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Type: Prelims Only

  • Cyber Security – CERTs, Policy, etc

    CERT-In makes Annual Cybersecurity Audit Mandatory for Companies

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Cyber Security

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) has mandated annual third-party cybersecurity audits for both private and public-sector organisations operating digital infrastructure.

    Cybersecurity Directive: Key Highlights:

    • Annual third-party cyber audits are mandatory for all digital infrastructure.
    • Sectoral regulators may require more frequent checks based on risk.
    • Audits must be risk-based, domain-specific, and aligned with business context.

    About the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In):

    • Parent Ministry: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
    • Established: January 2004
    • Constituency: All entities operating in Indian cyberspace
    • Core Responsibilities:
      • Collect, analyse, and disseminate cybersecurity incident data
      • Forecast and alert about emerging cyber threats
      • Provide emergency response support to affected entities
      • Issue security guidelines, advisories, and best practices
    • International Role: Signs MoUs with other countries to:
      • Share real-time cyber threat intelligence
      • Collaborate on incident response and recovery
      • Exchange knowledge on global cybersecurity practices

    India’s Cybersecurity Ecosystem:

    • Institutional Framework:
      • National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): Protects key sectors like telecom, banking, and power
      • National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC): Monitors real-time cyber threats across public and private domains
      • National Cyber Security Coordinator (NCSC): Ensures coordination across ministries and departments
      • Sector-Specific Response Teams (CSIRTs): For domains like finance (CSIRT-Fin), power (CSIRT-Power)
    • Legal and Policy Measures:
      • Information Technology Act, 2000: Core law for cybercrime and electronic governance
      • National Cyber Security Policy, 2013: Strategic vision for securing cyberspace
      • Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Ensures privacy, mandates breach reporting
      • Cyber Crisis Management Plan: Framework for cyber incident response in government agencies
    • Capacity Building Programs:
      • Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA): Promotes digital literacy in rural areas
      • Cyber Surakshit Bharat Initiative: Trains Chief Information Security Officers of public sector organisations
      • Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): Multi-agency platform to handle cybercrimes
    [UPSC 2017] In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents? 1. Service providers 2. Data Centres 3. Body corporate Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Cuvette Centrale: World’s Largest Tropical Peatland Complex

    Prelims OnlyWorld Mapping | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Distribution Of Key Natural Resources Across The World

    Why in the News?

    The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has launched oil exploration over 124 million hectares of the Cuvette Centrale peatlands raising global ecological risk.

    About the Cuvette Centrale Peatland Complex:

    • Location: Central Congo Basin, spanning the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of Congo.
    • Size: Covers approximately 145,000–167,600 sq. km—larger than England and about 10% of the Congo Basin.
    • Peat Coverage: Around 40% of the region is underlain by peat—formed over 10,000 years due to flat terrain, rainforest climate, and slow-moving water.
    • Landscape: Features a mosaic of seasonal lakes, floating prairies, swamp forests, rivers, and grasslands.
    • Global Status: The world’s largest near-contiguous tropical peatland complex.

    Ecological Significance:

    • Carbon Storage: Holds about 30–30.6 gigatonnes of carbon—
      • Equal to 3 years of global fossil fuel emissions.
      • Nearly 15 years of U.S. emissions.
      • About 28% of global tropical peat carbon stock.
    • Climate Impact: Acts as a major carbon sink, critical for regulating global temperatures and mitigating climate change.
    • Biodiversity: Habitat for forest elephants, lowland gorillas, and rare plant species.
    • Local Importance: Sustains indigenous livelihoods and maintains regional water cycles.
    • Conservation Status: Recognized as a transnational Ramsar wetland site, highlighting its international ecological value.
    [UPSC 2024] One of the following regions has the world’s largest tropical peatland, which holds about three years’ worth of global carbon emissions from fossil fuels, and the possible destruction of which can exert a detrimental effect on the global climate. Which one of the following denotes that region?

    Options: (a) Amazon Basin (b) Congo Basin* (c) Kikori basin (d) Rio De La Plata Basin

     

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    In news: Kyoto Protocol

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    Vijai Sharma, a 1974-batch IAS officer and architect of India’s climate diplomacy, who helped shape the Kyoto Protocol for safeguarding the interests of developing countries like India, has passed away.

    About Kyoto Protocol:

    • Adopted: 11 December 1997 (UNFCCC COP-3, Kyoto, Japan); Came into Force: 16 February 2005
    • Legal Status: Legally binding on developed (Annex I) countries
    • Parent Treaty: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
    • Objective: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change
    • Principle: Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)
    • Parties: 192 ratified; key non-parties include United States and Canada

    Key Features:

    • Emission Targets:
      • Annex B nations to cut emissions by 5% below 1990 levels (2008–2012)
      • Doha Amendment (2012): 18% cut for 2013–2020
    • Greenhouse Gases Covered:
      • Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Hydrofluorocarbons, Perfluorocarbons, Sulfur hexafluoride
    • Market Mechanisms:
      • Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Carbon credits via projects in developing nations
      • Joint Implementation (JI): Emission reduction between Annex I countries
      • International Emissions Trading: Trade surplus emission units
    • Monitoring and Enforcement:
      • Mandatory reporting and independent verification
      • Compliance Committee oversight
      • Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) included; aviation/shipping excluded
    • Equity Element:
      • No binding targets for developing nations like India and China
      • Developed nations held accountable for historical emissions

    Vijai Sharma’s Contributions:

    • Climate Negotiations Leader: India’s chief negotiator (1995–2001), led G77+China, defended equity and exemptions for developing nations
    • Policy Architect: Helped shape CDM governance, promoted India’s clean-tech access
    • Environmental Reformer: As Environment Secretary (2008–2010), improved clearance processes
    • Legacy: Called “Sir Humphrey Sharma” for his sharp wit and bureaucratic skill; key figure in India’s Kyoto-era climate diplomacy
    [UPSC 2016] Consider the following pairs:

    Terms sometimes seen in the news : Their origin

    1. Annex-I Countries : Cartagena Protocol

    2. Certified Emissions Reductions : Nagoya Protocol

    3. Clean Development Mechanisms : Kyoto Protocol

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR)

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) has been successfully launched from Sriharikota using GSLV Mk-II.

    NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR)

    About NISAR (NASA–ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar):

    • Launch Vehicle: GSLV Mk-II | Launch Site: Sriharikota, India
    • Mission Life: 3 years (planned); 5+ years (design)
    • Orbit: Sun-synchronous polar orbit at 747 km with 98.4° inclination
    • Objective: High-precision monitoring of Earth’s surface changes—tectonics, agriculture, ecosystems, ice, floods, and landslides
    • Data Access: Free and near real-time; disaster maps delivered in under 5 hours
    • Hardware Contributions:
      • NASA: L-band SAR, 12m antenna, avionics
      • ISRO: S-band SAR, satellite bus, launch services
    • Development and Collaboration:
      • Initial Concept: 2007 (NASA); ISRO joined in 2012
      • Formal Agreement: 2014
      • Investment: NASA – ~$1.16 billion; ISRO – ~$90 million

    Key Features of NISAR:

    • What is Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)?
      • Operates day/night, all-weather
      • Simulates large radar antenna via motion
      • Penetrates clouds, vegetation, and soil
    • Dual-Band SAR:
      • L-band SAR (1.257 GHz):
        • Deeper penetration; ideal for forests, tectonic shifts, permafrost
      • S-band SAR (3.2 GHz):
        • Surface details; supports agriculture, flood mapping, biomass tracking
    • Radar Antenna:
      • 12-meter deployable mesh reflector
      • Resolution: 3–10 m spatial; cm-level vertical
      • Swath Width: 240 km
    • Imaging Frequency:
      • Global land/ice coverage every 12 days
      • Less frequent in polar zones
    • Data Output: Generates 80 TB/day (3x current Earth observatories):
      • Biomass and cropland maps
      • High-resolution flood and infrastructure data

    Applications and Impact:

    • Disaster Relief: Before-and-after imagery for planning
    • Climate Monitoring: Glacier melt, forest degradation
    • Agriculture: Crop health, rotation, food security
    • Infrastructure: Detects land subsidence (dams, cities)
    • Strategic Value:
      • Most powerful Earth-observing radar satellite
      • First with dual SAR payload
      • Strengthens India–US space partnership (Artemis, human spaceflight)
    [UPSC 2010] Question: In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news ?

    Options: (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India* (d) A space telescope developed by  India

     

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  • Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

    Five years of National Education Policy (2020)

    Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    Why in the News?

    It has been five years since the introduction of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 which replaced the 1986 National Policy on Education.

    About the National Education Policy, 2020:

    • Origin: Drafted by a committee chaired by Dr. K. Kasturirangan under the Ministry of Education.
    • 5 Core Pillars: Based on Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability, and Accountability.
    • Vision: Seeks to build a knowledge society by unlocking every learner’s potential.
    • Global Link: Aligned with the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 (Education for All).

    Key Provisions:

    • [A] School Education:
      • Curriculum Structure: Introduces 5+3+3+4 design (Foundational to Secondary), replacing 10+2.
      • ECCE Focus: Early Childhood Care and Education via Jaadui Pitara kits and play-based learning.
      • Vocational Training: Begins from Grade 6 with internships.
      • Basic Literacy & Numeracy: Achieved through National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy.
      • Language Medium: Emphasis on mother tongue/regional language up to Grade 5.
      • Assessment Reform: Launch of Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development (PARAKH) as a national evaluation centre.
    • [B] Higher Education:
      • Four-Year Degree: Multidisciplinary courses with multiple exit points.
      • Credit Bank: Academic Bank of Credit ensures credit mobility across institutions.
      • Research Boost: National Research Foundation supports innovation and research.
      • Single Regulator: Higher Education Commission of India proposed (pending law) to replace multiple bodies.
      • Language Promotion: Establishment of Indian Institute of Translation and Interpretation for Indian languages.

    Implementation Initiatives:

    • Foundational Mission: NIPUN Bharat aims to achieve basic literacy and numeracy by Class 3.
    • Unified Credit System: Rollout of Academic Bank of Credit and National Credit Framework.
    • Common Entrance: Common University Entrance Test introduced for fair UG admissions.
    • Early Prep: Vidya Pravesh – a 3-month play-based module for Grade 1 entrants.
    • Tech Education in Regional Languages: Promoted by the All-India Council for Technical Education.
    • Digital Backbone: National Digital Education Architecture launched to support e-learning.
    • SAFAL Assessments: Structured competency-based testing in Grades 3, 5, and 8 by Central Board of Secondary Education.

    Key Achievements:

    • Curriculum and Textbooks: NCERT released new content for Classes 1–8.
    • ECCE Adoption: Early childhood curriculum implemented in several states.
    • Language Expansion: Regional language instruction expanded at foundational levels.
    • Academic Flexibility: Credit-based transfer systems in use via Academic Bank of Credit and National Credit Framework.
    • Global Presence: Indian Institutes such as Indian Institute of Technology (Zanzibar) and Indian Institute of Management (Dubai) now abroad.
    • International Collaboration: Foreign universities invited to set up campuses under new regulations.
    [UPSC 2016] “SWAYAM’, an initiative of the Government of India, aims at

    Options:

    (a) promoting the Self-Help Groups in rural areas

    (b) providing financial and technical assistance to young start-up entrepreneurs

    (c) promoting the education and health of adolescent girls

    (d) providing affordable and quality education to the citizens for free*

     

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  • Indian Missile Program Updates

    Pralay Missile 

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

    Why in the News?

    The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully conducted two consecutive test flights of the Pralay missile from the Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Island off Odisha’s coast.

    Pralay Missile 

    About Pralay Missile:

    • Developer: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), led by Research Centre Imarat (RCI) with Indian industry support.
    • Purpose: Tactical surface-to-surface missile for precision strikes along sensitive borders like the Line of Actual Control (LAC) and Line of Control (LoC).
    • Role: Enhances India’s conventional deterrence in short-range battlefield operations.
    • Targets: Designed to destroy high-value assets—radars, command centers, airstrips, and military infrastructure.

    Key Features:

    • Type: Quasi-ballistic surface-to-surface missile
    • Range: 150–500 km
    • Payload: 500–1,000 kg (conventional warheads)
    • Propulsion: Solid-propellant rocket motor
    • Launcher: Mobile platform for rapid deployment
    • Guidance: Advanced inertial navigation with <10 m Circular Error Probable (CEP)
    • Terminal Speed: Up to Mach 6.1
    • Maneuverability: Capable of mid-air trajectory changes to evade interception
    [UPSC 2023]  Consider the following statements:

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

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  • Citizenship and Related Issues

    National Population Register (NPR)

    Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Population & Associated Issues

    Why in the News?

    The Government of India recently clarified in the Lok Sabha that no final decision has been taken regarding the updation of the National Population Register (NPR) during the upcoming Population Census 2027.

    What is the National Population Register (NPR)?

    • Overview: NPR is a register of “usual residents” in India—individuals who have lived in an area for 6 months or intend to stay for the next 6 months.
    • Conducted by: Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI), Ministry of Home Affairs.
    • Legal Basis: Prepared under the Citizenship Act, 1955 and Citizenship Rules, 2003.
    • Mandatory Nature: Registration in NPR is compulsory for all usual residents.
    • Exclusion: Assam is excluded as it has completed the National Register of Citizens (NRC) process.
    • Historical Background:
      • First Created: In 2010 during the House Listing phase of Census 2011.
      • Updated: Again in 2015–16 via door-to-door survey.
      • Database Size: Contains data of around 119 crore residents.
      • Aadhaar Link: Biometric data collection is linked to Aadhaar; however, ration card data collection was dropped in the 2020 plan.
      • Current Status: NPR update plans (2020) are on hold. NPR’s priority has reduced due to Aadhaar’s expanded utility in benefit delivery.
    • Scope and Data Collected:
      • Coverage Levels: Conducted at local, sub-district, district, state, and national levels.
      • Demographic Data: Includes name, age, gender, relationship, marital status, etc.
      • Biometric Data: Sourced via Aadhaar enrolment—fingerprints, iris scan, and photo.

    NPR vs National Register of Citizens (NRC):

    Feature National Population Register (NPR) National Register of Citizens (NRC)
    Purpose Record of all usual residents Register of Indian citizens
    Coverage Includes citizens and non-citizens Only Indian citizens
    Legal Basis Citizenship Act, 1955 & Rules (2003) Citizenship Rules (2003)
    Primary Use Welfare schemes, demographic data Citizenship verification
    Mandatory? Yes Not uniformly across India

     

    [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

    1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.

    2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

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  • Tiger Conservation Efforts – Project Tiger, etc.

    Sundarbans set to become India’s Second-Largest TR

    National Parks/WSPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The proposal to expand the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve by 1,100 sq km has received clearance from the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and awaits approval from National Board for Wildlife (NBWL).

    Sundarbans set to become India’s Second-Largest TR

    About Sundarbans Tiger Reserve (STR):

    • Location: Situated in South and North 24-Parganas districts, West Bengal; lies at the southern tip of the Gangetic Delta.
    • Area: Presently 2,585.89 sq km; expansion to 3,629.57 sq km under proposal.
    • Status: Notified as a Tiger Reserve, National Park, Biosphere Reserve; part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.
    • Unique Feature: World’s only mangrove forest with a viable tiger population.
    • Tiger Count: Over 100 tigers – 80 in core area, 21 in adjoining forests.
    • Landscape: Interconnected estuaries, tidal creeks, and 105 mangrove-covered islands.
    • Flora: Dominated by mangrove species like Avicennia, Rhizophora, Heritiera.
    • Fauna: Includes Royal Bengal Tigers, Fishing Cats, Estuarine Crocodiles, Irrawaddy Dolphins, King Cobras, and endangered reptiles and birds.
    • Boundaries:
      • East: Bangladesh border (Raimangal, Harinbhanga rivers)
      • South: Bay of Bengal
      • North/West: Matla, Bidya, Gomdi Rivers

    Back2Basics: Tiger Reserves in India

    • Overview: A Tiger Reserve is a legally notified area under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for the conservation of tigers and biodiversity.
    • Governing Authority: National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
    • Origin: Initiated under Project Tiger, launched in 1973.
    • Structure:
      • Core Zone: Highly protected; no human activity allowed; declared as National Park or Sanctuary.
      • Buffer Zone: Surrounds core; allows regulated human use and supports conservation-compatible livelihoods.

    Tiger Reserve Landscape in India (as of 2025):

    • Total Reserves: 58 (up from 46 in 2014)
    • Largest Reserve: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh – 3,727.82 sq km
    • Oldest Reserve: Corbett Tiger Reserve, Uttarakhand – established in 1973
    • Newest Reserves: Guru Ghasidas (Chhattisgarh), Ranipur (Uttar Pradesh), Ramgarh Vishdhari (Rajasthan)
    • Top State: Madhya Pradesh – 7 Tiger Reserves
    • Tiger Density: Bandipur TR > Corbett TR > Kaziranga TR (148, 18.6 tigers/sq. km.)
    • Global Tiger Day: Celebrated on 29th July every year

     

    [UPSC 2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?”

    Options: (a) Corbett (b) Ranthambore (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam* (d) Sunderbans

     

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  • Divya Deshmukh becomes new Chess World Champion

    Prelims Only | Trivia | Mains Paper 1:

    Why in the News?

    Divya Deshmukh made history by becoming India’s first Women’s World Cup Champion and only the fourth Indian woman Grandmaster, defeating Koneru Humpy in the final at Batumi, Georgia.

    Divya Deshmukh becomes new Chess World Champion

    Major Achievements of Divya Deshmukh:

    • 2025: Won the FIDE Women’s World Cup, defeating Koneru Humpy. Became India’s 4th woman Grandmaster.
    • 2024: U-20 Girls’ World Champion
    • 2023: Asian Women’s Champion
    • 2022: Indian Women’s National Champion
    • Olympiad: Key contributor to India’s gold in 2025 Chess Olympiad (Budapest).
    • 2013: Became India’s youngest Woman FIDE Master (WFM) at age 7.

    About the FIDE World Chess Championship System:

    • FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs): Global chess body founded in 1924; headquartered in Switzerland.
    • World Championship Format: Played over 14 classical games. A player must score 7.5 points to win.
    • Tiebreaker: If the match ends 7–7, rapid and blitz games are used.
    • Qualification Path:
      • Zonal and Continental Championships
      • FIDE World Cup (knockout)
      • Candidates Tournament (top player faces reigning champion)
    • Special Championships:
      • Women’s World Championship
      • Junior and Youth Championships
      • World Rapid & Blitz Championships

    Key FIDE Events and Titles:

    • FIDE World Cup: Knockout format; major path to the Candidates.
    • FIDE Women’s World Cup: Equivalent format for top female players.
    • Title Hierarchy:
      • Grandmaster (GM) – highest title
      • International Master (IM)
      • FIDE Master (FM)
      • Candidate Master (CM)
      • Women’s Titles: Woman Grandmaster (WGM), Woman International Master (WIM), etc.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    I. In the finals of the 45th Chess Olympiad held in 2024, Gukesh Dommaraju became the world’s youngest winner after defeating the Russian player Ian Nepomniachtchi.

    II. Abhimanyu Mishra, an American chess player, holds the record of becoming world’s youngest ever Grandmaster.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) I only (b) II only * (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II

     

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  • Indian Army Updates

    Exercise ‘Bold Kurukshetra’, 2025

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the News?

    The 14th edition of the India–Singapore Joint Military Exercise — Exercise Bold Kurukshetra — commenced in Jodhpur.

    About Exercise ‘Bold Kurukshetra’

    • Launch Year: 2005, after the 2003 India–Singapore Defence Cooperation Agreement.
    • Purpose: Strengthen bilateral defence ties, boost operational coordination, and enhance regional security.
    • Frequency: Held annually or biannually, alternating between Indian training zones like Babina and Jodhpur.
    • Participants: Focuses on armoured and mechanised infantry units from India and Singapore.
    • Framework: Conducted under United Nations Peacekeeping mandates, simulating mechanised warfare and joint operations.

    Key Features:

    • Format:
      • Tabletop wargaming and computer-based simulations.
      • Validates doctrines and standard operating procedures in mechanised warfare.
    • Operational Objectives:
      • Improve interoperability and tactical planning.
      • Execute joint manoeuvres and enhance command-level coordination.
      • Build mutual understanding of combat and operational doctrines.
    • Evolution Over Time:
      • Progressed from basic drills to complex command post exercises and live-fire missions.
      • Includes scenario-based planning and real-time decision-making via digital simulations.
    [UPSC 2008] ‘Hand-in-Hand 2007’, a joint anti-terrorism military training was held by the officers of the Indian Army and officers of the Army of which one of the following countries?

    Options: (a) China *(b) Japan (c) Russia (d) USA

     

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