• One of the world’s largest volcanic provinces (~66 mya)
• Basalt lava flows covering ~500,000 sq. km
• Step-like “trap” topography, fossil beds, red bole layers
• Linked to end-Cretaceous mass extinction
• Part of Western Ghats; within Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
St. Mary’s Island Cluster (Udupi, Karnataka)
• Four islands in Arabian Sea near Udupi
• Famous for hexagonal/polygonal rhyolitic lava columns (~85–88 mya)
• Formed during breakup of India–Madagascar
• Declared National Geo-heritage Monument (2016)
• Rare acidic lava formations, unique in India
Meghalayan Age Caves (East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya)
• Mawmluh Cave is type locality for Meghalayan Age (~4,200 years ago)
• Records global drought event in late Holocene
• Meghalaya has longest sandstone cave (Krem Puri – 24.5 km)
• Karst systems preserve stalagmites, paleoclimate archives
• Culturally significant to Khasi tribes; threatened by mining
Naga Hill Ophiolite (Nagaland)
• 200 km belt of uplifted oceanic crust & mantle rocks
• Composed of gabbro, peridotite, basalt
• Formed at supra-subduction / mid-ocean ridge zones
• Later thrust onto Indian continental plate
• Only major ophiolite exposure in India; National Geological Monument
Erra Matti Dibbalu (Red Sand Hills, Andhra Pradesh)
• Quaternary-age coastal red sand mounds (~12,000–18,500 years old)
• Spread over 5 km near Visakhapatnam
• Derived from ancient Khondalite rocks
• Record climate shifts, sea-level oscillations, monsoon history
• Mesolithic–Neolithic artefacts found; National Geo-heritage Monument
Tirumala Hills (Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh)
• Famous for Eparchaean Unconformity (1.5 billion-year gap)
• Boundary between Archaean gneiss & Proterozoic quartzites • Hosts Silathoranam natural arch, rare erosional landform
• Hills rise to ~900 m; part of Cuddapah Basin
• Combines geological, tectonic, and spiritual significance
Varkala Cliff (Kerala)
• Coastal cliff escarpment up to 80 m high
• Exposes Mio-Pliocene Warkalli Formation (1.3–25 mya)
• Fossiliferous sedimentary rocks beside sea (rare in India)
• Natural springs and aquifers emerge from cliff face
• Declared National Geological Monument; major tourism hub (Papanasam Beach)
Back2Basics: UNESCO’s Tentative List
What is it: An inventory of cultural and natural sites that a member country plans to nominate for future World Heritage status.
Requirement: A site must stay on this list for at least one year before nomination.
Purpose: Allows UNESCO to assess Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) and plan conservation.
Note: Not all sites on the Tentative List become World Heritage Sites.
World Heritage Sites (WHS): Cultural, natural, or mixed sites recognised under the 1972 World Heritage Convention for their OUV.
Natural: National parks, caves, biodiversity zones.
Mixed: Sacred landscapes with both cultural and natural value.
10 Criteria for Selection: A site must satisfy at least one of these:
Cultural (i–vi): Masterpiece of human genius; interchange of values; unique cultural testimony; outstanding architecture/landscape; example of settlement/land use; linked to events, traditions, or ideas of universal significance.
Natural (vii–x): Exceptional natural beauty; example of Earth’s history; ecological or biological processes; key habitats for in-situ biodiversity conservation and threatened species.
India: It is currently a member of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (2021–2025 term); Has 42 World Heritage Sites (34 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed).
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:
1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya
How many of the above properties were included in 2023?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four
The PM has recently inspected the progress of the National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal in the Ahmedabad district.
About National Maritime Heritage Complex at Lothal:
Location: Lothal, Ahmedabad district, Gujarat, in the Bhal region near the Gulf of Khambhat.
Developer: Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways, Government of India.
Objective: To showcase India’s 5,000-year-old maritime history, especially the role of Lothal as the world’s earliest dockyard during the Indus Valley Civilization.
Historical Significance of Lothal:
Built around 2200 BCE as a major Harappan trade and craft centre for beads, gems, and ornaments.
Lothal in Gujarati means “Mound of the Dead”, similar to Mohenjo-daro.
Excavated by S.R. Rao (1955–1960).
Dockyard confirmed through studies (size: 222 x 37 m), once linked with Sabarmati’s old course.
Evidence of Lock Gates and Sluice System to regulate flow of water.
Trade connections extended to Mesopotamia and other ancient regions.
Nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2014); only known port-town of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Features of the Complex:
Exhibition halls, maritime park, amphitheater, museum, and research/educational facilities.
Will highlight ancient trade routes, shipbuilding traditions, and navigation techniques.
Expected to be a major hub for cultural tourism and heritage education.
[UPSC 2021] Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelling water into connected reservoirs?
The 14th Sirarakhong Hathei Chilli Festival was inaugurated in Manipur.
About Sirarakhong Hathei Chilli Festival:
Overview: An annual agricultural and cultural festival celebrated in Sirarakhong village, Ukhrul district, Manipur.
Origin: Began in 2010 to promote the Hathei chilli and its farming traditions.
Focus: Highlights the Geographical Indication (GI)-tagged Hathei chilli, which received GI status in 2021.
Activities: Involves flag hoisting, Tangkhul Naga cultural events, buyer–seller meets, marketing programmes, exhibitions, and awareness drives on government schemes.
Salient Features of Hathei Chilli:
Local Identity: Known as Sirarakhong chilli, indigenous to Ukhrul district.
Cultivation: Grown on slopes under the traditional jhum system.
Distinct Qualities: Recognised for its bright red colour, unique flavour, and medium pungency.
ASTA Value: Possesses a high American Spice Trade Association colour value, making it sought after for food colouring.
Nutritional Benefits: Rich in antioxidants, Vitamin C, and calcium, with medicinal value.
Uses: Widely used in cooking, pickles, flavouring, food colouring, and processing industries.
Uniqueness: Its qualities stem from the soil and climate of Sirarakhong, not reproducible elsewhere.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:
Tradition- State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3
Bima Sugam, envisioned as the world’s largest online marketplace for insurance, was officially launched by the Bima Sugam India Federation (BSIF) at the IRDAI headquarters in Hyderabad.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies has entered into force on 15 September 2025, three years after adoption in June 2022.
What is the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies?
Nature: First WTO treaty centred on environmental sustainability, designed to reduce harmful subsidies that drive illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing and overfishing.
Core Prohibitions:
Subsidies for IUU fishing vessels or operators.
Subsidies for fishing in overfished stocks, unless linked to recovery plans.
Subsidies for high-seas fishing in areas outside coastal state jurisdiction or Regional Fisheries Management Organizations.
Transparency: Members must provide detailed reports on fish stocks, fleets, catch volumes, and subsidies.
Transition Period: Two years allowed for developing countries and least developed countries before full implementation.
Phased Approach: Called “Fish One”, to be followed by “Fish Two” covering overcapacity and fleet subsidies.
Global Significance: Contributes to Sustainable Development Goal 14.6, which seeks elimination of harmful subsidies to protect global fish stocks.
India and this Agreement:
Position: India welcomed the treaty, noting it is one of the lowest fisheries subsidizers despite its large fishing community.
Equity Argument: Urged that historic subsidizers and industrial fishing nations take greater obligations, based on polluter pays principle and common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR).
Sector Context: India’s fisheries are dominated by millions of small-scale, traditional fishers dependent on coastal resources, requiring fair treatment.
Benefits for India:
Curbing IUU fishing by foreign industrial fleets, protecting coastal livelihoods.
Allowing space for stock-rebuilding subsidies tied to sustainability.
Ensuring fair competition for Indian traditional fishers in global trade.
[UPSC 2015] The terms ‘Agreement on Agriculture’, ‘Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures’ and ‘Peace Clause’ appear in the news frequently in the context of the affairs of the
Options: (a) Food and Agricultural Organization (b) United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (c) World Trade Organization* (d) United Nations Environment Programme
Karnataka govt. has approved Upper Krishna Project Phase-III to raise Almatti dam height, while Maharashtra warned of moving the Supreme Court against it.
Why is Maharashtra opposing it?
Fears submergence of villages and agricultural land in its territory if water levels rise further.
Worries about reduced water availabilitydownstream, affecting its irrigation and drinking water projects.
About Almatti Dam:
Overview: It is a hydroelectric and irrigation project built on the Krishna River in North Karnataka.
Completion: July 2005, as part of the Upper Krishna Irrigation Project (UKP).
Dimensions: Height 52.5 m, length 3.5 km.
Power Generation: A 290 MW station using vertical Kaplan turbines (five of 55 MW and one of 15 MW).
Two separate powerhouses: Almatti I and II generate power before releasing water into the Narayanpur Reservoir.
Functions: Provides irrigation, potable water, hydroelectric power, and helps in flood management.
Back2Basics: Krishna River
Origin: Near Mahabaleshwar (Satara, Maharashtra), in the Western Ghats.
Length: ~1,300 km, second-longest river in peninsular India after Godavari.
Course: Flows through Maharashtra (303 km), Karnataka (480 km), Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh, before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
This newscard is an excerpt from the original articles published in The Hindu.
About the Malabar Revolt:
Nature: Also known as the Moplah or Mappila Rebellion, it was a major uprising in the Malabar region of Kerala.
Causes:
Exploitative land tenure policies and high rents on tenant farmers.
Lack of tenure security and arbitrary evictions by Hindu Jenmi landlords.
A tradition of smaller Moplah uprisings since the 19th century.
Immediate trigger: British attempts to arrest Khilafat leaders in Eranad and Valluvanad during the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements.
Character: Combined anti-colonial resistance, agrarian unrest, and communal violence, making it one of the most complex uprisings of the freedom struggle.
Beginning: Revolt broke out on 20 August 1921, with attacks on police stations, British offices, and landlord property.
British Response: Martial law, mass troop deployment, brutal suppression by early 1922.
Leaders:
Variyamkunnath Kunjahammed Haji: Set up a parallel Khilafat government in Nilambur.
Ali Musaliar: Spiritual guide, revered locally, executed by British.
Sayyid Alavi Tangal: religious inspiration for resistance.
Consequences and Atrocities:
Parallel Government: Rebels briefly established parallel administration in parts of Malabar.
Casualties: 2,337 rebels killed, over 45,000 imprisoned, nearly 10,000 missing.
Violence: Widespread communal killings, forced conversions, destruction of temples and homes.
Wagon Tragedy (Nov 1921): 67 Moplah prisoners suffocated to death in a railway wagon.
Political Shift: Indian National Congress initially supported the anti-British nature, but withdrew after communal excesses.
Historical Assessment:
Bipan Chandra: Saw it primarily as a peasant/agrarian revolt.
Sumit Sarkar: Interpreted it as an anti-landlord revolt.
Colonial View: Framed as a communal rebellion to weaken anti-British legitimacy.
Recent Scholarship: Abbas Panakkal highlights it as part of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation, initially uniting Hindus and Muslims.
E.M.S. Namboodiripad, Saumyendranath Tagore: Called it a spontaneous peasant uprising against colonial oppression.
Recognition: Many rebels are honoured as freedom fighters by Kerala government, though debates continue whether to classify it as anti-colonial, agrarian, or communal.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events?
Options:
(a) The Revolt of 1857 (b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921 (c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859 – 60 (d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900*
After Operation Sindoor and Pakistani drone incursions, the Army is upgrading air defence with advanced radars to counter low-RCS (radar cross-section) drones and other aerial threats along northern and western borders.
What are Radars?
About: Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging; it uses radio waves to locate, track, and measure speed of objects.
Components: Transmitter emits radio signals, receiver captures reflections.
Functions: Measures direction, distance (via time delay), and velocity (via Doppler shift).
Types in air defence:
Surveillance radars: Monitor airspace and detect aerial objects, not directly linked to weapons.
Fire control radars: Provide targeting data to guide anti-aircraft guns or missiles.
Current Indian Capabilities:
Indian Air Force: Operates High-Power Radars and Medium-Power Radars for long-range, high-altitude threats such as jets, AWACS, and large transport aircraft.
For fire control, the Air Force employs systems like the 3D Central Acquisition Radar and Rajendra radar.
Indian Army: Uses Low-Level Light-Weight Radars, designed to pick up low-flying, small radar cross-section objects like drones.
Upgraded Flycatcher and Air Defence Tactical Control Radar systems to aim weapons and manage local defence.
India’s Air Defence Infrastructure:
Missile systems: Includes Russian S-400 and the indigenous Akash missile system.
Army’s Akashteer system: Integrates radars, sensors, air defence guns, and communications into a real-time operational air picture.
IAF’s IACCS (Integrated Air Command and Control System): Unifies data from multiple assets for coordinated detection and interception.
Mission Sudarshan Chakra: Ongoing modernisation programme; DRDO recently tested the Integrated Air Defence Weapon System.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following activities:
1. Identification of narcotics on passengers at airports or in aircraft
2. Monitoring of precipitation
3. Tracking the migration of animals
In how many of the above activities can the radars be used?
Globally, stablecoins face regulatory scrutiny; the Bank of England has proposed ownership limits (£10k–£20k for individuals, £10m for businesses) to reduce banking system risks.
About Stablecoins:
Definition: Cryptocurrencies designed to maintain stable value, usually pegged to fiat currency, commodities, or other crypto.
Role: Provide price stability, often used to park profits or enable fast, low-cost cross-border transactions without intermediaries.
Use: Rarely for retail payments; mainly act as a bridge asset within crypto markets.
Types:
Fiat-backed (e.g., Tether/USDT).
Commodity-backed (gold, silver, oil).
Crypto-backed (collateralised by other cryptos).
Algorithmic (peg maintained via programmed supply-demand adjustments).
Example: Tether (USDT) backed in theory by cash and US Treasuries.
Market Growth: Could rise tenfold to $2 trillion by 2028 (Standard Chartered, Apr 2025).
Risks Associated with Stablecoins:
Financial Stability Risk: Vulnerable to bank-run scenarios. Example: TerraUSD collapse (2022) lost 60% peg value.
Banking System Impact: Can drain deposits from banks, reducing lending capacity.
BIS Concerns:
Singleness: Deviations from fiat peg in secondary markets.
Elasticity: Limited expansion due to reserve requirements.
Integrity: Weak KYC, enabling money laundering, terror financing.
Cybersecurity: DeFi-linked stablecoins prone to hacking and theft.
Regulatory Gaps: Lack of uniform global standards leads to fraud and accountability issues.
Global Regulatory Approaches:
United States, GENIUS Act (2025): Only insured financial institutions may issue; must hold 1:1 low-risk reserves; AML/CFT compliance required.
European Union, MiCA (2024): Regulates E-money Tokens (EMTs) and Asset-Referenced Tokens (ARTs); issuers restricted to authorised EU firms; strict reserve and consumer protection.
Hong Kong, Stablecoin Ordinance (2025): Licensing by HK Monetary Authority; full high-quality liquid reserves; strict audits and AML/CFT rules.
United Kingdom, Bank of England: Proposed ownership limits to prevent rapid deposit outflows and maintain financial stability.
[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘Bitcoins’, sometimes seen in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Bitcoins are tracked by the Central Banks of the countries.
2. Anyone with a Bitcoin address can send and receive Bitcoins from anyone else with a Bitcoin address.
3. Online payments can be sent without either side knowing the identity of the other.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Australian scientists have developed a simpler, portable version of ion chromatography called Aquamonitrix, enabling field-based analysis of nitrate and nitrite ions.
About Ion Chromatography:
Overview: A laboratory technique used to separate and measure ions (charged particles) in a sample.
Process: A liquid sample is passed through a long column that separates ions based on their properties.
Equipment: Requires large, complex, and costly lab machines.
Use in Environment: Detects harmful ions like nitrate and nitrite that pollute soil and water.
What is Aquamonitrix?
Overview: A portable ion chromatograph designed by the University of Tasmania (Australia).
Features: Small, battery-operated, and nearly 10 times cheaper than lab equipment.
Testing: Students tested it on soil pore water, measuring nitrate and nitrite levels accurately when compared with lab results.
How it Works?
Soil water collected with a vacuum pump and filtered.
Water injected into the Aquamonitrix unit.
Uses a sodium chloride solution to carry the sample.
Equipped with a UV light detector, showing nitrate and nitrite as clear peaks.
Simpler design avoids messy interference from multiple ions.
Applications:
Environment: Monitoring nitrate and nitrite pollution in soil and water.
Agriculture: Helps optimise fertiliser use and reduce overuse.
Water Safety: Tests drinking water quality on site.
Education: Serves as a teaching tool linking classroom to real-world chemistry.
[UPSC 2024] “Membrane Bioreactors” are often discussed in the context of:
The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has directed State governments not to process applications for Sikh pilgrims’ visit to Nankana Sahib, Pakistan, for the November 2025 birth anniversary (Parkash Gurpurab) of Guru Nanak Dev Ji.
About Nankana Sahib:
Location: Punjab province, Pakistan, near Lahore.
Historical Significance: Birthplace of Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469). Earlier called Rai-Bhoi-Di Talwandi; renamed Nankana Sahib in his honour.
Major Shrines:
Gurdwara Janam Asthan: Built over Guru Nanak’s birthplace by Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1818–19).
Other sites: Gurdwara Patti Sahib, Bal Leela, Mal Ji Sahib, Kiara Sahib, Tambu Sahib, and shrines linked to Guru Arjan (5th Guru) and Guru Hargobind (6th Guru).
Cultural Relevance: Pilgrimage site for millions of Sikhs globally; integral to the annual Parkash Gurpurab commemorations.
About Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469–1539):
Birth & Early Life: Born in 1469 at Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib). Enlightened at Sultanpur Lodhi in 1496.
Teachings: Rejected rituals, caste hierarchy, and idol worship; emphasised devotion to one formless God (Nirankar).
Core Philosophy:
Three Pillars: Naam Japna (remembrance of God), Kirat Karna (honest work), Vand Chhakna (sharing with others).
Equality & Justice: Advocated gender equality, social service (Seva), and community dining (Langar).
Message: “Ek Onkar Satnam”, Oneness of God and humanity.
Death: Passed away in 1539 at Kartarpur Sahib (now in Pakistan). Appointed Guru Angad Dev Ji as successor.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
1. Dadu Dayal
2. Guru Nanak
3. Tyagaraja
Which among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi Dynasty fell and Babur took over?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
ASI will install a revised plaque at Sarnath, crediting Babu Jagat Singh (1787–88) for uncovering its archaeological importance, rather than British archaeologists.
About Sarnath:
Location: Near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, at the confluence of the Ganga and Varuna rivers.
Religious Importance: After enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, Gautama Buddha delivered the DhammachakkappavattanaSutta (First Sermon) here in 528 BCE to five disciples, laying the foundation of the Sangha.
Key Monuments:
Dhamek Stupa (built c. 500 CE, 39 m high, 28 m diameter).
Ashoka Pillar with Lion Capital (India’s national emblem) and Ashoka Chakra.
Chaukhandi Stupa (Gupta era; octagonal tower added in Mughal period).
Mulagandha Kuti Vihar with frescoes of Buddha’s life.
Sarnath Archaeological Museum with the original Lion Capital and Buddhist sculptures.
Archaeology: Excavations over 200 years, including B. R. Mani (2013–14), show Buddhist activity even before Ashoka.
Holy Site: One of Buddhism’s Four Holy Places (others: Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Kushinagar).
Historic Role: By the 7th century CE, Sarnath hosted 30 monasteries and over 3,000 monks, flourishing under Mauryan, Kushan, and Gupta patronage.
Plaque Controversy and ASI Action:
Current Plaque: Credits Mr Duncan and Col. E. Mackenzie (1798) for exposing Sarnath, followed by excavations by Cunningham, Kittoe, Oertel, Marshall, Hargreaves, and Sahni.
Jagat Singh Claim: Descendant of Babu Jagat Singh (of Benares ruler Chait Singh’s family) petitioned ASI, arguing he first exposed Sarnath’s remains in 1787–88 during a digging exercise.
ASI’s Response: ASI confirmed revision; a corrected plaque will be installed soon. Officials noted many pre-1861 plaques reflected British biases.
Artifacts: Jagat Singh’s digging uncovered a casket with Buddha relics, now partly housed in the Asiatic Society, Kolkata.
Cultural Significance:
UNESCO Nomination: Officially proposed for the World Heritage List (2025–26 cycle) after 27 years on the tentative list.
Policy Context: India projects itself as the land of Buddha; recently issued notices to stop auctions of Buddhist relics abroad.
[UPSC 2019] In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?
Options: (a) Kanganahalli* (b) Sanchi I (c) Shahbazgarhi (d) Sohgaura
The Supreme Court has issued guidelines in the Kattavellai @ Devakar v. State of Tamil Nadu Judgement to standardise DNA handling in criminal cases to prevent contamination and delays after evidence lapses in a major case.
Key Highlights of the Supreme Court Guidelines:
Case Context: It involved rape, murder, and robbery. Court flagged delays in Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL) submission, lack of chain of custody, and risk of contamination.
Need: Lack of uniform procedures across states despite scattered rules. Since Police and Public Order are in the State List, Supreme Court intervened for national uniformity.
Guidelines Issued:
Collection and Documentation: Samples must be packaged properly, labelled with FIR details, and signed by medical officer, Investigating Officer, and witnesses.
Transportation: Investigating Officer (IO) must deliver samples to FSL within 48 hours. Reasons for any delay must be recorded.
Storage Pending Trial: Packages cannot be opened or resealed without trial court approval.
Chain of Custody Register: Maintained until conviction or acquittal. IO responsible for explaining lapses.
Previous SC Observations on DNA Evidence:
Anil v. Maharashtra (2014): DNA reliable only if laboratory procedures are maintained.
Manoj v. Madhya Pradesh (2022): DNA rejected as recovery was from open area with contamination risk.
Rahul v. Delhi (2022): DNA held inadmissible after being kept in police custody for two months.
Pattu Rajan v. Tamil Nadu (2019): DNA value depends on corroborating evidence; absence not fatal.
Sharda v. Dharmpal (2003): DNA test orders valid; no violation of Article 21.
Das @ Anu v. Kerala (2022): DNA not self-incrimination under Article 20(3). Section 53A CrPC permits collection in rape cases.
Back2Basics: DNA Profiling
Overview: DNA profiling, also called DNA fingerprinting, is a forensic technique to identify individuals by analysing unique DNA regions, mainly Short Tandem Repeats (STRs).
How it works: Human DNA is 99.9% identical; the 0.1% variability forms the basis of personal identification.
Sources: DNA can be extracted from blood, semen, saliva, hair, bone, skin, or even “touch DNA.”
Processes: The process includes isolation, purification, amplification, visualization, and statistical comparison of DNA markers.
Methods: miniSTRs and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) help in degraded or limited samples.
Legal Status: Treated as expert opinion under Indian Evidence Act Section 45 (now BSA 2023 Section 39). DNA is corroborative, not substantive evidence.
INS Nistar, the Navy’s new indigenous Diving Support Vessel, made its maiden port call at Singapore to join the multinational Exercise Pacific Reach 2025.
About Exercise Pacific Reach:
Overview: A biennial, multinational submarine rescue exercise initiated in 1996 (Asia-Pacific).
Objective: Enhances cooperation, interoperability, and readiness in submarine rescue.
Pacific Reach 2025 (XPR-25): 9th edition, hosted by Singapore.
Sea Phase: Live submarine rescue drills, intervention ops, deep-water simulated emergencies, and Mass Evacuation Exercises (MASSEVEX).
Participation: 40+ countries (participants + observers).
India’s Participation:
INS Nistar: India’s indigenous Diving Support Vessel (DSV), mothership for Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV).
Submarine Rescue Unit (East): Taking part in live rescue drills.
Significance: Showcases 80% indigenous capability (built by Hindustan Shipyard Ltd), and positions India as a regional leader in humanitarian submarine rescue.
Back2Basics: INS Nistar
Commissioning: First indigenous DSV, commissioned July 2025 at Visakhapatnam.
Design: Built with 80% indigenous content, in line with Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
Capability: Supports DSRV rescue ops up to 300 m; equipped with ROVs, hyperbaric lifeboats, subsea cranes, helipad, and medical facilities.
Role: Provides endurance for long missions, reinforcing India’s deep-sea rescue & maritime safety architecture.
The Centre has announced reopening of the application window for the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for White Goods, following the strong response and success of earlier rounds.
Note: White goods refer to large household appliances like refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners, so named because they were traditionally white.
About the PLI Scheme for White Goods:
Objective: To create a complete component ecosystem for ACs and LED lights, integrating India into global supply chains and boosting domestic manufacturing.
Approval: Cleared by the Union Cabinet in April 2021; implemented by the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT).
Duration: Implemented over seven years (FY 2021–22 to FY 2028–29) with a total outlay of ₹6,238 crore.
Incentives: Provides 4–6% incentive on incremental turnover (over base year 2019–20) for both domestic sales and exports, applicable for five years to eligible companies.
Eligibility:
Applicant must be a company incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013.
Eligibility depends on achieving threshold levels of incremental sales and investments.
Entities availing benefits under any other PLI scheme for the same products are not eligible.
Beneficiaries So Far: 83 companies with committed investment of ₹10,406 crore have been approved under the scheme, covering AC and LED components across the entire value chain.
Employment and Exports: Expected to create jobs, expand exports, and enhance self-reliance in components that were earlier imported.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
Statement I: India accounts for 3.2% of global exports of goods.
Statement II: Many local companies and some foreign companies operating in India have taken advantage of India’s ‘Production-linked Incentive’ scheme.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct *
On the Cauvery dispute, Karnataka CM has said that water will be released to Tamil Nadu since the rainfall is adequate, while stressing the Mekedatu Dam’s role in water balance and clean energy.
Back2Basics: Cauvery River
Origin & Course: Rises at Talakaveri, Brahmagiri range (Kodagu, Karnataka); flows ~800 km through Karnataka & Tamil Nadu into the Bay of Bengal.
Catchment: Spreads across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry.
This newscard is an excerpt from a photo published in ‘The Hindu’.
About Erra Matti Dibbalu:
Location: Found between Visakhapatnam and Bheemunipatnam in Andhra Pradesh, stretching 5 km along the coast, with widths ranging from 200 m to 2 km.
Meaning: In Telugu, “Erra Matti” means red soil and “Dibbalu” means mounds, describing the reddish sand dunes.
Geological Heritage: Listed among the 34 National Geological Heritage Monument Sites of India by the Geological Survey of India (GSI).
Formation: Created around 12,000–18,500 years ago through the combined effect of tectonic activity (2.5 million–11,000 years ago), sea-level changes, monsoonal variability, and global climatic shifts.
Composition: Derived mainly from Khondalite rocks of the Eastern Ghats hinterland, with the red colour due to oxidation of iron-rich sediments.
Significance:
Geological Value: Acts as a paleo-environment indicator, providing evidence of climate change, sea-level fluctuations, and coastal evolution during the late Quaternary period.
Archaeological Importance: Artefacts from Mesolithic and Neolithic periods and sediment layers dating back to the Late Pleistocene epoch have been found here.
Conservation Status: Declared a National Geo-heritage Monument (2016) and included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites (2025) for global recognition and protection.
Unique Landscape: Features badland topography with sand dunes, buried channels, gullies, and dendritic drainage patterns.
Rare Formation: Only two other similar red sand dune systems exist globally—the Teri dunes in Tamil Nadu and one site in Sri Lanka.
[UPSC 2014] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following:
1. Deep gorges 2. U-turn river courses 3. Parallel mountain ranges 4. Steep gradients causing land sliding
Which of the above can be said to be the evidence for Himalayas being young fold mountains?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*
PM has inaugurated the world’s first bamboo-based ethanol plant in Golaghat district, Assam, marking a significant step in India’s green energy journey.
Note: Ethanol is prepared from bamboo using a multi-step biochemical conversion process that transforms its rich cellulose content into fermentable sugars, which are then fermented and distilled into ethanol.
About Assam Bioethanol Plant:
Overview: World’s first 2G bamboo-based bioethanol facility, developed jointly by Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL), Fortum (Finland), and Chempolis OY.
Feedstock: Uses 5 lakh tonnes of green bamboo annually, sourced from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and other NE states.
Production Capacity: Generates 48,900 MT ethanol, 11,000 MT acetic acid, 19,000 MT furfural, and 31,000 MT food-grade CO₂ per year.
Benefits: Adds ~₹200 crore annually to Assam’s rural economy; supports farmers and tribal communities with assured markets.
Policy Enabler: Reclassification of bamboo (no longer a tree) allowed free cultivation and harvesting, unlocking industrial potential.
Back2Basics: Regulation of Bamboo in India
Earlier Status: The Indian Forest Act, 1927 classified bamboo as a “tree”, though botanically it is a grass.
Regulatory Impact: Even in non-forest areas, felling, cutting, and transport of bamboo required permits like timber, discouraging farmers and traders.
2017 Amendment: The Act was amended to remove “bamboos” from the definition of “tree” under Section 2(7), but only for non-forest areas.
Policy Goal: Intended to ease regulatory burdens, promote bamboo cultivation and trade, and strengthen agroforestry.
Current Rule: Bamboo on private/agricultural land can now be freely grown, cut, and transported without permits; bamboo in forest areas remains regulated.
Scientific Alignment: Recognises bamboo correctly as a grass (Poaceae family).
Significance: Supports rural farmers, artisans, and tribal communities by making bamboo a viable cash crop.
[UPSC 2023] According to India’s National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels?
