Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Coal Index
Mains level: NA
The Ministry of Coal has launched the sixth round of commercial coal mines’ auction for 141 coal mines.
What is the news?
- As per the provisions of the tender document, the Performance Bank Guarantee (PBG) to be submitted for each successfully auctioned coal mine is to be revised annually based on the National Coal Index (NCI).
What is National Coal Index (NCI)?
- Ministry of Coal has started commercial auction of coal mines on revenue share basis.
- In order to arrive at the revenue share based on market prices of coal, one National Coal Index (NCI) is conceptualized.
- The NCI is a price index which reflects the change of price level of coal on a particular month relative to the fixed base year.
- The base year for the NCI is FY 2017-18.
- NCI is a price index combining the prices of coal from all the sales channels- Notified Prices, Auction Prices and Import Prices.
- It is released every month.
Components of NCI
- The concept and design of the Index as well as the Representative Prices have been developed by the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.
- NCI is composed of a set of five sub-indices: three for Non-Coking Coal and two for Coking Coal.
- The three sub-indices for Non-Coking Coal are combined to arrive at the Index for Non-Coking Coal and the two sub-indices for Coking Coal are combined to arrive at the Index for Coking Coal.
- Thus, indices are separate for Non-coking and Coking Coal.
- As per the grade of coal pertaining to a mine, the appropriate sub-index is used to arrive at the revenue share.
Implementation of NCI
- The amount of revenue share per tonne of coal produced from auctioned blocks would be arrived at using the NCI by means of a defined formula.
- The Index is meant to encompass all transactions of raw coal in the Indian market.
- This includes coking and non-coking of various grades transacted in the regulated (power and fertilizer) and non-regulated sectors.
- Washed coal and coal products are not included.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Unified Payment Interface (UPI)
Mains level: Digital banking in India

The National Payments Corp. of India (NPCI) has allowed Indians abroad to use fast payments network UPI, if their domestic bank accounts are linked to their foreign mobile numbers.
What is UPI?
- UPI is an instant real-time payment system developed by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) facilitating inter-bank transactions.
- The interface is regulated by the Reserve Bank of India and works by instantly transferring funds between two bank accounts on a mobile platform.
What exactly has NPCI allowed on UPI?
- NPCI issued a circular that paved the way for wider adoption of homegrown payments platform UPI.
- So far, only Indian phone numbers were allowed on UPI, leaving out non-resident bank accounts linked to their phone numbers abroad.
- In the first phase, phone numbers from 10 countries including Singapore, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Oman, Qatar, the US, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and the UK have been allowed to be used on UPI.
- NPCI said it could extend this to other nations as well.
How will it benefit Indians abroad?
- Once the systems are in place, non-resident Indians will be able to transact using UPI, irrespective of whether they are in India or abroad.
- To use UPI, non-residents need to have either a non-resident external (NRE) account or a non-resident ordinary (NRO) account in India.
- It would, of course, be more useful when account holders visit India, given the scale of UPI merchant infrastructure in India.
- While abroad, they can use UPI to transfer funds to families in India and use it on e-commerce portals that allow such payments.
What are the prerequisites for this facility?
- NPCI has asked banks to onboard only those accounts that meet the Foreign Exchange Management Act guidelines and instructions issued by the departments of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
- Apart, the remitter, as well as beneficiary banks, will have to ensure they comply with anti-money laundering (AML) and combating of financial terrorism (CFT) checks.
Does it help the plan to take UPI global?
- NPCI has been attempting to make UPI a global phenomenon and the idea to tap NRIs is a step towards that.
- 10 countries are just to begin with and the list will expand in future.
- NPCI has been trying to push homegrown payment systems in other countries through NPCI International Payments Ltd, a subsidiary it set up in 2020.
- It has already tied up with payment system operators in Nepal, UAE, France, UK and others to allow UPI usage there.
- There is also a plan to link UPI with Singapore’s Paynow.
How will it help the UPI ecosystem?
- UPI is almost synonymous with digital payments in India, clocking over ₹12.8 trillion worth of transactions in December.
- After a slow start in 2016, UPI payments have grown at a rapid pace. Given there are over 13.5 million NRIs, the availability of UPI is expected to raise transaction volumes.
- Industry experts said that just like resident Indians do not have to pay for UPI, it will also be available to NRIs at no extra cost.
- That said, it might be off to a slow start as the acceptance infrastructure abroad is still being developed.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Solitary Waves, Mars
Mains level: Not Much
In a first-of-its-kind discovery, a team of Indian scientists from the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) reported the first evidence of the presence of solitary waves around Mars.
Mars

- Of the largest Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, being larger than only Mercury.
- In English, Mars carries the name of the Roman god of war and is often referred to as the “Red Planet”.
- The latter refers to the effect of the iron oxide prevalent on Mars’s surface, which gives it a reddish appearance distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye.
- Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, with surface features reminiscent of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth.
- The days and seasons are comparable to those of Earth, because the rotational period, as well as the tilt of the rotational axis relative to the ecliptic plane, is similar.
- Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one canyons in the Solar System.
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What are Solitary Waves?
- Solitary waves are distinct electric field fluctuations (bipolar or monopolar) that follow constant amplitude-phase relations.
- Their shape and size are less affected during their propagation.
- Solitary waves are known to be responsible for the plasma energization and its transport in Earth’s magnetosphere.
Unveiling the undercover solitary waves
- Earth is a giant magnetic entity, wrapped in a magnetosphere generated by the motion of molten iron in its core.
- This magnetosphere casts a protective layer around our home planet, shielding us from the solar winds coughed towards us by the Sun.
- But unlike Earth, Mars lacks a robust intrinsic magnetic field, which effectively allows the high-speed solar wind to interact directly with the Martian atmosphere.
- This interaction suggests that even with a weak and flimsy magnetosphere, the frequent occurrences of solitary waves on Mars remain a possibility.
Why this is a significant feat for India?
- Despite several missions to Mars, their presence has never been detected — until now.
- However, Indian Scientists have successfully identified and reported the first-ever solitary waves detected on Mars.
- They arrived at this result by analyzing about 450 solitary wave pulses observed by the Langmuir Probe and Waves instrument on NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) spacecraft.
Decoding the data
- Their analysis revealed distinct electric field fluctuations, which lasted for about 0.2-1.7 milliseconds.
- Such signals were predominant during dawn or between afternoon to dusk at an altitude of 1000-3500 km from Mars’ surface.
- Further investigation is needed to determine exactly why these waves are dominant during a fixed time of the day.
Significance of such waves on Mars
- These pulses are dominantly seen in the dawn and afternoon dusk sectors at an altitude of 1000–3500 km around Mars.
- Researchers are further exploring their role in the particle dynamics in the Martian magnetosphere and whether such waves play any role in the loss of atmospheric ions on Mars.
- The study of these waves is crucial as they directly control particle energization, plasma loss, transport, etc., through wave-particle interactions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Expected Loss-based Approach
Mains level: Debt management
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed a framework for the adoption of an expected loss-based approach for loan provisioning by banks.
What is Loan-Loss Provision?
- The RBI defines a loan loss provision as an expense that banks set aside for defaulted loans.
- Banks set aside a portion of the expected loan repayments from all loans in their portfolio to cover the losses either completely or partially.
- In the event of a loss, instead of taking a loss in its cash flows, the bank can use its loan loss reserves to cover the loss.
- Since the bank does not expect all loans to become impaired, there is usually enough in the loan loss reserves to cover the full loss for any one or a small number of loans when needed.
- An increase in the balance of reserves is called loan loss provision.
- The level of loan loss provision is determined based on the level expected to protect the safety and soundness of the bank.
And what is the expected loss-based approach?
- Under this practice, a bank is required to estimate expected credit losses based on forward-looking estimations, rather than wait for credit losses to be actually incurred before making corresponding loss provisions.
- As per the proposed framework, banks will need to classify financial assets (primarily loans, including irrevocable loan commitments, and investments classified as held-to-maturity or available-for-sale) into one of three categories — Stage 1, Stage 2, or Stage 3.
- This depends upon the assessed credit losses on them, at the time of initial recognition as well as on each subsequent reporting date, and make necessary provisions.
- Stage 1 assets are financial assets that have not had a significant increase in credit risk since initial recognition or that have low credit risk at the reporting date. For these assets, 12-month expected credit losses are recognised and interest revenue is calculated on the gross carrying amount of the asset.
- Stage 2 assets are financial instruments that have had a significant increase in credit risk since initial recognition, but there is no objective evidence of impairment. For these assets, lifetime expected credit losses are recognised, but interest revenue is still calculated on the gross carrying amount of the asset.
- Stage 3 assets include financial assets that have objective evidence of impairment at the reporting date. For these assets, lifetime expected credit loss is recognised, and interest revenue is calculated on the net carrying amount.
What are the benefits of this approach?
- The forward-looking expected credit losses approach will further enhance the resilience of the banking system in line with globally accepted norms.
- It is likely to result in excess provisions as compared to shortfall in provisions as seen in the incurred loss approach.
What is the problem with the incurred loss-based approach?
- The incurred loss approach requires banks to provide for losses that have already occurred or been incurred.
- The delay in recognising expected losses under an “incurred loss” approach was found to exacerbate the downswing during the financial crisis of 2007-09.
- Faced with a systemic increase in defaults, the delay in recognising loan losses resulted in banks having to make higher levels of provisions which ate into the capital maintained precisely at a time when banks needed to shore up their capital.
- This affected banks’ resilience and posed systemic risks.
- Further, the delays in recognising loan losses overstated the income generated by the banks which, coupled with dividend payouts, impacted their capital base
Which banks are covered under this approach?
- The proposed norms are for all scheduled commercial banks, excluding regional rural banks.
- Regional rural banks and smaller cooperative banks (based on a threshold to be decided based on comments) are proposed to be kept out of the framework.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Shukrayaan I
Mains level: Not Much

ISRO said that it is yet to receive approval from the Indian government for the Venus mission and that the mission could as a result be postponed to 2031.
Shukrayaan I: Venus Orbiter Mission
- Shukrayaan-I is a planned orbiter to Venus by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to study the surface and atmosphere of Venus.
- The idea was born in 2012; five years later, ISRO commenced preliminary studies after the Department of Space received a 23% hike in the 2017-2018 budget.
- The orbiter, depending on its final configuration, would have a science payload capability of approximately 100 kilograms (220 lb) with 500 W available power.
- The launch will involve GSLV Mark II.
Expected launch
- ISRO had originally hoped to launch Shukrayaan I in mid-2023 but cited the pandemic when it pushed the date to December 2024.
- Optimal launch windows from Earth to Venus occur once around every 19 months.
- This is why ISRO has ‘backup’ launch dates in 2026 and 2028 should it miss the 2024 opportunity.
- But even more optimal windows, which further reduce the amount of fuel required at liftoff, come around every eight years.
Other missions to Venus
- The US and the European space agencies have Venus missions planned for 2031 — referring to VERITAS and EnVision, respectively.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: JSWT, Exoplanets, Goldilock Zone
Mains level: Not Much

NASA has announced that the James Webb Space Telescope has discovered its first new exoplanet LHS 475 b.
LHS 475 b
- The exoplanet LHS 475 b is roughly the same size as Earth.
- Located just 41 light-years away, the planet orbits very close to a red dwarf star and completes a full orbit in just two days.
Red Dwarf Stars
- As mentioned before, the newly discovered exoplanet orbits around a red dwarf star.
- Such types of stars are the most common and smallest in the universe.
- As they don’t radiate much light, it’s very tough to detect them with the naked eye from Earth.
- However, as red dwarfs are dimmer than other stars, it is easier to find exoplanets that surround them.
- Therefore, red dwarfs are a popular target for planet hunting.
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What are Exoplanets?
- Exoplanets are planets that orbit other stars and are beyond our solar system.
- According to NASA, to date, more than 5,000 exoplanets have been discovered.
- Scientists believe that there are more planets than stars as each star has at least one planet orbiting it.
- Exoplanets come in a host of different sizes. They can be gas giants bigger than Jupiter or as small and rocky as Earth.
- They are also known to have different kinds of temperatures — boiling hot to freezing cold.
Significance of exoplanets study
- Studying exoplanets not only broadens our understanding of other solar systems but also helps us piece together information about our own planetary system and origin.
- However, the most compelling reason to learn about them is to find extraterrestrial life.
- Researchers emphasize on determining if exoplanets are solid or gaseous or even has water vapour in the atmosphere.
- This helps scientists determine if a discovered world is habitable or not.
- Another important element of the study is finding out the distance between an exoplanet and its host star.
Do you know?
If an exoplanet is too close to the star, it might be too hot to sustain liquid water. If it’s too far, it might only have frozen water. When such a planet is at a distance that enables it to have liquid water, it is said to be in the “Goldilocks zone”.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Stupa Art
Mains level: Not Much

The Archeological Survey of India (ASI) has discovered two 1200-year-old miniature votive stupas during landscaping activities near Sarai Tila mound on the premises of ‘Nalanda Mahavihara’, a world heritage site in Nalanda district.
What has ASI found?
- The stupas, carved from stone, depict Buddha figures.
- These two votive stupas (offered in fulfillment of a vow) were discovered by the ASI officials during landscaping near Sarai Tila mound within the premises of ‘Nalanda Mahavihara on January 4.
- These, carved from stone depicting Buddha figures, must be around 1200 year old.
What are Stupas?
- The Sanskrit word stupa signifies “heap, mound, and pile” and is derived from the root ‘stup’ “to pile up.”
- The ashes of Buddha collected were divided into eight parts and stupa was erected on them.
- The legend of relic sharing has been imagined latter on, after the establishment of relic worship and stupa.
- This belief was raised only when the Buddha was considered as a God, a Chakravartin.
Types of Stupa
- Buddha himself distinguished three kinds of stupa (Chaitya): (i) Sariraka, (ii) Paribhogika and (iii) Uddesika (according to Mahaparinibbanasutta).
- Beside all these, there are also the sculpted, engraved painted stupas intended to procure merit for the donors.
- Mostly stupa is containing a relic, that the stupa must have been considered from ancient times as a substitute of the Buddha.
- In Buddhist history, the Buddha was considered to be a Chakravartin, a universal monarch.
How votive stupas were erected?
- As his ashes were no longer available, they were replaced by his written law –i.e. factitious body of the Buddha (Niramanakaya), the relic stupas contain the spiritual relics (Dharama Sarira) and the body of law (Dharamakaya) of these represented as Buddha.
- These stupas erected over relics are called Sariraka Stupas.
- Other stupas called Paribhogika were erected over objects used by the Buddha, such as his bowl, girdle, clothes etc.
- Others called Uddesika(votive) were raised over places which were made famous by the presence of Buddha (Buddha’s presence). These are commemorative stupas.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Panama Closure Hypothesis
Mains level: Not Much

Studies have indicated that tectonically driven changes in the ocean gateways such as the closure of the Central American Seaway, a body of water that once separated North America from South America, since the late Miocene period, had a dramatic impact on the Indian Ocean circulation.
What is Global overturning circulation (GOC)?
- It is the equatorward transport of cold, deep waters and the poleward transport of warm, near-surface waters.
- It controls ocean heat distribution and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, thus playing a critical role in global climate.
Concept: Panama Closure Hypothesis
- This news essentially talks about the Panama Closure Hypothesis.
- Panama Hypothesis states that the gradual closure of the Panama Seaway, between 13 million years ago (13 Ma) and 2.6 Ma, led to decreased mixing of Atlantic and Pacific water Masses.
- This led to the formation of North Atlantic Deep water circulation.
- It strengthened the Atlantic thermohaline circulation, increased temperatures and evaporation in the North Atlantic, increased precipitation in Northern Hemisphere high latitudes.
Impact of Panama closure
- It is thought that tectonic changes might have led to the formation of two separate water bodies — northern component water in the North Atlantic and Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) in the Southern Ocean.
- Consequently, it is also hypothesised that there would have been large-scale changes in the Deep Water Circulation (DWC) in the oceans across the world.
Impact on Indian Ocean gyre
- The Indian Ocean does not have any major deep-water formations of its own.
- It acts only as a host for NCW and AABW.
- Further, the northern parts of the Indian Ocean are located at one of the terminal ends of the GOC, far away from the deep-water formation regions and oceanic seaways.
What has the new research found?
- The scientists have generated an authigenic neodymium isotope record from the Arabian Sea and reconstructed the DWC record of the Indian Ocean for the period from 11.3 million years ago (Miocene era) to 1.98 million years ago (Pleistocene era).
- The record shows a clear shift from the Pacific water-dominated deep circulation system before about nine million years ago, to the onset of a modern-like deep water circulation system in the Indian Ocean.
- It comprises of Antarctic bottom water and northern component water during the Miocene-Pliocene transition (about six million years ago).
- This suggests a widespread impact of the late Miocene Central American Seaway closure on the evolution of ocean deep water circulation and validates the so-called Panama Closure Hypothesis.
Back2Basics: Indian Ocean Circulation

- The Indian Ocean circulation/gyre, located in the Indian Ocean, is one of the five major oceanic gyres, large systems of rotating ocean currents, which together form the backbone of the global conveyor belt.
- The Indian Ocean gyre is composed of two major currents: the South Equatorial Current, and the West Australian Current.
- Normally moving counter-clockwise, in the winter the Indian Ocean gyre reverses direction due to the seasonal winds of the South Asian Monsoon.
How does it function?
- In the summer, the land is warmer than the ocean, so surface winds blow from the ocean to the land.
- However, during the winter, these temperatures reverse, making the winds blow from the land to the ocean.
- Because most of the air pressure gradient is retained behind the Tibetan plateau, air pressure gradients over the Indian Ocean and the gyre are small.
- This results in winds of moderate strength, due to the protection from the full-force winds blowing off the Mongolian high-pressure region.
- Because of these moderate, dry winds, the Winter Monsoon season in the Indian Ocean region is the dry season for most of Southern Asia.
- Due to this seasonal wind cycle, the currents of the Indian Ocean, which make up the Indian Ocean gyre, are directly affected, causing reversal.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maghi Mela
Mains level: Read the attached story

Maghi Mela is being celebrated from January 14.
Maghi Mela
- Maghi Mela is held in the holy city of Sri Muktsar Sahib every year in January, or on the month of Magh according to the Nanakshahi calendar.
- It is one of the most important festivals for Sikhs.
- Today, the Mela starts on Maghi day and continues for another day or two.
- People from different parts of the state and even outside come to Muktsar to take a holy dip in the sarovar (lake) of Gurdwara Darbar Sahib and enjoy the festivities.
- The festival marks the martyrdom of 40 Sikh soldiers in the Battle of Khidrana against the Mughals.
- In the 1700s, the Mughals and Sikhs were at constant war with each other.
About Battle of Khidrana
- In 1704, during the siege of Anandpur Sahib by the Mughals, 40 Sikh soldiers deserted their posts and fled.
- Upon arriving at their village near Amritsar, a woman named Mai Bhago scolded them and rallied the fighters to return to Anandpur Sahib in the service of their Guru.
- The freshly motivated soldiers along with Mai Bhago set off towards Anandpur Sahib to help Guru Gobind Singh hold fort against the Mughals.
- They met the Guru at Khidrana where they took on a large Mughal army, sacrificing their lives in the process.
Political significance of the Maghi Mela
- Back in the day, people would arrive in the city days before the actual Maghi day.
- In the evenings, there would be kavi darbars (poetry sessions) where politicians would speak.
- This is likely how the political conferences, which can be traced back to the mid-1950s, started.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ganga Vilas
Mains level: River tourism

Prime Minister has flagged off the world’s longest river cruise – MV Ganga Vilas – and inaugurated the tent city at Varanasi.
About Ganga Vilas
- MV Ganga Vilas is the first indigenously made cruise vessel to be made in India.
- The Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways is the coordinator of this ship tourism project.
- The cruise has three decks, 18 suites on board with a capacity of 36 tourists, with all the modern amenities.
- It will cover a distance of 3,200 km in roughly 51 days reaching Assam’s Dibrugarh through Bangladesh.
Destinations covered
- Set to sail from Varanasi, the cruise ship, MV Ganga Vilas, will cover 3,200 km over 51 days, crossing 27 river systems and several states before ending its journey at Dibrugarh.
- The voyage is packed with visits to 50 tourist spots, including World Heritage spots, national parks, river ghats, and major cities like Patna in Bihar, Sahibganj in Jharkhand, Kolkata in West Bengal, Dhaka in Bangladesh and Guwahati in Assam.
- It will make pit-stops to cover the famous Ganga Arti in Varanasi, the Buddhist site of Sarnath; and even Majuli, the largest river island in Assam.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Basmati Rice
Mains level: Not Much

In a bid to promote the business around basmati rice, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) notified standards for basmati rice. They will be enforced from August 1, 2023.
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)
- The FSSAI is an autonomous body established under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India.
- It has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which is a consolidating statute related to food safety and regulation in India.
- It is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and supervision of food safety.
- It is headed by a non-executive Chairperson, appointed by the Central Government, either holding or has held the position of not below the rank of Secretary to the Government of India.
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Basmati Rice
- Basmati, pronounced is a variety of long, slender-grained aromatic rice which is traditionally grown in India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
- As of 2019, India accounted for 65% of the international trade in basmati rice, while Pakistan accounted for the remaining 35%.
- Many countries use domestically grown basmati rice crops; however, basmati is geographically exclusive to certain districts of India and Pakistan.
- India accounts for over 70% of the world’s basmati rice production.
- The areas which have a geographical indication are in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Western Uttar Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
What are the standards set out by FSSAI?
- Fragrance: Basmati has the characteristic fragrance identified with this variety and is free from artificial fragrances and colouring.
- Grain size: The authority has also set standards on parameters such as average size of grains and their elongation ratio after cooking.
- Vital contents: It has set the maximum limits for moisture, amylose content, uric acid, damaged grains and presence of non-basmati rice.
- Varieties included: The standards are applicable to brown basmati rice, milled basmati rice, parboiled brown basmati rice and milled parboiled basmati rice.
Economics of Basmati
- Basmati rice is exported out of India and had an annual forex earning of Rs 25,053 crore during 2021-22.
- India accounts for two-thirds of the global supply of basmati rice.
Significance of the move
- FSSAI hopes that the standards would protect consumer interest and ensure the quality of basmati rice.
- In 2020, India’s application for a geographical indication tag recognised in the European Union market was put on hold after Pakistan opposed the move.
- Before this, in 1997, Texas-based Company RiceTec developed American basmati varieties and patented them.
- These were introduced in the international market as ‘Kasmati’ and ‘Texmati’.
- However, the patent was contested in the year 2000 by the Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India’s premier science and industry organisation, saying the term ‘basmati’ could be used only for rice grown in India and Pakistan.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Local Bubble
Mains level: Not Much

Researchers have generated a 3D magnetic map of the giant cosmic cavity called Local Bubble that surrounds the solar system could reveal the universe’s secrets, including questions about the origins of stars.
What is the Local Bubble?
- The Local Bubble is a 1,000-light-year-wide cavity or a super-bubble.
- It is a relative cavity in the interstellar medium (ISM) of the Orion Arm in the Milky Way.
- Local Bubble is thought to have originated from supernovae roughly 14 million years ago. Supernova is a cosmic explosion occurring when stars meet their end.
- Space is full of these super-bubbles that trigger the formation of new stars and planets and influence the overall shapes of galaxies.
How are they formed?
- Super-bubbles are comparable to holes in Swiss cheese. Supernova explosions blow holes in the cheese. New stars form around these holes.
- However, mechanisms powering the formation and expansion of the Local Bubble are not well-understood.
- Further, there is little information on how magnetic fields likely impact the bubble and local star formation.
- Max Planck has provided information on the magnetic alignment of cosmic dust. This alignment can indicate the orientation of the magnetic field acting on the dust particles.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gangasagar Festival
Mains level: Not Much

Lakhs of pilgrims are descending on Sagar Island in the southernmost tip of West Bengal for the annual Gangasagar Mela, being held between January 12 and 14, to celebrate Makar Sankranti.
What is Gangasagar Mela?
- Every year during Gangasagar mela, devotees from all over the country gather at the confluence of the Ganga and the Bay of Bengal to take a sacred dip during Makar Sankranti (mid-January).
- The mela is said to be India’s second largest pilgrimage gathering after the Kumbh Mela.
- Gangasagar, the largest and the oldest living tradition in Bengal, has been mentioned in Indian epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, putting its existence as early as 400 BCE.
- Legends suggest that the first Kapil Muni’s temple was constructed by Queen Satyabhama in 430 AD, and the present idol was established by Swami Ramanand in 1437, marking the beginning of a pilgrimage that remains timeless till today.
About Sagar Island

- Sagar Island is an island in the Ganges delta, lying on the Continental Shelf of Bay of Bengal about 100 km (54 nautical miles) south of Kolkata.
- This island forms the Sagar CD Block in the Kakdwip subdivision of South 24 Parganas district in the Indian State of West Bengal.
- Although Sagar Island is a part of the Sundarbans, it does not have any tiger habitation or mangrove forests or small river tributaries as is characteristic of the overall Sundarban delta.
- This island is a place of Hindu pilgrimage.
- Every year on the day of Makar Sankranti (14 January), hundreds of thousands of Hindus gather to take a holy dip at the confluence of river Ganges and Bay of Bengal and offer prayers (puja) in the Kapil Muni Temple.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Haj Pilgrimage
Mains level: Promoting religious tourism

The Union Minister for Minority Affairs has done away with the discretionary Haj quota for pilgrims, in keeping with Prime Minister’s resolve to end VIP culture in the country.
About Haj Pilgrimage
- The holy Haj is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims.
- It is considered to be a mandatory religious duty for all adult Muslims physically and financially capable of doing so.
- The rites of pilgrimage are performed over five to six days, in Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar.
How is it managed?
- For the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the pilgrimage poses a massive logistical challenge.
- Housing, feeding and facilitating safe pilgrimages for millions of pilgrims who descend upon Mecca from across the world during a brief period of time is difficult, to say the least.
- Thus, Saudi Arabia allots country-wise quotas which determine the total number of pilgrims who can make a journey from a particular country.
- These quotas are broadly allotted on the basis of the number of Muslims a country houses. However, the quotas are also major diplomatic issues.
- Every year, countries lobby Saudi Arabia for more slots. After a Covid-19-related lull, the pilgrimage will resume at its full scale in 2023.
How India manages this?
- India signed the Haj 2023 bilateral agreement with Saudi Arabia.
- According to the agreement, a total of 1,75,025 Indian Haj pilgrims will be able to perform Haj, reportedly the highest in history.
- This quota allotted to India is then further distributed by the Ministry of Minority Affairs and the Haj Committee of India (HCoI) to various stakeholders.
- According to the 2018-22 policy document, 70 per cent of India’s total quota goes to the HCoI and 30 per cent goes to private operators.
Distribution of Quotas
- Out of the total number of slots with the HCoI, 500 are held under the Government discretionary quota whereas the rest are distributed to different states on the basis of their Muslim population.
- A draw of lots is conducted in each state to determine who makes the journey in case the number of applicants exceed the number of slots available.
What are the haj discretionary quotas?
- The “Government discretionary quota” is further divided in two, 200 seats are with the Haj Committee itself and 300 are with people holding important offices at the Centre. These include,
- 100 with the President
- 75 with the Prime Minister
- 75 with the Vice President
- 50 with the Minister of Minority Affairs
- As per the old policy, these seats could be allocated to individuals who applied for the pilgrimage through normal means but were unsuccessful in getting a slot for the pilgrimage.
- This quota has now been abolished with these seats being added back to the general pool.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: VSHORAD Missiles
Mains level: Man portable missiles and their significance

The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) is set to procure the Very Short Range Air Defence System or VSHORAD (IR Homing) missile system.
VSHORAD Missile System
- Meant to kill low altitude aerial threats at short ranges, VSHORADS is a man portable Air Defence System (MANPAD).
- It is designed and developed indigenously by DRDO’s Research Centre Imarat (RCI), Hyderabad, in collaboration with other DRDO laboratories and Indian Industry Partners.
- The missile is propelled by a dual thrust solid motor—incorporates many novel technologies including miniaturised Reaction Control System (RCS) and integrated avionics, which were successfully proven during the tests conducted last year.
- The DRDO has designed the missile and its launcher in a way to ensure easy portability.
Unique features
- Being man portable and lightweight compared to the other missile systems in the Army’s armoury, it can be deployed in the mountains close to the LAC at a short notice.
- Others like the Akash Short Range Surface to Air Missile System are heavier with a theatre air defence umbrella.
- They are perceived to be the best option for mountain warfare since they can be deployed quickly in rugged terrain.
Significance of the missile
- The development comes amid the ongoing military standoff with China at the LAC in eastern Ladakh and reports of air violations by China along the LAC last year.
- India has been in talks with Russia since 2018 to procure the Igla-S air defence missiles at a cost of $1.5 billion under the VSHORAD programme in a bid to replace the Russian Igla-M systems.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ozone Layer, Ozone Hole
Mains level: Not Much

The ozone ‘hole’, once considered to be the gravest danger to planetary life, is now expected to be completely repaired by 2066, a scientific assessment has suggested.
What is Ozone and Ozone Layer?

- An ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms instead of the usual two (the oxygen we breathe, O2, makes up 21% of the atmosphere).
- It only exists in the atmosphere in trace quantities (less than 0.001%), but its effects are very important.
- Ozone molecules are created by the interaction of ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the Sun with O2 molecules.
- Because UV radiation is more intense at higher altitudes where the air is thinner, it is in the stratosphere where most of the ozone is produced, giving rise to what is called the ‘ozone layer’.
- The ozone layer, containing over 90% of all atmospheric ozone, extends between about 10 and 40km altitude, peaking at about 25km in Stratosphere.
Why need Ozone Layer?
- The ozone layer is very important for life on Earth because it has the property of absorbing the most damaging form of UV radiation, UV-B radiation which has a wavelength of between 280 and 315 nanometres.
- As UV radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere, it heats up the surrounding air to produce the stratospheric temperature inversion.
What is Ozone Hole?
- Each year for the past few decades during the Southern Hemisphere spring, chemical reactions involving chlorine and bromine cause ozone in the southern polar region to be destroyed rapidly and severely.
- The Dobson Unit (DU) is the unit of measure for total ozone.
- The chemicals involved ozone depletion are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs for short), halons, and carbon tetrachloride.
- They are used for a wide range of applications, including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam packaging, and making aerosol spray cans.
- The ozone-depleted region is known as the “ozone hole”.
Tropical Ozone Hole
- According to the study, the ozone hole is located at altitudes of 10-25 km over the tropics.
- This hole is about seven times larger than Antarctica, the study suggested.
- It also appears across all seasons, unlike that of Antarctica, which is visible only in the spring.
- The hole has become significant since the 1980s. But it was not discovered until this study.
What caused an ozone hole in the tropics?
- Studies suggested another mechanism of ozone depletion: Cosmic rays.
- Chlorofluorocarbon’s (CFC) role in depleting the ozone layer is well-documented.
- The tropical stratosphere recorded a low temperature of 190-200 Kelvin (K).
- This can explain why the tropical ozone hole is constantly formed over the seasons.
Try this PYQ
Q.Consider the following statements:
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting substances are used:
- In the production of plastic foams
- In the production of tubeless tyres
- In cleaning certain electronic components
- As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Post your answers here:
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Paigah Tomb
Mains level: Not Much

The necropolis of noblemen dating from the Asaf Jahi era known as Paigah Tombs Complex in Hyderabad is set to be restored with funding by the US Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation.
Who were the Paigahs?
- Paigah tombs are 200 years old and represent the final resting places of the Paigah Nobles of several generations.
- During the conquest of the Deccan region by Emperor Aurangzeb, the Paigahs came along with him.
- The House of Paigah was founded by Shams-ul-Umra I also known as Nawaz Abul Fatah Khan Tegh.
- Their ties with Nizams were further cemented through matrimonial alliances.
- They also constructed several palaces in the city and the notable amongst them are the famous Falaknuma Palace, Asman Garh Palace, Khursheed Jah Devdi and Vicar-ul-Umarahi palace.
- They were believed to be rich than the average Maharajah of the country.
Paigah Tombs
- Paigah Tombs are the tombs belonging to the nobility of Paigah family, who were fierce loyalists of the Nizams, served as statespeople, philanthropists and generals under and alongside them.
- They are among the major wonders of Hyderabad State which known for their architectural excellence as shown in their laid mosaic tiles and craftsmanship work.
Its architecture
- These tombs are made out of lime and mortar with beautiful inlaid marble carvings.
- It consists of marvelous carvings and motifs in floral designs and inlaid marble tile-works.
- It depicts Indo-Islamic architecture, a mix of both the Asaf Jahi and the Rajputana styles of architecture.
- There is fabulous stucco (plaster) work, representing the Mughal, Persian and Deccan style too.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
Mains level: Read the attached story

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has published three significant Indian Standards in the area of Electronics.
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
- BIS is the National Standards Body of India working under the aegis of the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution.
- It is established by the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 which came into effect on 23 December 1986.
- The organization was formerly the Indian Standards Institution (ISI), set up under the Resolution of the Department of Industries and Supplies in September 1946.
- The ISI was registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
- A new Bureau of Indian standard (BIS) Act 2016 has been brought into force with effect from 12 October 2017.
- The Act establishes the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) as the National Standards Body of India.
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[A] Digital television receivers
- BIS has published an Indian Standard IS 18112:2022 Specification for television with built in satellite tuners.
- TVs manufactured as per this Indian standard would enable reception of Free-To-Air TV and Radio channels just by connecting a dish antenna.
- This would facilitate transmission of knowledge about government initiatives, schemes, and educational content of Doordarshan and repository of Indian culture programs.
- At present, TV viewers in the country need to purchase set-top box for viewing various paid and free channels.
[B] USB Type C receptacles
- BIS has published Indian standard IS/IEC 62680-1-3:2022 USB Type-C® Cable and Connector Specification.
- This Indian standard is adoption of existing International standard IEC 62680-1- 3:2022.
- This standard provides requirements for USB Type-C port, plug and cables for use in various electronic devices like mobile phone, laptop, notebook etc.
- This standard would provide common charging solutions for the smartphones and other electronic devices sold in the country.
- This would facilitate in reduction in number of charger per consumer as consumers will no longer need to buy different chargers or generate e-waste.
[C] Video Surveillance Systems (VSS)
- BIS, through its technical committee on Alarms and Electronic Security Systems has developed a series of Indian Standard (IS 16910) on Video Surveillance Systems for use in Security Applications.
- IS 16910 series of Standards is an adoption of the International Standard IEC 62676 series.
- It provides a detailed outline of all the aspects of a VSS System such as requirements for its components like camera devices, interfaces, system requirements and tests to ascertain the image quality of the camera devices.
- This will also help in making the surveillance system more secure, robust and cost effective.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fatima Sheikh
Mains level: Pioneers of girl child education in India

Teaching pioneer Fatima Shaikh was recently honoured with a Google Doodle on her birthday.
Fatima Sheikh
- Fatima Sheikh was an educator and social reformer, who was a colleague of the social reformers Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule.
- She is widely considered to be India’s first Muslim woman teacher.
- Fatima Sheikh was the sister of Mian Usman Sheikh, in whose house Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule took up residence.
- One of the first Muslim women teachers of modern India, she started educating Bahujan children in Phules’ school.
Association with Phules
- Under pressure from upper castes, Jyotirao’s father evicted Savitribai and Jyotirao from the family home in the late 1840s.
- With nowhere else to go, the Phules would find shelter at the house of Mian Usman Sheikh, where they would live till 1856.
- As many from their own community abandoned them, Fatima Sheikh and her brother stood strongly with the Phules and the mission to educate girls and bahujans.
- Sheikh met Savitribai Phule while both were enrolled at a teacher training institution run by Cynthia Farrar, an American missionary.
- She taught at all five schools that the Phules went on to establish and she taught children of all religions and castes.
- Sheikh took part in the founding of two schools in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1851.
Determined amidst opposition
- In Pune, a conservative bastion of culture and tradition, the very act of trying to educate the underprivileged caused uproar.
- It is said that the two women would often have stones and pieces of dung thrown at them while walking in the streets.
- Fatima specifically is said to have borne the wrath of both upper-castes and radical orthodox sections.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: New Umbrella Entity (NUE)
Mains level: Read the attached story

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is said to have put on hold licensing of the New Umbrella Entity (NUE) network, a fintech institution planned as a rival to National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).
Why in news?
- Six groupings, which included Facebook, Google, Amazon, Flipkart and others, had applied for NUE licences.
What is New Umbrella Entity (NUE)?
- NUE is an entity (under the Companies Act 2013) that will manage and operate the new payment system in the retail sector such as ATMs, POS, UPI etc.
- NUEs will be set up for profit entities that will manage payments in the retail space.
- These could offer a host of retail payment services, including setting up of ATMs, offering white-label, point of sale terminals, Aadhaar-based payments, remittance services, and develop newer payment methods.
- They will also manage clearing and settlement systems that could be an alternative to the bank-promoted NPCI.
- They will be allowed to charge fees for transactions (unlike the existing NPCI).
- All NUEs will have to be interoperable with the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).
Why need NUEs?
- The NPCI is at the epicentre of the digital payments in the country.
- RBI has introduced NUEs to end the so-called monopoly of NPCI.
- The central bank also noted that during the pandemic, with people spending more time at home the usage of e-commerce has increased, and there’s been a significant rise in the incidence of internet fraud, cyber-crimes.
If NPCI is doing its job well, then why NUE?
- 48% of all electronic retail payments in the country pass through the NPCI infrastructure.
- RBI’s concern stems from having the operations of so much of the country’s payment system concentrated in one entity.
How will NUE aid Consumers?
- With the introduction of NUEs, options for payment will increase for users.
- This will result in more competition and eventually help boost transaction volumes for both platforms as e-commerce expands and reaches deeper into India’s unbanked hinterland.
- In the World Bank’s most recent report on financial inclusion in 2017, some 190 million Indians did not have a bank account and more than half did not make or receive digital payments.
- Customers who face frequent sever transaction due to server overload currently have few options.
- In the new regime, they’ll be able to try the other platform.
What about Data Safety?
- Compliance as far as data safety and privacy is concerned holds good for all and sundry in the payments and banking space.
- Every entity involved in payments and settlement have to follow the same set of rules.
- RBI already have a new set of guidelines on “Regulation of Payment Aggregators and Payment Gateways” .
- It ensures that neither the authorised Payment Aggregators (PAs) nor the merchants on-boarded by them can store customer card credentials within their database or server to avoid data breaches and potential abuse.
Will NUEs replace NPCI?
- NUEs will co-exist with NPCI to strengthen the payment infrastructure network.
- A robust and resilient infrastructure is needed to ensure the government’s ambitious target of one billion digital transactions per day is achieved.
- NUEs will not replace but complement NPCI in taking India’s digital payment success story to new heights.
- By establishing a neutral and independent standards-setting body, we can make sure that the system as a whole in our country evolves in the best traditions of digital infrastructure adopted anywhere in the world.
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