CRR was set at 5% of demand liabilities and 2% of time liabilities on July 5, 1935.

Evolution of RBI’s Monetary Policy

  • Bank Rate in Early RBI History:
    • The bank rate was a key tool introduced by the RBI in 1935 to control credit and liquidity. On July 3, 1935, the RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, mirroring the rate of its predecessor, the Imperial Bank of India.
    • The RBI Act (1934) mandated its use for buying or re-discounting commercial paper, and it played a crucial role in India’s interest rate structure.
  • Role of Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR):
    • The CRR, introduced by the RBI, required banks to maintain a percentage of their deposits as reserves.
    • Influenced by the Federal Reserve Act of the USA, the CRR helped stabilize the banking system, especially during failures.
    • The CRR was set at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities in 1935, with adjustments made over time.
  • Exchange Rate Management
    • In 1935, the RBI managed the exchange rate of the 1 Indian rupee at 1 shilling and 6 pence.
    • This caused friction between nationalists, who favoured a lower exchange rate to boost exports, and the British, who preferred a higher rate to facilitate cheaper imports.
  • Disputes Between Government and RBI
    • The RBI’s decision to reduce the bank rate in 1935 was opposed by the government, fearing rupee depreciation.
    • This led to a conflict, resulting in the resignation of Osborne Smith, the first RBI Governor.
    • The incident highlighted tensions between the RBI’s monetary autonomy and government priorities.

About Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

  • The RBI is the central bank and monetary authority of India established on April 1, 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
  • Its idea was incepted from the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission.
  • Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, an Australian, served as the inaugural Governor.
  • He was succeeded by Sir C D Deshmukh, the first Indian to hold the position.
  • It is a centralized institution for India to effectively regulate its monetary and credit policies.
  • RBI had its initial headquarters in Kolkata, later moving permanently to Mumbai in 1937.
  • Initially, the RBI operated as a privately owned entity until its full nationalization in 1949.

Functions and Initiatives:

  • Monetary Authority: The RBI controls the supply of money in the economy to stabilize exchange rates, maintain a healthy balance of payment, and control inflation.
  • Issuer of Currency: Sole authority to issue currency and combat circulation of counterfeit notes.
  • Banker to the Government: Acts as a banker to both the Central and State governments, providing short-term credit and financial advisory services.
  • Lender of Last Resort: Provides emergency liquidity assistance to banks during crises.
  • Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves: Manages foreign exchange reserves and administers the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA).
  • Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems: Oversees payment and settlement systems in the country, ensuring efficiency and security.
  • Credit Control and Developmental Role: Promotes credit availability to productive sectors and fosters financial infrastructure development.

Dr. Ambedkar’s Role in the Establishment of RBI:

  • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contributions were particularly notable during the Hilton Young Commission discussions in 1926, where he presented his recommendations based on his book “The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution.”
  • These discussions laid the foundation for establishing the RBI on April 1, 1935.

 

[UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:

1. Reserve Bank of India was nationalized on 26 January 1950.

2. The borrowing programme of the Government of India is handled by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Majorana 1 Chip and the Pursuit of Quantum Computing

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip, Majorana particles

Why in the News?

In December 2024, Microsoft introduced its quantum computing chip, Majorana 1, designed to solve industrial-scale problems by utilizing the properties of Majorana particles for practical quantum computing.

About Majorana 1 Chip and the Science Behind

  • Microsoft introduced its Majorana 1 quantum computing chip, designed to solve large-scale problems using quantum computing.
  • This chip is named after Majorana particles, which have unique properties in particle physics.
  • Majorana particles are special because they are their own anti-particles.
  • This means that when two Majorana particles meet, they destroy each other and release energy.
  • This property is different from most particles, like electrons, which have separate anti-particles (for example, the electron’s anti-particle is the positron).
  • Why Majorana Particles Matter for Quantum Computing?
    • This unique property could make Majorana particles useful in quantum computing.
    • They could help make quantum bits (qubits) more stable, which is important for improving quantum computers.
    • Using Majorana particles may also help in topological quantum computing, which makes qubits less affected by external disturbances, making them more reliable.

Beta Decay and Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß):

  • Beta decay happens when an unstable atomic nucleus releases energy. In this process, a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. There are two types of beta decay:
  1. Beta-minus decay: A neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and an anti-neutrino.
  2. Beta-plus decay: A proton turns into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.
  • What is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß)? Neutrinoless double beta decay is a rare event where two electrons are emitted instead of the usual electron and anti-neutrino. This suggests that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos might be the same particle, known as Majorana particles.
    • If scientists observe this type of decay, it will prove that neutrinos are Majorana particles and help measure their mass.
    • This discovery would improve our understanding of particle physics.

AMoRE Experiment:

  • The AMoRE experiment is being conducted in South Korea to detect this rare 0vßß decay.
  • The experiment uses molybdenum-100 (Mo-100), which is known to undergo double beta decay. The team is measuring the energy differences in electron emissions to detect the 0vßß decay.
  • While no evidence has been found yet, the experiment continues to improve its sensitivity by using 100 kg of Mo-100 for more accurate measurements.

Scientific Significance:

  • The search for 0vßß and studying Majorana particles could help answer important questions about the mass of neutrinos and improve our understanding of particle physics.
  • Learning more about neutrinos is key to both advancing quantum computing and understanding particle physics.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

(a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

Why in the News?

SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.

About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

  • The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
  • The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
  • Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
  • Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
  • The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
  • The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.

Features and Significance:

  • Unique Orbital Path:
    • Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
    • This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
  • Scientific Research:
    • The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
    • Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
  • Climate Change Research:
    • As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.
[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in

1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.

2. predicting the onset of monsoons.

3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

IISc’s Bacteria-Based Technique for Lunar Habitat Construction

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Bacterial Brick

Why in the News?

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed a bacteria-based technique to repair bricks used in lunar habitats, designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the moon’s environment.

About the Bacterial Brick:

  • The bacterial brick is an innovative material designed for building durable, eco-friendly structures in lunar habitats.
  • It is created using lunar soil simulants combined with Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacteria that binds soil particles together, forming a solid material suitable for construction on the moon.
  • How is it made?
    • The bacteria Sporosarcina pasteurii converts urea and calcium into calcium carbonate crystals, which bind soil particles together to create a brick-like substance.
    • The process is further enhanced with guar gum, which serves as a natural adhesive, making it a low-cost, eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive cement-based manufacturing.
    • The researchers also explored sintering, where a mixture of soil simulants and polyvinyl alcohol is heated to high temperatures, creating stronger, more pressure-resistant bricks.

Significance for Lunar Surface Conditions:

  • The moon’s surface experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from 121°C to -133°C, causing bricks to crack and become brittle.
  • A bacteria-based repair technique using Sporosarcina pasteurii helps address these cracks.
    • When mixed with lunar soil simulant and guar gum, the bacteria effectively adhere to cracks, improving durability and enabling the bricks to withstand temperatures from 100°C to 175°C.
  • This approach offers a sustainable solution by allowing on-site construction with local lunar materials, reducing the need for Earth-based materials.
    • It ensures long-term structural integrity for lunar habitats, contributing to the sustainability of space missions.
[UPSC 2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?

1. They use living organisms as catalysts (often including bacteria) to generate electricity from certain substrates.

2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.

3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya 

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya

Why in the News?

Since February 2025, Buddhists across India have been protesting, demanding the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949.

Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya 

Controversy surrounding the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949:

  • The BTA was enacted after disputes between the Hindu and Buddhist communities regarding control of the temple.
  • Prior to this, the temple was under Hindu control, especially after the Mughal Empire in 1590 and following the Pala decline.
  • The BTA created an 8-member management committee for the temple with equal representation from Hindus and Buddhists.
  • However, the District Magistrate (usually from the Hindu community) was the ex-officio chairperson, giving Hindus a majority.
  • This has been a point of contention for the Buddhist community, leading to calls for reform.
  • The Supreme Court petition filed by monks in 2012 is yet to be heard, further fuelling their cause.

About the Mahabodhi Temple:

Details
About
  • Bodh Gaya, Bihar, 96 km from Patna, 15 km from Gaya
  • The temple marks the spot where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in 531 BCE.
  • Designated in 2002 for its religious, historical, and architectural importance.
Architectural Features
  • Early example of brick architecture.
  • Features two large shikhara towers, tallest being 55 meters high.
  • Houses Vajrasana (Seat of Enlightenment).
  • Sculptural reliefs depicting scenes from Buddha’s life.
Sacred Sites within the Temple Complex
  • Bodhi Tree (descendant of original tree planted by Buddha)
  • Animeshlochan Chaitya (Second Week of Buddha’s meditation)
  • Ratnachakrama (Third Week of Buddha’s meditation)
  • Ratnaghar Chaitya (Fourth Week)
  • Ajapala Nigrodh Tree (Fifth Week)
  • Lotus Pond (Sixth Week)
  • Rajyatana Tree (Seventh Week)
Historical Timeline
  • First temple built by Emperor Ashoka in 3rd century BCE.
  • Current structure from 6th century CE with restorations during Pala period.
  • Hiuen Tsang visited in 629 AD.
Key Features and Preservation
  • Built with brick and stucco.
  • Large Buddha statue in meditative posture.
  • Stone railings relocated to nearby museum.
  • Actively preserved and restored as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

 

[UPSC 2023] In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?

(a) Andhra (b) Gandhara (c) Kalinga (d) Magadha

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Why the Parker Solar Probe is trying to ‘touch’ the Sun?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe

Why in the News?

The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.

Why the Parker Solar Probe is trying to ‘touch’ the Sun?

About Parker Solar Probe

  • The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
  • It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
  • The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
  • This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
    • The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
  • The primary goals are:
    • Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
    • Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
    • Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
    • Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
  • The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
    • FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
    • ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
    • SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
    • WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
    • Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.

Impact of the Mission on Solar Science

  • Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
  • Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
  • New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
  • Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
  • Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.
[UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

1.        GPS and navigation systems could fail.

2.        Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

3.        Power grids could be damaged.

4.        Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

5.        Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

6.        Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

7.        Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only

(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only

(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Sarhul Festival Celebrations in Jharkhand

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Sarhul Festival

Why in the News?

On April 1, 2025, tribals in Jharkhand and the larger Chhotanagpur region will celebrate Sarhul, marking both the New Year and the arrival of spring.

About Sarhul Festival

  • Sarhul is a significant Adivasi festival celebrated in Jharkhand and the Chhotanagpur region, covering parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Bihar.
  • It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra, typically three days after the appearance of the new moon.
    • It marks the new year and celebrates the arrival of spring.
  • It is celebrated by various tribes, including Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho, each with its own unique customs.
  • The Sal tree (Shorea robusta) is venerated as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity who protects the village from natural calamities and misfortunes.
  • The festival symbolizes the union of the Sun and Earth.
    • The pahan (male priest) represents the Sun, while his wife, the pahen, symbolizes the Earth. This union is essential for sustaining life, emphasizing the connection between sunlight and soil.
  • It also marks the renewal of life.
  • After the rituals, Adivasis begin ploughing their fields, sowing crops, or gathering produce from the forest.

Cultural Significance of Sarhul

  • Sarhul evolved from a hunting festival to one that celebrates agriculture, reflecting the changing lifestyle of the Adivasi communities.
  • Sarhul is a cultural movement to preserve Adivasi heritage amidst urbanization and modernization, helping reinforce tribal identity.
  • Over time, Sarhul has become a platform for Adivasi political assertion, with some groups using the festival to demand the recognition of Sarna religion and its inclusion in India’s caste census.
  • Sarhul has also become a means for advocating tribal rights and social justice, particularly through the leadership of Baba Karthik Oraon.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition State

1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

 

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Coal and Mining Sector

India’s Coal Dependence rose to 79%

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Share of Coal in India's Energy Basket

Why in the News?

According to MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.

Share of Coal in India’s Energy Basket:

  • Dominance: As of 2023-24, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.
  • Production Growth: In 2023-24, India saw a 12% increase in coal production, continuing a strong growth trajectory from the 15% growth in 2022-23, marking one of the fastest growth rates in the past decade.
  • Dependence on Imports: Despite a surge in domestic production, India remains 26% dependent on coal imports, although this has decreased from 31% in 2019-20.

India’s Total Energy Basket:

  • Coal: Discussed above.
  • Nuclear Energy: Nuclear power contributes approximately 1.7% to the total electricity generation capacity, with an installed capacity of about 8,180 MW as of late 2024.
  • Crude Oil: The share of crude oil has decreased from 11% in 2014-15 to 6% in 2023-24, indicating a long-term decline in its contribution to India’s energy mix.
  • Natural Gas: Similarly, natural gas’s share has decreased from 9% in 2014-15 to 7% in 2023-24, reflecting a shift away from natural gas in the energy mix.
  • Renewable Energy: Despite significant investments and efforts by the government, renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear) contribute only 7% to the total energy mix in 2023-24, showing slow but steady growth over the past decade.

Shift Towards Renewable Energy:

  • Total Contribution: Renewable sources contributed 7% of India’s total energy production in 2023-24, a modest increase from 6% in 2014-15. While this share remains small, the absolute production from renewables has grown at a 6.76% CAGR over the past 10 years.
  • Growth in Solar and Wind Energy:
    • The generation from solar, wind, and other renewable sources (excluding large hydro) has surged by 210% over the last decade, increasing from 6,555 KToE in FY15 to 20,279 KToE in FY24.
  • Key Renewable Energy Potential:
    • Wind energy holds the largest share of India’s renewable potential at 55.17%, with an estimated potential of 11,63,856 MW.
    • Solar energy is the second-largest contributor at 35.50%, with a potential of 7,48,990 MW.
    • Large hydro contributes 6.32% of the renewable energy potential with 1,33,410 MW.
  • Future Targets:
    • India added 3.4 GW of new wind capacity in 2024, with Gujarat (1,250 MW), Karnataka (1,135 MW), and Tamil Nadu (980 MW) leading the way.
    • India is aiming for 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030, which would significantly boost the share of renewables in the energy mix, reducing the reliance on coal and crude oil over the coming years.
[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.

2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment.

3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and

 

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Judicial Reforms

What are the Norms for Disclosure of Judges’ Assets?

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Judges' Asset Disclosure

Why in the News?

The discovery of large sums of cash at Delhi High Court judges’ residence has raised concerns about corruption in India’s judiciary and reignited the debate over the public disclosure of judges’ assets and liabilities.

Current Stance on Judges’ Asset Disclosure

  • Supreme Court’s Historical Approach:
    • 1997 Resolution: The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice J.S. Verma, resolved that judges should disclose their assets to the Chief Justice of India (CJI), but this did not involve public disclosure.
    • 2009 Resolution: The full Bench of the Supreme Court agreed to publish judges’ asset declarations on the court’s website, though this was done voluntarily. However, the website has not been updated since 2018, and the assets of current judges are not publicly available.
    • 2019 Ruling: The Supreme Court ruled that judges’ personal assets and liabilities are not private information, making them subject to the Right to Information (RTI) Act.
  • High Court’s Position:
    • As of March 2024, only 13% of High Court judges have publicly disclosed their assets and liabilities. Many High Courts, including Uttarakhand and Allahabad, have opposed public disclosure and argued that such information is outside the scope of the RTI Act.
  • Resistance to Full Disclosure:
    • The Uttarakhand High Court (2012) passed a resolution opposing the disclosure of judges’ assets under the RTI Act. Similarly, many High Courts have rejected RTI applications seeking information about judges’ assets.

Parliament’s Role – Proposed Reforms

  • Committee Recommendation (2023):
    • The Parliamentary Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, and Law and Justice recommended that legislation be introduced to make the disclosure of judges’ assets and liabilities mandatory for Supreme Court and High Court judges.
    • However, there has been no progress on implementing this recommendation as of now.
  • Need for Legislation:
    • Despite the RTI Act requiring public servants to disclose their assets, judges have largely remained exempt from such transparency.
    • Legislative action is seen as essential to ensure accountability and transparency within the judiciary, with several advocating for mandatory public disclosure similar to other public officials.
[UPSC 2017] With reference to the appointment of the High Court Judges, consider the following statements:

1. Chief Justice of India is consulted by the President in the appointment.

2. Governor of the State is consulted by the Chief Justice of India in the appointment.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

[UPSC 2021] An independent and empowered social audit mechanism is an absolute must in every sphere of public service, including judiciary, to ensure performance, accountability and ethical conduct. Elaborate.

 

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Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

Tribhuvandas Patel: the Father of Cooperative Movement

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Tribhuvandas Patel

Why in the News?

The Lok Sabha recently passed a Bill to establish Tribhuvan Sahkari University in Anand, Gujarat, in honour of Tribhuvandas Kishibhai Patel, a visionary leader known as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly in dairy farming.

Tribhuvandas Patel the Father of Cooperative Movement

Who was Tribhuvandas Patel?

  • Patel was born in 1903 to Kishibhai Patel and Lakhiba in Anand, Gujarat. He was an alumnus of Gujarat Vidyapith and was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi.
  • A dedicated freedom fighter, Patel participated in the civil disobedience movement, campaigns against untouchability, and the salt satyagraha.
  • He was jailed in 1930 for his participation in the Salt Movement.
  • He is widely recognized as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly for his transformative work in the dairy industry.

Patel’s Contribution to the Cooperative Movement

  • In 1946, Patel founded the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union Limited (KDCMPUL), known later as Amul, to empower farmers and challenge the monopoly of the Polson Dairy in Anand, Gujarat.
  • Patel collaborated with Verghese Kurien, a mechanical engineer, to modernize the dairy plant and increase milk production. This collaboration eventually led to the White Revolution in India.
  • Patel was also instrumental in setting up the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF), the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), and the Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA), which played a pivotal role in cooperative dairy farming and rural development.
  • After his retirement, Patel used funds from the cooperative community to establish the Tribhuvandas Foundation, focused on community health and welfare.

Cooperative Movement in India:

  • Pre-Independence Era:
    • The cooperative movement originated from informal local initiatives like Chit Funds and Mutual-Loan Associations in places like Madras Presidency and Punjab.
    • The 1904 Cooperative Credit Societies Act formally recognized cooperatives.
    • The Government of India Act, 1919 empowered provinces to legislate on cooperatives, leading to the Bombay Cooperative Society Act of 1925.
  • Post-Independence Developments:
    • Cooperatives became central to India’s economic strategies, particularly for rural development and social justice.
    • The National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) (1963) and NABARD (1982) supported rural cooperatives and provided credit to farmers.
    • The 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011) granted the right to form cooperatives under Article 19.
    • The Ministry of Cooperation was formed in 2021 to strengthen the cooperative framework.
    • The MSCS Amendment Act 2023 aims to improve governance and operational efficiency of cooperatives.

Key Types of Cooperatives in India:

  1. Consumers’ Cooperatives: Provide affordable goods by removing intermediaries (e.g., Kendriya Bhandar).
  2. Producers’ Cooperatives: Support small producers by supplying essential materials.
  3. Cooperative Marketing Societies: Help producers market products collectively (e.g., Amul).

 

[UPSC 2011] In India, which of the following have the highest share in the disbursement of credit to agriculture and allied activities?

(a) Commercial Banks (b) Cooperative Banks (c) Regional Rural Banks (d) Microfinance Institutions

 

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