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Type: Prelims Only

  • Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

    Pollution Control can levy Environmental Damages: SC

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court has empowered Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) across India with the authority to impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages under the Water and Air Acts.

    Key Highlights of Supreme Court Ruling:

    • Key Powers Granted:
      • Impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages.
      • Demand bank guarantees in anticipation of environmental harm.
    • Legal Basis:
      • Section 33A, Water Act, 1974: Power to issue directions for closure/regulation of industries and stoppage of utilities to enforce water pollution norms.
      • Section 31A, Air Act, 1981: Similar binding powers to control air pollution; non-compliance is a legal violation.

    About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

    • Established: September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Also empowered under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
    • Role: Statutory technical body to promote clean air and water; provides services under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
    • Key Functions:
      • Control and abate water and air pollution; promote stream and well cleanliness.
      • Advise the Central Government on pollution-related issues.
      • Coordinate with and assist State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs); resolve disputes.
      • Monitor pollution in Union Territories via delegated powers under Water, Air, and Water Cess Acts.
    • Develops and revises:
      • National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
      • Water Quality Criteria from various sources.
      • Emission/Discharge Standards under Environment Protection Rules, 1986.
      • Bio-Medical Waste Incineration Norms.
      • Noise/Emission Limits for diesel, LPG, and CNG generators.
    • Minimal National Standards (MINAS) Issuance:
      • Covers effluent, emission, noise, and solid waste across industries.
      • Mandatory for State adoption as baseline standards.
      • Publishes COINDS (Comprehensive Industry Documents), manuals, and codes for pollution treatment and control systems.

    About State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs):

    • Constitution: Formed by State Governments under the Water and Air Acts.
    • Functions:
      • Monitor and control local pollution.
      • Inspect industries and enforce compliance.
      • Advise state governments.
      • Conduct awareness campaigns.
      • Implement control programmes and collaborate with CPCB and local bodies.
    [UPSC 2018] How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)?

    1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by an executive order of the Government.

    2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Blockchain-verified Quantum Randomness for Secure Communication

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    A recent breakthrough demonstrated use of quantum science, blockchain, and cryptography to create truly random and secure numbers used in encryption for secure communication.

    About the Technology:

    • Encryption: Converts readable data into unreadable code using a “key”; only someone with the correct key can decrypt the message.
    • Importance of Randomness: Secure encryption depends on unpredictable keys—predictable keys can be guessed or hacked.
    • Issue with Computers: Most keys are generated using pseudo-random algorithms, which appear random but are predictable if the method is known.

    About the Breakthrough Lava Lamp Method:

    • Setup: 100 lava lamps placed on a wall at Cloudflare’s San Francisco office; a camera takes periodic photos of the moving blobs.
    • Process: Each photo is converted into numerical data, creating a random seed to generate encryption keys.
    • Why Lava Lamps? The heat-driven movement of wax blobs is unpredictable and creates unique images.
    • Limitations: Movements follow physics, so not truly random. Also, the algorithm that converts images is deterministic—reproducible if known.

    Quantum Random Number Generation Protocol:

    • Why Quantum Physics: Subatomic particles like photons behave randomly; for example, a photon’s polarization is unknown until measured.
    • How It Works: Scientists used lasers to generate entangled photons and measured them millions of times to produce random results.
    • Data Conversion: The raw data (in binary) was biased, so a randomness extractor was used to generate a clean 512-bit unbiased number using a second random seed.
    • Blockchain Role: Each step was recorded on blockchain for transparency, with digital fingerprints (hashes) to ensure data integrity.
    • Team Involvement: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), University of Colorado, and DRAND each handled separate parts to ensure decentralization and trust.
    • Public Use: The final random numbers are shared via CURBy, a public distribution service.
    • Significance: Though still emerging, this method shows strong potential for future ultra-secure encryption systems.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

     

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Does Rain make Ocean Water more Buoyant?

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    New research shows that rain can reduce ocean buoyancy and stabilize tropical waters, challenging the belief that rain always enhances mixing.

    Does Rain make Ocean Water more Buoyant?

    About Buoyancy:

    • What is it: It is the upward force exerted by a fluid (e.g., water) on an object submerged in it.
      • It determines whether an object floats, sinks, or stays suspended.
    • Buoyancy in Oceans: It depends on density differences in water.
      • Lighter water above → unstable → mixing happens.
      • Heavier water above → stable → mixing stops.
    • Buoyancy Flux: Measures changes in buoyancy at the ocean surface over time.
      • Freshwater from rain → makes surface lighter → positive flux → promotes mixing.
      • Heat loss → cools surface → makes water denser → negative flux → resists mixing.

    Key Findings of the Study:

    • Light Rain (0.2–4 mm/hr): Often leads to positive buoyancy flux → supports ocean mixing.
    • Heavy Rain:
      • Usually results in negative buoyancy flux → surface becomes stable.
      • Caused by cold pools that enhance heat loss.
    • Day vs. Night Effect:
      • Night: Rain destabilizes surface → mixing increases.
      • Day: Rain promotes stability → due to added heat loss from sunlight blockage.
    • Geographical Insights:
      • Cold Rain Zones (Western Pacific, Indian Ocean): More stabilization.
      • Hot Rain Zones (Central Pacific): More prone to mixing.

    Significance of the Study

    • Scientific Implications:
      • Refutes the general belief that rain always increases buoyancy.
      • Shows rain can both stabilize or destabilize the ocean surface depending on conditions.
    • Climate Relevance:
      • Ocean mixing is key to heat, carbon, and nutrient cycling.
      • Misreading rainfall’s role can skew climate and weather models.
    • Practical Impact:
      • Improves forecasting accuracy in oceanography and climate science.
      • Aids in understanding the climate-ocean feedback loop more precisely.
    [UPSC 2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26°C isotherm which is 129 meters in the southwestern Indian Ocean during January — March.

    2. OMT collected during January — March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Bird Deaths in Thar Desert

    Prelims OnlySpecies | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A new study by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) reveals that wind farms in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, have the highest recorded bird mortality rates globally.

    Bird Deaths in Thar Desert

    Bird Mortality at Wind Farms: Key Findings

    • Study Details: Conducted across 3,000 sq. km in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, covering 90 wind turbines and 272 bird species, including the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard.
    • Carcass Count: 124 bird carcasses found within 150m radius of turbines.
    • Annual Mortality Estimate: 4,464 birds per 1,000 sq. km, after corrections for detection gaps and scavenger interference.
    • Control Sites: 28 sites (500–2,000m from turbines) found zero carcasses — indicating turbines as the direct cause.
    • Reasons:
      • Policy Gap: Onshore wind projects in India do not require Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), which weakens ecological safeguards.

    India’s Wind Energy Growth:

    • Current Status: India added 3.5 GW of wind power in the first half of 2025 — an 82% YoY increase.
    • Total Installed Capacity: Now stands at 51.3 GW.
    • Untapped Potential: Estimated at 1163.9 GW at 150 meters above ground level (National Institute of Wind Energy).

    Comparison with Past Studies:

    • 2019 Studies: Recorded just 0.47 bird deaths per turbine/year in Kutch and Davangere.
    • Thar Desert Rate: 1.24 bird deaths per turbine/month — significantly higher.
    • Contributing Factors:
      • High bird density in Thar.
      • Location along Central Asian Flyway.
      • Collisions with turbine-linked power lines included in this study.

    Proposed Mitigation Measures:

    • Technological:
      • Paint one turbine blade for visibility.
      • Shut down turbines during peak migration or high-risk periods.
    • Planning-Based:
      • Careful Site Selection seen as most critical step.
      • Use of tools like AVISTEP (Avian Sensitivity Tool for Energy Planning), which maps avian sensitivity across India.
      • AVISTEP ranks zones as low to very high sensitivity — intended as a guide for site avoidance.
    [UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:

    Options: (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them

    (b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal *

    (c) scarcity of food available to them

    (d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    AI-designed Proteins to generate Immune Cells

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Harvard Scientists have recently used AI to design synthetic proteins that activate T Cells, offering a new path for cancer treatment and vaccine development.

    What are T Cells?

    • They are a type of white blood cell that play a central role in the immune system.
    • Types of T Cells:
      • Helper T cells (CD4+): Activate and direct other immune cells.
      • Killer T cells (CD8+): Destroy infected or cancerous cells.
      • Memory T cells: “Remember” past invaders for faster response in the future.

    About the Study:

    • Used artificial intelligence (AI) to design soluble proteins that activate ‘Notch Signalling’, a key immune pathway.
      • These are synthetic molecular activators designed using advanced AI-driven protein design technologies.
    • Unlike older lab-only methods, these proteins work inside the body (in vivo) and in lab settings.
    • Result: Significant boost in T cell production from human progenitor cells.

    What is Notch Signalling?

    • A cell-to-cell signalling system that guides cell development.
    • Crucial for forming T cells, which fight infections and cancers.
    • No reliable therapeutic activator existed earlier.

    Key Benefits Offered:

    • Mass T Cell Generation: Meets clinical needs for CAR T Cell Therapy.
    • Vaccine Support: Boosted Memory T cells in mice, improving long-term immunity.
    • Cancer Therapy: Helps fight immune-suppressive tumour environments.
    • Scalable & Soluble: Works in humans, not just in lab dishes.
    • AI in Medicine: Shows AI’s growing role in designing immune therapies.
    [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best describes the role of B cells and T cells in the human body?

    Options: (a) They protect the body from environmental allergens.

    (b) They alleviate the body’s pain and inflammation.

    (c) They act as immunosuppressants in the body.

    (d) They protect the body from the diseases caused by pathogens

     

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  • Tribes in News

    Who are Denotified, Semi-Nomadic and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)?

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 1: Diversity Of India

    Why in the News?

    At an event in New Delhi, Denotified, Semi-Nomadic and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) strongly demanded a permanent National Commission to address their long-standing marginalisation.

    Who are Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)?

    • Denotified Tribes (DNTs):
      • Colonial Tag: Branded “criminal by birth” under the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871.
      • Legal Reversal: Act repealed in 1949; tribes de-notified in 1952.
      • Persistent Stigma: Continue to face police profiling and social exclusion.
    • Nomadic Tribes (NTs):
      • Lifestyle: No fixed habitation; move cyclically for livelihood.
      • Occupations: Animal herding, salt trading, performing arts, traditional healing.
    • Semi-Nomadic Tribes (SNTs):
      • Hybrid Living: Alternate between mobile and semi-settled life.
      • Movement: Shift seasonally but often retain a base settlement.

    Current Status in India:

    • Population Share: Around 10% of India’s population.
    • Communities: ~150+ Denotified, 500+ Nomadic tribes.
    • Major States: Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh.
    • Examples of Communities (not exhaustive):
      • Denotified: Bedia, Pardhi, Sansi, Kanjar, Lodha, Nat, Chhara, Bhantu
      • Nomadic: Banjara, Gadia Lohar, Rabari, Madari, Kalbelia, Nat
      • Semi-Nomadic: Abor, Adi, Aka, Apatani, Dafla, Galo, Nishi, Tagin

    Major Committees & Commissions:

    Year Contribution
    Criminal Tribes Inquiry Committee 1947 Criticized criminal branding
    Ayyangar Committee 1949 Led to repeal of Criminal Tribes Act
    Kaka Kalelkar Commission 1953 Recognized DNTs, no full classification
    B.P. Mandal Commission 1980 Suggested NTs for OBC list
    Constitution Review Commission 2002 Urged protective measures for DNTs
    Renke Commission 2008 Listed 500+ communities, lacked implementation resources
    Idate Commission 2017–2018 Listed 1,200+, proposed permanent commission

     

    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:

    1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory. 2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.

    3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far. 4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4* (d) 1, 3 and 4

     

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    Human Outer Planet Exploration (HOPE)

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    India has taken a significant step towards interplanetary human missions with the launch of the Human Outer Planet Exploration (HOPE) analogue station at Tso Kar, Ladakh.

    hope

    About HOPE (Human Outer Planet Exploration):

    • Purpose: Simulates Moon and Mars conditions to prepare for future human missions.
    • Developer: Built by Protoplanet (Bengaluru); partially funded by ISRO.
    • Location: Tso Kar, Ladakh (14,500 ft) — chosen for its lunar/Martian-like terrain.
    • Features: Enables isolation research, tech trials, and crew training; 1 of 33 such stations globally.
    • First Mission (2025): Two scientists (Rahul Mogalapalli, Yaman Akot) conducted a 10-day simulation focusing on resilience and mental health.
    • Significance:
      • Boosts India’s human spaceflight readiness.
      • Supports goals like Bharatiya Antariksh Station (2035) and Moon mission (2040).

    India’s Astronomical Assets in Ladakh:

    • Location: Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), at Mt. Saraswati (4,500 m), Hanle; run by Indian Institute of Astrophysics.
    • Key Instruments:
      • Himalayan Chandra Telescope (optical/infrared)
      • HAGAR (gamma rays, with Tata Institute of Fundamental Research)
      • MACE (Cherenkov telescope, with Bhabha Atomic Research Centre)
    • Stargazing hubs: Hanle, Nubra Valley, Pangong, Tso Moriri.
    • Advantages & Recognition:
      • 270+ clear nights; low humidity; dark skies.
      • Declared India’s 1st Dark-Sky Reserve (2022) to curb light pollution.
    [UPSC 2012] The world’s highest ground based telescopic observatory is located in

    Options: (a) Colombia (b) India* (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Biologics & Biosimilars: The next frontier in Affordable Medicines

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    While most medicines are small molecule drugs with simple structures, a newer class—biologics and biosimilars—is reshaping modern medicine with their complex, targeted action.

    What are Small Molecule Drugs?

    • Definition: Chemically synthesised, low molecular weight compounds.
    • Features: Fixed structure, chemically stable, easy to replicate, patent-protected.
    • Cost Dynamics: Expensive while under patent; affordable generics post-expiry (e.g., Sovaldi dropped from $84,000 to $1,000).

    About Biologics & Biosimilars:

    • Biologics-
      • Overview: Large, complex drugs made from living cells or organisms.
      • Examples: Insulin (~5,800 daltons), Remicade (~150,000 daltons).
      • Nature: Slight structural variations possible; used for cancer, autoimmune diseases, hormone therapy.
    • Biosimilars-
      • Overview: Near-identical versions of biologics, made after patent expiry.
      • Not Generics: Due to complex cell-based production, they’re similar but not identical.
      • Use: Offer lower-cost alternatives to high-end biologics.

    Regulation and Reform:

    • Current Barriers: Biosimilars need costly trials (animal + clinical), unlike generics.
    • Global Moves: UK and USA are easing animal trial norms (organ-on-chip, human models).
    • India: Still follows older norms; waivers under review, but clinical trials still mandatory.

    Significance for India:

    • Access: Generic small molecules transformed Indian healthcare.
    • Opportunity: Affordable biosimilars can do the same for chronic and rare diseases.
    • Urgency: Regulatory reform is key to reduce costs, speed up access, and widen healthcare coverage.
    [UPSC 2020] What is the importance of using Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines in India?

    (1) These vaccines are effective against pneumonia as well as meningitis and sepsis. (2) Dependence on antibiotics that are not effective against drug-resistant bacteria can be reduced. (3) These vaccines have no side effects and cause no allergic reactions.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    71st National Film Awards announced

    Prelims Only | Trivia | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting has announced the 71st National Film Awards.

    About National Film Awards:

    • Establishment: Instituted in 1954, administered by the Directorate of Film Festivals (DoFF) under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
    • Purpose:
      • To encourage the production of films of aesthetic and technical excellence.
      • Promote films that reflect the cultural and social fabric of India.
      • Recognize and reward cinematic achievements across languages and formats.
    • Award Components:
      • Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus): Includes medallion, certificate, and cash prize. Given in top categories.
      • Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus): Awarded in various other categories.
    • Main Categories:
      • Feature Films: For artistic and technical excellence across Indian languages.
      • Non-Feature Films: For documentaries, shorts, and socially relevant content.
      • Best Writing on Cinema: For books and critics advancing understanding of cinema.
    • Eligibility Criteria:
      • Films must be produced in India.
      • Makers must be Indian nationals.
      • Must be certified by CBFC between Jan 1 and Dec 31.
      • Foreign co-productions have specific eligibility conditions.
    • Jury and Selection:
      • Independent juries for each category.
      • No governmental or commercial influence in the selection process.

    About Dadasaheb Phalke Award:

    • Part of NFA.
    • India’s highest cinematic honour.
    • Instituted in 1969 to commemorate Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, India’s first filmmaker.
    • Consists of:
      • Swarna Kamal
      • ₹10 lakh cash prize
      • Certificate, silk roll, and shawl
    • First recipient: Devika Rani Roerich

     

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  • Surrogacy in India

    Age Cap for Surrogacy in India

    Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Salient features of Indian Society

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court of India has reserved its judgment (i.e. final decision is pending) in a set of petitions challenging the age-related eligibility criteria under the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021.

    These cases involve couples who had initiated the surrogacy process prior to the enactment of the law on January 25, 2022, but are now disqualified due to the new age limits.

    About the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021

    • Objective: To regulate surrogacy in India, prohibit commercial surrogacy, and promote ethical, altruistic surrogacy based on medical necessity.
    • Scope:

    Key Provisions:

    • Type Permitted: Only altruistic surrogacy (unpaid surrogate mother) is allowed; commercial surrogacy is banned.
    • Eligibility Criteria for Intending Couples:
      • Legally married for at least 5 years.
      • Woman must be 23–50 years of age; man must be 26–55 years.
      • Must not have any living biological, adopted, or surrogate child.
    • Eligibility for Single Women:
      • Only widows or divorcees between 35–45 years are eligible.
      • Unmarried women are not eligible (currently under challenge).
    • Surrogate Mother Criteria:
      • Must be a close relative, married, and have at least one biological child.
      • Age: 25–35 years.
    • Certification Requirement: A Certificate of Essentiality is required, including:
      • Proof of infertility
      • Court order for parentage and custody
      • Insurance for the surrogate mother
    • Penalties: Commercial surrogacy invites imprisonment (up to 10 years) and fines (up to ₹10 lakh).
    • Regulatory Structure:
      • National Surrogacy Board at the central level.
      • State Surrogacy Boards at the state level.

    Issues Highlighted by the Supreme Court:

    • No Transitional Provision: The Act lacks a grandfather clause to protect couples who began the surrogacy process (e.g., embryo freezing) before the law came into effect in January 2022.
    • Rigid Age Limits: The court questioned the fairness of disqualifying couples solely on age grounds, especially when natural pregnancies at older ages are not prohibited.
    • Violation of Fundamental Rights: Petitioners argued the age restrictions violate Article 14 (equality before law) and Article 21 (right to reproductive autonomy and personal liberty).
    • Exclusion of Unmarried Women: The law permits only widows or divorcees (35–45 years) to pursue surrogacy, which the court noted may be arbitrary and discriminatory.
    • Law’s Intent vs. Impact: The court stressed that while the law aims to prevent commercial surrogacy, it should not unreasonably prevent genuine intending parents from having children.
    [UPSC 2020] In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology, “Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:

    Options: (a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm (b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells (c) development of stem cells into functional embryos (d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring*

     

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