Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Comet
Mains level: Not Much
The rare green comet that last came to Earth about 50,000 years ago has returned to the skies of Earth. C/2022 E3 (ZTF) can be seen with the naked eye if the conditions in the sky are just right.
What are Comets?
- Comets are frozen rocky or gas-filled objects that are remnants of the formation of the solar system.
- Due to their composition, characteristics and the path they move in, they tend to leave a light “behind them”.
- Here, the comet itself is green (called the head of the comet) and emits a whitish light behind it (often called the tail of the comet).
- Just like other bodies in space, comets also have orbits.
- They are sometimes pulled in close to the sun because of the sun’s gravity acting on them.
- As they orbit near the Sun, they heat up and spew gases and dust into a glowing head that can be larger than a planet.
- The remains of dust following this burning up, from a distance, look like a trail of light to humans on Earth.
What is Green Comet C/2022 E3 (ZTF)?
- Comet C/2022 E3 (ZTF) was first discovered in March last year by the wide-field survey camera at the Zwicky Transient Facility when it was already inside the orbit of Jupiter.
- While it was initially believed to be an asteroid, it began developing a tail as the Sun’s influence began vapourising the ice.
- At the time of its discovery, it was shining with a magnitude of 17.3.
Why is it green in colour?
- Comets have often been seen giving out blue or whitish light, or even green.
- In this case, the green glow “is thought to arise from the presence of diatomic carbon – pairs of carbon atoms that are bound together – in the head of the comet.
- The molecule emits green light when excited by the ultraviolet rays in solar radiation.
When and where can the green comet be seen?
- Observers in the Northern Hemisphere will find the comet in the morning sky, as it moves swiftly toward the northwest during January.
- It’ll become visible in the Southern Hemisphere in early February.
- In Indian skies, when looking in the northwest direction, one might spot it 16° above the horizon in the Bootes constellation.
- But with lights from buildings and streetlights on, it can be difficult to make it out without equipment.
Is the green comet rare?
- It last came in the skies above Earth during the Upper Paleolithic period, a time when Neanderthals roamed the planet and early homo sapiens had just come around.
- Coming under the category of long-period comets, which take more than 200 years to orbit the Sun, the green comet is not easily spotted.
- With a highly elliptical orbit, the comet will head back to the Oort cloud and make its next appearance roughly 50,000 years later.
- But given their orbits, it’s not unique for comets to reappear close to Earth only after many, many years.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Norovirus
Mains level: Not Much
The Kerala Health Department confirmed two cases of the gastrointestinal infection norovirus in class 1 students in Ernakulam district.
What is Norovirus?
- Norovirus is an important cause of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis in children as well as adults worldwide.
- It leads to diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea, and abdominal pain. Being a diarrhoeal disease, it can lead to dehydration, so drinking plenty of fluids is recommended.
- The virus was first discovered in connection with an outbreak of acute diarrhoeal disease in Norwalk, Ohio, in 1968 and was called the Norwalk Virus.
- Later, several stomach flu viruses closely linked to the Norwalk virus were found and together, these are now called Noroviruses.
- Many stomach flu outbreaks typically in cruise ships have been traced to NoV.
How deadly is this?
- Norovirus is not new; it has been circulating among humans for over 50 years and is thought to be one of the primary causes of gastroenteritis.
- The virus is estimated to kill 200,000 persons globally every year, with most deaths occurring among those below the age of five years and those over the age of 65 years.
- The virus is capable of surviving low temperatures, and outbreaks tend to be more common during the winter and in colder countries — that is why it is sometimes referred to as “winter vomiting disease”.
What is the incidence of infection in India?
- Cases of norovirus are not as common in India as in many other places — at the same time.
- The infection has been reported in previous years as well, mainly from Southern India, and especially from Kerala.
- A 2021 study from Hyderabad reported that norovirus was detected in 10.3% samples of children who came in with acute gastroenteritis.
Can norovirus infection cause a large-scale outbreak?
- Even though more cases of norovirus are being detected, experts say that this is unlikely to lead to a large-scale outbreak.
- There is no epidemiological study to co-relate of these cases.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Olive RIdley Turtles
Mains level: NA
Hundreds of vulnerable Olive Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) have washed ashore along the coastline between Kakinada and Antarvedi in the Godavari region during the ongoing annual breeding season on the east coast.
Why in news?
- The wastewater from the aqua ponds is also being released into the sea.
- This is suspected to be one of the reasons for the mortality of turtles
Olive Ridley Turtles
- The Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), also known as the Pacific ridley sea turtle, is a medium-sized species of sea turtle found in warm and tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
- In the Indian Ocean, the majority of olive ridleys nest in two or three large groups at Rushikulya rookery near Gahirmatha in Odisha.
- The coast of Odisha in India is the largest mass nesting site for the olive ridley, followed by the coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica.
- The species is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List, Appendix 1 in CITES, and Schedule 1 in Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
Special feature: Mass nesting
- They are best known for their behavior of synchronized nesting in mass numbers, termed Arribadas.
- Interestingly, females return to the very same beach from where they first hatched, to lay their eggs.
- They lay their eggs in conical nests about one and a half feet deep which they laboriously dig with their hind flippers.
- They hatch in 45 to 60 days, depending on the temperature of the sand and atmosphere during the incubation period.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bimodal Nuclear Propulsion
Mains level: Not Much
NASA is planning to send mission to Mars in 45 days using the Bimodal Nuclear Propulsion.
Bimodal Nuclear Propulsion: What is it?
- NASA relaunched its program to develop bimodal nuclear propulsion a few years ago. Bimodal nuclear propulsion is a two-part system that includes an NTP and NEP element.
- This system is expected to enable transits to Mars in 100 days.
- In 2023, the US space agency started a new program named NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) and has selected a nuclear concept for Phase I development.
- This new bimodal nuclear propulsion system will use a “wave rotor topping cycle” that may reduce transit times to Mars to 45 days.
How will nuclear propulsion work?
- Nuclear propulsion is based on two concepts Nuclear-Thermal Propulsion (NTP) and Nuclear-Electric Propulsion (NEP).
- The NTP system includes a nuclear reactor that will heat liquid hydrogen (LH2) propellant and turn it into ionised hydrogen gas (plasma) that will then be channelled through nozzles to generate thrust.
- NEP depends on a nuclear reactor to provide electricity to a Hall-Effect thruster (ion engine).
- It will generate an electromagnetic field that will ionise and accelerate an inert gas (for example xenon) to create thrust.
Benefits offered
- Nuclear propulsions have major advantages over conventional chemical propulsion.
- These benefits include fuel efficiency, a higher specific impulse rating and unlimited energy density (virtually).
- NEP’s advantage over NTP and conventional chemical propulsion systems is that it offers more than 10,000 seconds of Specific impulse (ISP).
- ISP is a measure of how efficiently a reaction mass engine (a rocket using propellant or a jet engine using fuel) creates thrust.
Benefits for manned missions
- A crewed mission to Mars based on conventional propulsion technology may last up to three years.
- However, A transit time of 45 days will reduce the overall mission time to months instead of years.
- This will drastically reduce the major risks associated with missions to Mars which include – radiation exposure, the time spent in microgravity and related health concerns.
Limitations of these nuclear propulsion systems
- This means NEP systems can maintain thrust for close to three hours.
- However, the thrust level is lower compared to conventional rockets and NTP systems.
- In outer space, the thermal energy conversion rate is just 30-40% under ideal circumstances.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: INS Vagir
Mains level: Not Much
The fifth Scorpene class conventional submarine was commissioned into the Indian Navy as INS Vagir.
INS Vagir
- The latest submarine gets its name from the erstwhile Vagir, a submarine that served the Navy between 1973 and 2001 and undertook numerous operational missions.
- The construction of the new Vagir began in 2009 and it took its maiden sea sortie in February last year.
- Also known as Sand Shark, the submarine was delivered to the Indian Navy in December 2022.
Class: Kalvari
- In maritime parlance, a class of ships is a group of vessels which have the same make, purpose and displacement.
- Vagir is a Kalvari-class submarine, which includes other vessels, such as the INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS Vela and INS Vagsheer.
- Of these, Kalvari and Khanderi were commissioned in 2017 and 2019, and Vela and Karanj were inducted in 2021.
- Vagir has now been commissioned and Vagsheer was launched in 2022 and is expected to be inducted next year.
- The submarines in the current Kalvari-class take their names from erstwhile decommissioned classes of submarines named Kalvari, which included Kalvari, Khanderi, Karanj and Vela classes — comprising Vela, Vagir, Vagshir.
Capabilities and technical details of INS Vagir
- The Kalavari class of submarines have an estimated endurance of approximately 50 days.
- They also have the capability of operating in a wide range of Naval combat including anti-warship and anti-submarine operations, intelligence gathering and surveillance and naval mine laying.
- These submarines are around 220 feet long and have a height of 40 feet. It can reach the highest speeds of 11 knots (20 km/h) when surfaced and 20 knots (37 km/h) when submerged.
- The modern variants of the Scorpene class of submarines have what is called Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) which enables non-nuclear submarines to operate for a long time without access to surface oxygen.
Strategic importance
- Currently, India has less number of submarines than what is required with some more of those from both types being at various stages of construction.
- India operates one submarine in the nuclear-powered class of Chakra and two other nuclear-powered vessels in Arihant.
- There are in addition to submarines belonging to three classes of Diesel Electric category — Kalvari, Shishumar and Sindhughosh, some of which are ageing.
- The nuclear-powered and diesel-electric submarines have their designated roles in the Carrier Battle Groups, which are formations of ships and submarines with Aircraft Carriers in the lead role.
- As per the basic principles of submarine deployment and minimum requirement for India to create a strategic deterrence, there is a specific number of submarines of both types that India needs to have in active service.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sovereign Green Bonds
Mains level: Not Much
The sovereign green bonds issued by the Indian government will not have any restrictions on foreign investment, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) said.
What are Sovereign Green Bonds?
- A bond is an instrument to raise debt.
- Since 2007, a market for bonds specifically self-labeled or designated as ‘green’ has emerged.
- This label differentiates a green bond from a regular bond, which signifies a commitment to exclusively use funds raised to finance or re-finance “green” projects, assets, or business activities.
- When these bonds carry guarantees related to the repayment of principal and payment of interest by the sovereign or the government, they are called sovereign green bonds (SGrB).
How are the projects for green bonds selected?
- A project is classified “green” on the basis of four key principles. These include-
- Encouraging energy efficiency in resource utilisation
- Reducing carbon emissions and greenhouse gases
- Promoting climate resilience and
- Improving natural ecosystems and biodiversity, especially in accordance with SDG (Sustainable Development Goals).
When is the first sovereign green bond likely to be issued?
- In her Budget speech early this year, Finance Minister announced that sovereign green bonds will be issued for mobilising resources for green infrastructure.
- The proceeds will be deployed in public sector projects that help in reducing the carbon intensity of the economy.
- These green bonds would be available in 5-year and 10-year tenure.
How are they different from conventional government bonds?
- Government bonds or government securities (G-Secs) are normally categorised into two — Treasury Bills and dated or long-term securities.
- These bonds carry coupon rates and are tradable in the securities market.
- SGrB is one form of dated security. It will have a tenor and interest rate.
- Money raised through SGrB is part of overall government borrowing.
Who are likely to be the buyers of these bonds?
- Both domestic and international investors are expected to be interested in SGrB.
- However, one thinking is foreign investors may be slightly hesitant due to currency risk.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Param Vir Chakra
Mains level: Not Much
Prime Minister named 21 largest unnamed islands of Andaman & Nicobar Islands after India’s 21 Param Vir Chakra awardees.
Note: Earlier, Ross Island was renamed Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Dweep by the Prime Minister during his visit to the Island in 2018. Neil Island and Havelock Island were also renamed Shaheed Dweep and Swaraj Dweep.
Here’s the full list of 21 islands renamed after Param Vir Chakra awardees:
- Dhan Singh Island after Lieutenant Colonel (then Major) Dhan Singh Thapa
- Tarapore Island after Lt Col Ardeshir Burzorji Tarapore
- Karam Singh Island after Lance Naik (Hony. Captain) Karam Singh
- Bana Island after Naib Subedar Bana Singh
- Ekka Island after Lance Naik Albert Ekka
- Khetrapal Island after 2nd Lt Arun Khetrapal
- Pandey Island after Lt Manoj Kumar Pandey
- Hoshiar Island after Major Hoshiar Singh
- Shaitan Island after Major Shaitan Singh
- Jadunath Island after Nayak Jadunath Singh
- Yogender Island after Subedar Major (Hony. Captain) Yogendra Singh Yadav
- Hamid Island after Company Quartermaster Havildar (CQMH) Abdul Hamid
- Rane Island after 2nd Lt Rama Raghoba Rane
- Ramaswamy Island after Major Ramaswamy Parameswaran
- Batra Island after Captain Vikram Batra
- Joginder Island after Subedar Joginder Singh
- Salaria Island after Captain G S Salaria (then Major)
- Piru Island after Company Havildar Major Piru Singh
- Somnath Island after Major Somnath Sharma
- Sekhon Island after Flying Officer Nirmaljit Singh Sekhon
- Sanjay Island after Subedar Major (then Rifleman) Sanjay Kumar
About Param Vir Chakra (PVC)
- The PVC is India’s highest military decoration, awarded for displaying distinguished acts of valour during wartime.
- Till now, the medal has been awarded 21 times, of which 14 were posthumous and 16 arose from actions in Indo-Pakistani conflicts.
- Of the 21 awardees, 20 have been from the Indian Army, and one has been from the Indian Air Force.
- Major Somnath Sharma of the Kumaon Regiment was the first recipient.
- Others wartime gallantry awards are Mahavir Chakra, Vir Chakra; and peacetime gallantry awards include- Ashok Chakra, Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra.
History of gallantry awards in India
- The history of present-day Indian gallantry awards can be traced back to the rule of the East India Company.
- The first formal award was instituted by Lord William Bentinck in 1834 as the Order of Merit, later renamed the Indian Order of Merit in 1902.
- During the First World War, the British awards system was adopted and continued through the Second World War.
- Post-independence, new awards were instituted on 26 January 1950, with retroactive effect from 15 August 1947.
- The PVC is equivalent to the Victoria Cross in the United Kingdom and the Medal of Honor in the United States.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Various mudras of Buddha
Mains level: Ancient Buddhist Architecture
Recent excavations at Bharatpur in West Bengal’s Paschim Bardhaman district have revealed the presence of a Buddhist monastery.
Bharatpur Buddhist Monastery Complex
- The Kolkata Circle of the Archeological Survey of India (ASI) started excavating the site in the second week of January and a structural complex of a monastery has now been partially exposed.
- The site was initially excavated almost fifty years ago between 1972 and 1975 when archeologists from ASI found a Buddhist stupa at the site.
Uniqueness of this site
- This place hosts a large stupa along with a monastery complex and black and red ware pottery from the Chalcolithic or Copper Age.
- In other sites across West Bengal, such as Karnasubarna in Murshidabad, Moghalamari in Paschim Medinipur and Jagjivanpur in Malda, archeologists have found only smaller votive stupas.
- Further excavation is likely to shed more light to understand the earliest occupation of the site and its continuity till the establishment of a Buddhist monastery.
Key findings
- In the 1970s when the site was excavated along with the stupa, five beautiful seated sculptures of the Buddha in Bhumisparsha Mudra -with all five fingers of the right hand extended to touch the ground — were found.
- These miniature sculptures, each about 30 cm in height, were most likely used for worship in the monastery.
Back2Basics: Mudras of Buddha
(1) Dharmachakra Mudra
- It is also called as the gesture of ‘Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma’ that describes one of the most important moments in the Buddha’s life as he performed the Dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands which are held against the chest, the left facing inward, covering the right facing outward.
(2) Dhyan Mudra
- It is also known as Samadhi or Yoga Mudra.
- It is performed with the help of two hands, which are placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with stretched fingers (thumbs facing upwards and other fingers of both the hand resting on each other.)
- This is the characteristic gesture of Buddha Shakyamuni, Dhyani Buddha Amitabh and the Medicine Buddha.
(3) Bhumisparsa Mudra
- This gesture is also known as ‘touching the Earth’, which represents the moment of the Buddha’s awakening as he claims the earth as the witness of his enlightenment.
- It is performed with the help of the right hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.
(4) Varada Mudra
- This mudra represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands in which palm of right hand is facing forward and fingers extended and left hand palm placed near centre with extended fingers.
(5) Karana Mudra
- It signifies the warding off of evil which is performed by raising the index and the little finger, and folding the other fingers.
- It helps in reducing sickness or negative thoughts.
(6) Vajra Mudra
- This gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolises the five elements—air, water, fire, earth, and metal.
- It is performed with the help of right fist and left forefinger, which is placed by enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the right fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled around) the tip of the left forefinger.
(7) Vitarka Mudra
- It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the Buddha.
- It is performed by joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight, which is just like the Abhaya Mudra and Varada Mudra but in this mudra the thumbs touch the index fingers.
(8) Abhaya Mudra
- It is a gesture of fearlessness or blessing that represents the protection, peace, benevolence, and dispelling of fear.
- It is performed with the help of right hand by raising to shoulder height with bent arm, and the face of palm will be facing outward with fingers upright whereas the left hand hanging down while standing.
(9) Uttarabodhi Mudra
- This denotes the supreme enlightenment through connecting oneself with divine universal energy.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands, which are placed at the heart with the index fingers touching and pointing upwards and the remaining fingers intertwined.
(10) Anjali Mudra
- It is also called Namaskara Mudra or Hridayanjali Mudra that represents the gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration.
- It is performed by pressing the palms of the hands together in which the hands are held at the heart chakra with thumbs resting lightly against the sternum.
Answer this PYQ from CSP 2014 in the comment box:
Q.Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with a hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha Mudra’. It symbolizes-
a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation
b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara
c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth and thus this life is transitory
d) Both the statements ‘a’ and ‘b’ are correct in this context
Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jagannath Temple and its architecture
Mains level: Not Much
Odisha Governor’s suggestion that foreigners and non-Hindus should be allowed to enter Puri’s famed Jagannath temple has not gone down well with traditionalists and political leaders alike.
Why in news?
- It has been the practice for centuries — even though there is no clearly articulated reason for it.
- Some historians believe that multiple attacks on the Temple by foreign invaders might have led the servitors to impose restrictions on the entry of non-Hindus.
- Others have said that this was the practice from the time the Temple was built.
- In 1984, the servitors famously opposed the entry of Indira Gandhi inside the Temple, saying she had married a non-Hindu.
About Jagannath Temple
- The Jagannath Temple is an important Vaishnavite temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna in Puri in Odisha.
- The present temple was rebuilt from the 10th century onwards, on the site of an earlier temple, and begun by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva, the first king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
- The Puri temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra, or chariot festival, in which the three principal deities are pulled on huge and elaborately decorated temple cars.
Its architecture
- With its sculptural richness and fluidity of the Oriya style of temple architecture, it is one of the most magnificent monuments of India.
- The huge temple complex covers an area of over 400,000 square feet and is surrounded by a high fortified wall.
- This 20 feet high wall is known as Meghanada Pacheri.
- Another wall known as kurma bedha surrounds the main temple.
The temple has four distinct sectional structures, namely:
- Deula, Vimana or Garba griha (Sanctum sanctorum) where the triad deities are lodged on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls). In Rekha Deula style;
- Mukhashala (Frontal porch);
- Nata mandir/Natamandapa, which is also known as the Jagamohan (Audience Hall/Dancing Hall), and
- Bhoga Mandapa (Offerings Hall)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Charaideo Maidams, Ahom Kingdom
Mains level: Medieval kingdoms of India
The Centre has decided to nominate Assam’s Charaideo Maidams — the Ahom equivalent of the ancient Egyptian pyramids — for the UNESCO World Heritage Centre this year.
Why in news?
- The nomination has attained significance at a time when the country is celebrating the 400th birth anniversary of Lachit Barphukan.
Charaideo Maidams
- The Charaideo maidams represents the late medieval (13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
- The Ahoms preferred to place the departed family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
- The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
- The Charaideo Maidams enshrine the mortal remains of the members of the Ahom royalty, who used to be buried with their paraphernalia.
- After the 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindu method of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
- Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.
Architecture details
- Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
- It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
- At the top of the mound a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
- An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.
Ahoms Dynasty
- The Ahom, also known as the Tai-Ahom, are an ethnic group from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
- This ethnic group is made up of interbred descendants of the Tai people, who first came to Assam’s Brahmaputra valley in 1228, and indigenous people who later joined them.
- Sukaphaa, the Tai group’s leader, and his 9000 supporters founded the Ahom empire (1228–1826 CE), which ruled over part of modern-day Assam’s Brahmaputra Valley until 1826.
- Charaideo, more than 400 km east of Guwahati, was the first capital of the Ahom dynasty founded by Chao Lung Sukaphaa in 1253.
- The current Ahom people and culture are a mix of the ancient Tai people and culture, as well as indigenous Tibeto-Burman people and cultures that they assimilated in Assam.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LNG
Mains level: Not Much
The EU is weaning itself off piped Russian gas by rapidly expanding imports of liquefied natural gas (LNG) from US.
What is Liquefied Natural Gas or LNG?
- LNG is natural gas reduced to a liquid state (liquefaction) through intense cooling to around -161 degrees Celsius (-259 Fahrenheit).
- It is constituted almost wholly of methane — a potent greenhouse gas and can be transported around the world by ship.
- This liquid gas is 600 times smaller than the original volume and is half the weight of water.
- After arriving at its destination, the cargo is regasified in a floating terminal and redistributed through pipelines.
Economic feasibility of LNG
- High cost of liquefaction: despite LNG’s export potential, the high cost of liquefaction and producing LNG has limited its market.
- Losses: Between 10-25% of the energy of the gas is being lost during the liquefaction process.
- Costly transport: The cooling, liquefying and transport processes, as well as the post-transport regasification procedures, also require a lot of energy.
What’s the climate impact of LNG?
- Emission: With LNG creating almost 10 times more emissions than piped gas by one estimate, its rapid expansion will likely compromise climate targets.
- Risks of methane leakages: Methane loss across the supply chain risks also contributes to LNG’s high emissions.
- Huge carbon equivalence: Meanwhile, LNG emits 14 times as much carbon as solar power when producing the equivalent amount of energy, and 50 times as much carbon as wind power.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AT1 Bonds
Mains level: NA
The Bombay High Court has quashed the write-off of Additional Tier-1 (AT1) bonds worth Rs 8,400 crore issued by Yes Bank Ltd, bringing relief to investors.
What are AT1 bonds?
- AT-1, short for Additional Tier-1 bonds, are a type of unsecured, perpetual bonds that banks issue to shore up their core capital base to meet the Basel-III norms.
- AT-1 bonds are complex hybrid instruments, ideally meant for institutions and smart investors who can decipher their terms and assess if their higher rates compensate for their higher risks.
- They carry a face value of ₹10 lakh per bond.
- There are two routes through which retail folk have acquired these bonds — initial private placement offers of AT-1 bonds by banks seeking to raise money; or secondary market buys of already-traded AT-1 bonds based on recommendations from brokers.
Why are they important?
AT-1 bonds have several unusual features lurking in their fine print, which make them very different from plain bonds.
- One, these bonds are perpetual and carry no maturity date. Instead, they carry call options that allow banks to redeem them after five or 10 years. But banks are not obliged to use this call option and can opt to pay only interest on these bonds for eternity.
- Two, banks issuing AT-1 bonds can skip interest payouts for a particular year or even reduce the bonds’ face value without getting into hot water with their investors, provided their capital ratios fall below certain threshold levels. These thresholds are specified in their offer terms.
- Three, if the RBI feels that a bank is tottering on the brink and needs a rescue, it can simply ask the bank to cancel its outstanding AT-1 bonds without consulting its investors. This is what has happened to YES Bank’s AT-1 bond-holders who are said to have invested ₹10,800 crore.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hakku Patra
Mains level: Land rights to tribals
PM has distributed Hakku Patra (land title deeds) to five Lambani (Banjara) tribes, a nomadic Scheduled Caste group, during a launch programme in Karnataka.
What are Hakku Patras?
- A title deed is a property ownership document, and the bearer of the document owns the land.
- The title deeds enable owners to avail of bank loans with the said document.
- They will also be eligible to buy or sell land to which the title deed is granted by the government.
- This Hakku Patra will secure the future of thousands of people living in the “Tandas” (Lambani habitats) in Kalaburagi, Bidar, Yadgiri, Raichur and Vijayapura districts.
Benefits of Hakku Patra
Hakku Patra, like every legal property document, offers a great set of benefits.
- It makes one the legitimate owner of your land or property by giving an up-to-date and official record of who owns the land.
- The individual does not have to research as the government issues the document.
- It is a state-guaranteed document.
- Hakku Patra registration resolves all types of disputes regarding the ownership or rights over the land.
- The document helps in preventing any encroachment via trespassing on the boundaries.
Who are the Banjaras?
- The Banjara, also known as Lambadi, Gour Rajput, Labana, are a historically nomadic trading caste who may have origins in the Mewar region of what is now Rajasthan.
- According to the National Informatics Centre, the name Banjara /Banjari probably had come from two different sources: ‘Banijya’ – trade or ‘Banachara’, the forest dwellers.
- Their principal group’s name Laban/Labana is derived from the Sanskrit word lavanah, meaning salt as they were salt traders.
- Although considered a tribal group given the life they lead, the Banjaras are a key scheduled caste sub-group in Karnataka.
- Despite the community adopting a multitude of languages, Banjara is used throughout India, although in Karnataka the name is altered to Banijagaru.
Questions of a political move
- The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes together make up nearly 24 per cent of the state population, becoming an important group for political parties.
- The expenses incurred for the programme were funded by the state exchequer.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Trademark
Mains level: IP protection in India
The Delhi High Court dismissed a case of trademark infringement brought by the global fast food chain against a Delhi-based restaurant.
What is a trademark?
- A trademark is a symbol, design, word or phrase that is identified with a business.
- When a trademark is registered, its owner can claim “exclusive rights” on its use.
- The Trademark Act, 1999, governs the regime on trademark and its registration.
- The Act guarantees protection for a trademark that is registered with the Controller General of Patents, Designs, and Trademarks, also known as the trademark registry.
- A trademark is valid for 10 years, and can be renewed by the owner indefinitely every 10 years.
Violation of trademark
- Using a registered trademark without authorization of the entity that owns the trademark is a violation or infringement of the trademark.
- Using a substantially similar mark for similar goods or services could also amount to infringement.
- In such cases, courts have to determine whether this can cause confusion for consumers between the two.
- There are several ways in which a trademark can be infringed. However, the trademark owner has to show that the trademark has a distinct character-
- Deceptive similarity: The law states that a mark is considered deceptively similar to another mark if it nearly resembles that other mark, confusing the consumer in the process. Such deception can be caused phonetically, structurally or visually.
- Passing off: Say, a brand logo is misspelt in a way that’s not easy for the consumer to discern. The Supreme Court has ruled that passing off is a “species of unfair trade competition or of actionable unfair trading by which one person, through deception, attempts to obtain an economic benefit of the reputation which other has established for himself in a particular trade or business”.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Export Co-operative Society
Mains level: Not Much
The first consignment expected to be exported by the first-ever National Export Co-operative Society.
Why in news?
- The Union Cabinet on January 11 approved the setting up Multi-State Seed Society, Multi-State Organic Society and Multi State Export Society.
What is National Export Co-operative Society (NECS)?
- The society will have an authorised share capital of ₹2,000 crore with the area of operation all over the country.
- It will be registered under the Multi-State Cooperative Societies (MSCS) Act, 2002.
- It will have its registered office in Delhi.
- The Society’s registration will be complete in the next few days and the first consignment will be exported in three months.
- It will work as an export house for handicrafts, handlooms, khadi and other products, ensuring enhancement of income of the cooperative member entrepreneurs.
Funding of NECS
- Leading cooperatives like IFFCO, KRIBHCO, NAFED, Amul and National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) will be the promoters of the Society.
- They will contribute ₹100 crore each.
Working of NECS
- The Society will be different from the Export Promotion Council under the Ministry of Commerce.
- This Society will provide end-to-end services to the cooperatives.
- It will open foreign bank accounts and complete all the formalities, including necessary permissions for exporting a product.
- The dividends will be shared with the manufacturer instantly and without any brokerage fee.
- The Society will hire consultants in foreign countries who will help expand its footprint across continents.
Why need cooperatives for export promotion?
- Cooperatives contribute 28.80% in fertilizer production, 35% in fertilizer distribution, 30.60% in sugar production and 17.50% in milk in the national economy.
- However, their contribution to exports is negligible.
- Society will benefit the smallest of farmer or artisan who has a good product but does not have access to the right platform.
- Through this Society, they will get access to international market and good returns too.
- Once a product has been tested for international standards, the packaging and export will be done by the Society.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Channapatna Toys
Mains level: NA
Augmented Reality of Channapatna Toys were displayed at First Movers Coalition (FMC) Leadership Meeting of the World Economic Forum.
Channapatna Toys
- Channapatna toys are a particular form of wooden toys (and dolls) that are manufactured in the town of Channapatna in the Ramanagara district of Karnataka.
- This traditional craft is protected as a geographical indication (GI) under the World Trade Organization, administered by the state govt.
- As a result of the popularity of these toys, Channapatna is known as Gombegala Ooru (toy-town) of Karnataka.
- Traditionally, the work involved lacquering the wood of the Wrightia tinctoria tree, colloquially called Aale mara (ivory-wood).
- Their manufacture goes back at least 200 years according to most accounts and it has been traced to the era of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan in the 18th century.
- The toys are laced with vegetable dyes and colours devoid of chemicals and hence they are safe for children.
Back2Basics: Geographical Indication (GI)
- A GI is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation that are due to that origin.
- Nodal Agency: Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry
- India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 w.e.f. September 2003.
- GIs have been defined under Article 22 (1) of the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.
- The tag stands valid for 10 years.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Coal Index
Mains level: NA
The Ministry of Coal has launched the sixth round of commercial coal mines’ auction for 141 coal mines.
What is the news?
- As per the provisions of the tender document, the Performance Bank Guarantee (PBG) to be submitted for each successfully auctioned coal mine is to be revised annually based on the National Coal Index (NCI).
What is National Coal Index (NCI)?
- Ministry of Coal has started commercial auction of coal mines on revenue share basis.
- In order to arrive at the revenue share based on market prices of coal, one National Coal Index (NCI) is conceptualized.
- The NCI is a price index which reflects the change of price level of coal on a particular month relative to the fixed base year.
- The base year for the NCI is FY 2017-18.
- NCI is a price index combining the prices of coal from all the sales channels- Notified Prices, Auction Prices and Import Prices.
- It is released every month.
Components of NCI
- The concept and design of the Index as well as the Representative Prices have been developed by the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.
- NCI is composed of a set of five sub-indices: three for Non-Coking Coal and two for Coking Coal.
- The three sub-indices for Non-Coking Coal are combined to arrive at the Index for Non-Coking Coal and the two sub-indices for Coking Coal are combined to arrive at the Index for Coking Coal.
- Thus, indices are separate for Non-coking and Coking Coal.
- As per the grade of coal pertaining to a mine, the appropriate sub-index is used to arrive at the revenue share.
Implementation of NCI
- The amount of revenue share per tonne of coal produced from auctioned blocks would be arrived at using the NCI by means of a defined formula.
- The Index is meant to encompass all transactions of raw coal in the Indian market.
- This includes coking and non-coking of various grades transacted in the regulated (power and fertilizer) and non-regulated sectors.
- Washed coal and coal products are not included.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Unified Payment Interface (UPI)
Mains level: Digital banking in India
The National Payments Corp. of India (NPCI) has allowed Indians abroad to use fast payments network UPI, if their domestic bank accounts are linked to their foreign mobile numbers.
What is UPI?
- UPI is an instant real-time payment system developed by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) facilitating inter-bank transactions.
- The interface is regulated by the Reserve Bank of India and works by instantly transferring funds between two bank accounts on a mobile platform.
What exactly has NPCI allowed on UPI?
- NPCI issued a circular that paved the way for wider adoption of homegrown payments platform UPI.
- So far, only Indian phone numbers were allowed on UPI, leaving out non-resident bank accounts linked to their phone numbers abroad.
- In the first phase, phone numbers from 10 countries including Singapore, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Oman, Qatar, the US, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and the UK have been allowed to be used on UPI.
- NPCI said it could extend this to other nations as well.
How will it benefit Indians abroad?
- Once the systems are in place, non-resident Indians will be able to transact using UPI, irrespective of whether they are in India or abroad.
- To use UPI, non-residents need to have either a non-resident external (NRE) account or a non-resident ordinary (NRO) account in India.
- It would, of course, be more useful when account holders visit India, given the scale of UPI merchant infrastructure in India.
- While abroad, they can use UPI to transfer funds to families in India and use it on e-commerce portals that allow such payments.
What are the prerequisites for this facility?
- NPCI has asked banks to onboard only those accounts that meet the Foreign Exchange Management Act guidelines and instructions issued by the departments of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
- Apart, the remitter, as well as beneficiary banks, will have to ensure they comply with anti-money laundering (AML) and combating of financial terrorism (CFT) checks.
Does it help the plan to take UPI global?
- NPCI has been attempting to make UPI a global phenomenon and the idea to tap NRIs is a step towards that.
- 10 countries are just to begin with and the list will expand in future.
- NPCI has been trying to push homegrown payment systems in other countries through NPCI International Payments Ltd, a subsidiary it set up in 2020.
- It has already tied up with payment system operators in Nepal, UAE, France, UK and others to allow UPI usage there.
- There is also a plan to link UPI with Singapore’s Paynow.
How will it help the UPI ecosystem?
- UPI is almost synonymous with digital payments in India, clocking over ₹12.8 trillion worth of transactions in December.
- After a slow start in 2016, UPI payments have grown at a rapid pace. Given there are over 13.5 million NRIs, the availability of UPI is expected to raise transaction volumes.
- Industry experts said that just like resident Indians do not have to pay for UPI, it will also be available to NRIs at no extra cost.
- That said, it might be off to a slow start as the acceptance infrastructure abroad is still being developed.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Solitary Waves, Mars
Mains level: Not Much
In a first-of-its-kind discovery, a team of Indian scientists from the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) reported the first evidence of the presence of solitary waves around Mars.
Mars
- Of the largest Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, being larger than only Mercury.
- In English, Mars carries the name of the Roman god of war and is often referred to as the “Red Planet”.
- The latter refers to the effect of the iron oxide prevalent on Mars’s surface, which gives it a reddish appearance distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye.
- Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, with surface features reminiscent of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth.
- The days and seasons are comparable to those of Earth, because the rotational period, as well as the tilt of the rotational axis relative to the ecliptic plane, is similar.
- Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one canyons in the Solar System.
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What are Solitary Waves?
- Solitary waves are distinct electric field fluctuations (bipolar or monopolar) that follow constant amplitude-phase relations.
- Their shape and size are less affected during their propagation.
- Solitary waves are known to be responsible for the plasma energization and its transport in Earth’s magnetosphere.
Unveiling the undercover solitary waves
- Earth is a giant magnetic entity, wrapped in a magnetosphere generated by the motion of molten iron in its core.
- This magnetosphere casts a protective layer around our home planet, shielding us from the solar winds coughed towards us by the Sun.
- But unlike Earth, Mars lacks a robust intrinsic magnetic field, which effectively allows the high-speed solar wind to interact directly with the Martian atmosphere.
- This interaction suggests that even with a weak and flimsy magnetosphere, the frequent occurrences of solitary waves on Mars remain a possibility.
Why this is a significant feat for India?
- Despite several missions to Mars, their presence has never been detected — until now.
- However, Indian Scientists have successfully identified and reported the first-ever solitary waves detected on Mars.
- They arrived at this result by analyzing about 450 solitary wave pulses observed by the Langmuir Probe and Waves instrument on NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) spacecraft.
Decoding the data
- Their analysis revealed distinct electric field fluctuations, which lasted for about 0.2-1.7 milliseconds.
- Such signals were predominant during dawn or between afternoon to dusk at an altitude of 1000-3500 km from Mars’ surface.
- Further investigation is needed to determine exactly why these waves are dominant during a fixed time of the day.
Significance of such waves on Mars
- These pulses are dominantly seen in the dawn and afternoon dusk sectors at an altitude of 1000–3500 km around Mars.
- Researchers are further exploring their role in the particle dynamics in the Martian magnetosphere and whether such waves play any role in the loss of atmospheric ions on Mars.
- The study of these waves is crucial as they directly control particle energization, plasma loss, transport, etc., through wave-particle interactions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Expected Loss-based Approach
Mains level: Debt management
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed a framework for the adoption of an expected loss-based approach for loan provisioning by banks.
What is Loan-Loss Provision?
- The RBI defines a loan loss provision as an expense that banks set aside for defaulted loans.
- Banks set aside a portion of the expected loan repayments from all loans in their portfolio to cover the losses either completely or partially.
- In the event of a loss, instead of taking a loss in its cash flows, the bank can use its loan loss reserves to cover the loss.
- Since the bank does not expect all loans to become impaired, there is usually enough in the loan loss reserves to cover the full loss for any one or a small number of loans when needed.
- An increase in the balance of reserves is called loan loss provision.
- The level of loan loss provision is determined based on the level expected to protect the safety and soundness of the bank.
And what is the expected loss-based approach?
- Under this practice, a bank is required to estimate expected credit losses based on forward-looking estimations, rather than wait for credit losses to be actually incurred before making corresponding loss provisions.
- As per the proposed framework, banks will need to classify financial assets (primarily loans, including irrevocable loan commitments, and investments classified as held-to-maturity or available-for-sale) into one of three categories — Stage 1, Stage 2, or Stage 3.
- This depends upon the assessed credit losses on them, at the time of initial recognition as well as on each subsequent reporting date, and make necessary provisions.
- Stage 1 assets are financial assets that have not had a significant increase in credit risk since initial recognition or that have low credit risk at the reporting date. For these assets, 12-month expected credit losses are recognised and interest revenue is calculated on the gross carrying amount of the asset.
- Stage 2 assets are financial instruments that have had a significant increase in credit risk since initial recognition, but there is no objective evidence of impairment. For these assets, lifetime expected credit losses are recognised, but interest revenue is still calculated on the gross carrying amount of the asset.
- Stage 3 assets include financial assets that have objective evidence of impairment at the reporting date. For these assets, lifetime expected credit loss is recognised, and interest revenue is calculated on the net carrying amount.
What are the benefits of this approach?
- The forward-looking expected credit losses approach will further enhance the resilience of the banking system in line with globally accepted norms.
- It is likely to result in excess provisions as compared to shortfall in provisions as seen in the incurred loss approach.
What is the problem with the incurred loss-based approach?
- The incurred loss approach requires banks to provide for losses that have already occurred or been incurred.
- The delay in recognising expected losses under an “incurred loss” approach was found to exacerbate the downswing during the financial crisis of 2007-09.
- Faced with a systemic increase in defaults, the delay in recognising loan losses resulted in banks having to make higher levels of provisions which ate into the capital maintained precisely at a time when banks needed to shore up their capital.
- This affected banks’ resilience and posed systemic risks.
- Further, the delays in recognising loan losses overstated the income generated by the banks which, coupled with dividend payouts, impacted their capital base
Which banks are covered under this approach?
- The proposed norms are for all scheduled commercial banks, excluding regional rural banks.
- Regional rural banks and smaller cooperative banks (based on a threshold to be decided based on comments) are proposed to be kept out of the framework.
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