From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Famous slogans in news
Mains level: Not Much
Inspiring and controversial, this article explains the history of slogans that have endured in India’s politics.
(1) ‘Jai Hind’ by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose popularised ‘Jai Hind’ as a salutation for soldiers of his Indian National Army (INA), which fought alongside Netaji’s ally Japan in the Second World War.
But according to some accounts, Netaji did not actually coin the slogan.
A book says the term was coined by Zain-ul Abideen Hasan, the son of a collector from Hyderabad, who had gone to Germany to study.
There, he met Bose and eventually left his studies to join the INA.
Khan was tasked by Bose to look for a military greeting or salutation for the INA’s soldiers, a slogan which was not caste or community-specific, given the all-India basis of the INA.
The idea for ‘Jai Hind’ came to Hasan when he was at the Konigsbruck camp in Germany.
(2) ‘Tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe aazadi doonga’ by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
This slogan had origins in a speech Netaji made in Myanmar, then called Burma, on July 4, 1944.
Underlining his core philosophy of violence being necessary to achieve independence, he said, “Friends! My comrades in the War of Liberation! Today I demand of you one thing, above all.
He ended the speech saying “Tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe aazadi doonga” (Give me blood and I promise you freedom).
(3) ‘Vande Mataram’ by Bankim Chandra Chatterji
The term refers to a sense of respect expressed to the motherland.
In 1870, Bengali novelist Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote a song which would go on to assume a national stature, but would also be seen as communally divisive by some.
Written in Bengali, the song titled ‘Vande Mataram’ was not introduced into the public sphere until the publishing of the novel Anandamath in 1882, of which the song is a part.
Vande Mataram soon became the forefront of sentiments expressed during the freedom movement.
The novel, set in the early 1770s came against the backdrop of the Fakir-Sannyasi Rebellion against the British in Bengal.
(4) ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ by Maulana Hasrat Mohani
‘Inquilab Zindabad’ (Long live the revolution) was first used by Maulana Hasrat Mohani in 1921.
Hasrat was his pen name (takhallus) as a revolutionary Urdu poet, which also became his identity as a political leader.
Hasrat Mohani was a labour leader, scholar, poet and also one of the founders of the Communist Party of India in 1925.
Along with Swami Kumaranand — also involved in the Indian Communist movement — Mohani first raised the demand for complete independence or ‘Poorna Swaraj’, at the Ahmedabad session of the Congress in 1921.
His stress on Inquilab was inspired by his urge to fight against social and economic inequality, along with colonialism.
Before Mohani coined this slogan, the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia made the idea of revolution symbolic of the struggle for oppressed nationalities globally.
It was from the mid-1920s that this slogan became a war cry of Bhagat Singh and his Naujawan Bharat Sabha, as well as his Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
(5) ‘Sarfaroshi ki Tamanna’ by Bismil Azimabadi
This is the first line of a poem written by Bismil Azimabadi (and NOT Ramprasad Bismil), a freedom fighter and poet from Bihar, after the Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre of 1921 in Amritsar, Punjab.
The lines were popularised by Ram Prasad Bismil, another revolutionary.
He was a part of the Kakori train robbery, a successful and ambitious operation in which a train filled with British goods and money was robbed for Indian fighters to purchase arms.
(6) ‘Do or Die’ by Gandhi Ji
In 1942, the Second World War commencing and the failure of Stafford Cripps Missions – which only promised India a ‘dominion status’ where it would still have to bear allegiance to the King of England .
This made Gandhi Ji realise that the movement for freedom needed to be intensified.
On August 8, 1942, the All-India Congress Committee met in Gowalia Tank Maidan (August Kranti Maidan) in Bombay.
Gandhi addressed thousands after the meeting to spell out the way forward.
(7) ‘Quit India’ by Yusuf Meherally
While Gandhi gave the clarion call of ‘Quit India’, the slogan was coined by Yusuf Meherally, a socialist and trade unionist who also served as Mayor of Mumbai.
A few years ago, in 1928, Meherally had also coined the slogan “Simon Go Back” to protest the Simon Commission – that although was meant to work on Indian constitutional reform, but lacked any Indians.
Meherally was a Congress Socialist Party member who was actively involved in anti-government protests.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: India-Australia relations
The Union Cabinet has approved the signing of an Audio Visual Co-production Treaty between India and Australia, which is aimed at facilitating joint production of films between the two countries.
India – Australia Relations
Both the countries share the ethos and values of pluralism, liberal democracy, steadfast commitment to rule of law, Commonwealth traditions, international peace, development and security.
The establishment of diplomatic relations between them dates back to the Pre-independence era. It started with the opening of the Consulate General of India as a Trade Office in Sydney in 1941.
Since then the ties have blossomed and currently, they enjoy a multi-faceted cooperation spanning areas of political interactions, economic collaboration, scientific research, strategic convergence, friendly people-to-people ties especially diaspora links and sporting ties of hockey and cricket.
Areas of cooperation
1.Political Dimension
Both the countries are members of G-20, ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), IORA (Indian Ocean Rim Association), Asia Pacific Partnership on Climate and Clean Development, East Asia Summit and the Commonwealth. Australia has been extremely supportive of India’s quest for membership of the APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation).
Australia whole-heartedly welcomed India s joining of the MTCR (Missile Technology Control Regime).
2. Economic Dimension
In recent years, the India-Australia economic engagement has magnified significantly. Australia has been very appreciative of economic reforms undertaken by India and its improving ease of doing business rankings because of the reforms was undertaken by the current government. India has welcomed Australia to participate in its Make in India, Smart Cities, AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation), Clean Ganga Project etc. initiatives.
India and Australia are partners in the trilateral Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI) arrangement along with Japan which seeks to enhance the resilience of supply chains in the Indo-Pacific Region.
Recently, India signed a historic trade agreement with Australia, the India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (Ind- Aus ECTA).
It is the first Free Trade Agreement (FTA) that India has signed with a major developed country in over a decade. Credit: Business Standard
The current government has invited Australia s private sector participation in Indian economy. It says red tape in India has been replaced by red carpet and has welcomed private investors.
3.Trade and Economic
The establishment of India-Australia Joint Ministerial Commission (JMC) in 1989 encouraged dialogue at a government and business level on multiple issues of trade and investment.
India-Australia CEO Forum is a significant mechanism through which business leaders from both nations engage in mutually fruitful dialogue to enhance bilateral trade and investment relationship. The Forum consists of heads of Indian and Australian business from multiple sectors like energy and resources, agri-business, financial sector, telecommunications, IT, education and pharmaceuticals. The last meeting of the Forum was held in New Delhi on 29th August 2017.
The city of Canberra, Australia hosted the seventh India-Australia Economic Policy Dialogue during 16-18 July 2017.
India’s main exports to Australia are Refined Petroleum, medicaments, while our major imports are Coal, copper ores & concentrates, Gold, and education related services.
India s major imports from Australia are coal, non-monetary gold, copper, wool, fertilizers, wheat, vegetables and education-related services.
India and Australia have been each other’s important trading partners.
Australia is the 17th largest trading partner of India and India is Australia’s 9th largest trading partner.
India-Australia bilateral trade for both merchandise and services is valued at USD 27.5 billion in 2021.
India’s merchandise exports to Australia grew 135% between 2019 and 2021. India’s exports consist primarily of a broad-based basket largely of finished products and were USD 6.9 billion in 2021.
India’s merchandise imports from Australia were USD 15.1 billion in 2021, consisting largely of raw materials, minerals and intermediate goods.
4.Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement
A Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement between the two countries was signed in September 2014 during the visit of the Australian Prime Minister to India. The agreement came into force from 13 November 2015.
The Australian Parliament passed the “Civil Nuclear Transfer to India Bill 2016” on 01 December, 2016 which ensures that Uranium mining companies in Australia may fulfil contracts to supply Australian uranium to India for civil use with confidence that exports would not be hindered by domestic legal action challenging the consistency of the safeguards applied by the IAEA in India and Australia’s international non-proliferation obligations.
It also ensures that any future bilateral trade in other nuclear-related material or items for civil use will also be protected.
5.Defence Cooperation
The Mutual Logistics Support Agreement has been signed during the summit that should enhance defence cooperation and ease the conduct of large-scale joint military exercises.
There is a technical Agreement on White Shipping Information Exchange.
Recently Australia and India conducted AUSINDEX,their largest bilateral naval exercise, and there are further developments on the anvil, including Australia’s permanent inclusion in the Malabar exercise with Japan.
In 2018, Indian Air Force participated for the first time in the Exercise Pitch Blackin Australia. The third edition of AUSTRAHIND(Special Forces of Army Exercise) was held in September 2018.
A broader maritime cooperation agreement with a focus on Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) is also in the works and Australia has agreed to post a Liaison Officer at the Indian Navy’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) at Gurugram.
6.Education
Under the New-Colombo Plan of Australian government, 900 Australian undergraduates have studied and completed internships in India during the period 2015-16
7.Diaspora
The Indian community in Australia has the population of nearly half a million (2.1 % of the population), and another over 1,50,000 persons of Indian descent immigrated from other countries (Fiji, Malaysia, Kenya and South Africa).
India is one of the top sources of skilled immigrants to Australia.
8.Energy Cooperation
A Joint Working Group on Energy and Minerals was established in 1999 to expand bilateral relationship in the energy and resources sector. The 8th JWG meeting held in New Delhi in June 2013.
As energy is one of the central pillars of economic cooperation, both sides agreed during the visit of our Prime Minister to Australia in November 2014 to cooperate on transfer of clean coal technology and welcomed Australia’s desire to upgrade the Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
9. International cooperation
India and 62 other countries have backed a draft resolution led by Australia and the EU to ‘identify the zoonotic source’ of Covid-19 and its ‘route of introduction’ to humans.
Australia supports India’s candidature in an expanded UN Security Council.
Both India and Australia are members of the Commonwealth, IORA, ASEAN Regional Forum, Asia Pacific Partnership on Climate and Clean Development, and have participated in the East Asia Summits.
Australia is an important player in APEC and supports India’s membership of the organisation. In 2008, Australia became an Observer in SAARC.
Both countries have also been cooperating as members of the Five Interested Parties (FIP) in the WTO context.
An India Economic Strategy to 2035
In 2018, Australia’s Prime Minister has announced implementation of “An India Economic Strategy to 2035”, a vision document that will shape India-Australia bilateral ties.
It is based on three-pillar strategy- Economic ties, Geostrategic Engagement and Rethinking Culture-thrust on soft power diplomacy.
The focus of this report is on building a sustainable long-term India economic strategy.
The report identifies 10 sectors and 10 states in an evolving Indian market where Australia has competitive advantages, and where it should focus its efforts. These are divided into a flagship sector (education), three lead sectors (agribusiness, resources, and tourism) and six promising sectors (energy, health, financial services, infrastructure, sport, science and innovation).
Significance of the Relations
Australia is one of the few countries that has managed to combat COVID-19 so far through “controlled adaptation” by which the coronavirus has been suppressed to very low levels. Two of the leaders of this great Australia-wide effort are Indian-born scientists.
From farming practices through food processing, supply and distribution to consumers, the Australian agribusiness sector has the research and development (R&D) capacity, experience and technical knowledge to help India’s food industry improve supply chain productivity and sustainability and meet the challenges of shifting consumption patterns.
Australia is the 13th largest economy in the world, following closely behind Russia which stands at $1.6 trillion.
Australia is rich in natural resources that India’s growing economy needs.
It also has huge reservoirs of strength in higher education, scientific and technological research.
The dominance of Indo-Pacific countries in India’s trade profile: Fostering deeper integration between India and Australia will provide the necessary impetus to the immense growth potential of the trade blocs in this region.
The two countries also have increasingly common military platforms as India’s defence purchases from the U.S. continue to grow.
Australia has deep economic, political and security connections with the ASEAN and a strategic partnership with one of the leading non-aligned nations, Indonesia. Both nations can leverage their equation with ASEAN to contain China.
The Indo-Pacific region has the potential to facilitate connectivity and trade between India and Australia.
Being geographically more proximate than the US or Japan, India and Australia can emerge as leading forces for the Quad.
Associated Issues
Trade deficit: India’s trade deficit with Australia has been increasing since 2001-02 due to India-Australia Free Trade Agreement. It is also a contentious issue in the ongoing RCEP negotiations which India left.
India’s desire for visa reforms in Australia, which would permit more Indian workers to seek employment in Australia, remains unmet. India wants greater free movement and relaxed visa norms for its IT professionals, on which Australia is reluctant. Australia and India are yet to nurture a common bilateral ground to figure out the basis of their cooperation.
The formation of the Japan–America–India (JAI) partnership at the G20 summit in Buenos Aires in 2018 is cause for Australian concern. India’s unwillingness to invite Australia to participate in the Malabar naval exercise, despite Australian lobbying, has sparked speculation over the fate of the Quadrilateral Consultative Dialogue (the ‘Quad) involving India, Australia, Japan and the United States.
Building consensus on non-nuclear proliferation and disarmament has been a major hurdle given India’s status as a nuclear power. Trade and maritime security on the other hand seem the most viable points of collaboration. Although a defence agreement was signed in 2014, the defence relationship has yet to develop fully.
Although security has received a lot of significance in the relationship, in practice Australia-India defence cooperation remains relatively undeveloped. There are a considerable number of defence and security dialogues between the two countries, but none has been translated into more substantive cooperation.
Increasing Racist attacks on Indians in Australia has been a major issue. The relationship was further strained over the attacks on Indian students studying in Melbourne, and the resulting media coverage caused serious damage to Australia’s standing in India.
Need of the Hour
Upgradation of 2+2 talks. In addition, it may be prudent too for New Delhi and Canberra to elevate the ‘two plus two’ format for talks from the Secretary level to the level of Foreign and Defence Ministers.
Utilising current innovations in digital trade; such digitisation of economic activities has changed the landscape of trade, enhancing associations between economies and, in particular, South-South flows.
Removal of trade barriers would lead to an increase in the exports of these commodities, although the increasing number of disputes at the WTO with regard to the Australian sector can act as a serious impediment.
India and Australia have a strong track record of collaborating in research and innovation. The $84 million Australia-India Strategic Research Fund (AISRF) is Australia’s largest. The Australian Government’s $1.1 billion National Innovation and Science Agenda presents new opportunities to engage with India. The agenda resonates well with India’s ‘Start-up India’ and ‘Make in India’ campaign.
It is evident in policy areas such as maritime security, climate change, energy security, law enforcement, governance and the politics of security institutions.
Engaging Indonesia, Japan, France and Britain for securing Indo-Pacific
An ‘engage and balance’ China strategy is the best alternative to the dead end of containment. The role of the US is of particular importance as it has recently been a driver of efforts towards bringing similarly aligned states in counterbalancing China.
Conclusion
Their ties are extremely important for the Indo-Pacific region which is in flux. They stand out for their solemn commitment towards democratic values, international peace, rule of law, development and multiculturalism.a
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Guardianship in India
Mains level: Not Much
A mother and father should have equal rights as guardians of their children and the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (HMGA), 1956 should be amended as it discriminates against women, a parliamentary panel has recommended in its report.
Why in news now?
The said Act does NOT provide for joint guardianship.
NOR does it recognise the mother as the guardian of the minor legitimate child unless the father is deceased or is found unfit.
The Act gives preference to father over mother.
Thus it goes against the right to equality and right against discrimination envisaged under Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution.
What is Guardianship?
A guardian is a person appointed to look after another person or his property in India, as per the personal laws of the religion into which the minor was born.
He or she takes on the responsibility of caring for and protecting the person for whom he or she has been appointed guardian.
On behalf of the ward’s person and property, the guardian makes all legal decisions.
Guardianship under the Hindu law
The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956, regulates guardianship of minor children in Hindu law (covers Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists in India).
A minor is described as anyone under the age of eighteen, according to Section 4(a) of the Act.
A guardian, according to Section 4(b) of the Act, is an individual who is responsible for the child’s care, property, or both.
The various forms of guardianship in India include:
Natural guardian: Only three people are considered natural guardians, according to Section 6 of the 1956 Act: the mother, father, and husband.
Testamentary guardian: A testamentary guardian is a guardian appointed in a will by the natural guardian. A father has the testamentary right to appoint a guardian for his legitimate children or property or both. If the mother is alive after the father’s death, she will be the guardian of the children, and the fathers will be restored only if the mother dies without appointing a guardian.
Guardian appointed by the court: The court can appoint a guardian to a child under the Guardians and Wards Act, 1890 who would be called a certified guardian. The powers of the certified guardian are also stated in the Act. The Act confers power to district courts.
De facto guardian: A de facto guardian is someone who has consistently shown an interest in caring for, handling, or managing the infant, his or her property, or both. A de facto guardian is not a legal guardian, and therefore, has no legal authority over the child or the child’s property, but he has assumed responsibility for the child and the property.
Guardians by affinity: The guardianship of a minor widow by a relative within the degree of sapinda (generation of ancestors) is known as affinity guardianship.
Guardianship under Muslim law
The law of guardianship in Muslims came from certain verses in the religious texts.
Natural guardian: The only father is considered the natural guardian of a child under Muslim law, and the mother is not considered a natural or other guardian even after the father’s death.
Testamentary guardian: The term wali, guardian, amin, or kaim-mukam refers to a testamentary guardian.
Guardian appointed by the court: When natural and testamentary guardians fail, the court has the right to appoint a guardian for the child. The Guardians and Wards Act of 1890 governs the appointment of a guardian for a child from any group.
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PESA Act
Mains level: Not Much
A Political Party has declared a six-point “guarantee” for tribals in Gujarat’s Chhota Udepur district, including the “strict implementation” of The Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA Act).
What is PESA Act?
The PESA Act was enacted in 1996 to provide for the extension of the provisions of Part IX of the Constitution relating to the Panchayats to the Scheduled Areas.
Other than Panchayats, Part IX, comprising Articles 243-243ZT of the Constitution, contains provisions relating to Municipalities and Cooperative Societies.
Under the PESA Act, Scheduled Areas are those referred to in Article 244(1), which says that the provisions of the Fifth Schedule shall apply to the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in states other than Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
The Fifth Schedule provides for a range of special provisions for these areas.
How is the PESA Act, 1996 supposed to work?
The PESA Act was enacted to ensure self-governance through Gram Sabhas (village assemblies) for people living in the Scheduled Areas.
It recognises the right of tribal communities to govern themselves through their own systems of self-government, and also acknowledges their traditional rights over natural resources.
In pursuance of this objective, the Act empowers Gram Sabhas to play a key role in approving development plans and controlling all social sectors.
Special powers accorded by PESA Act includes the:
Processes and personnel who implement policies
Exercising control over minor (non-timber) forest resources
Minor water bodies and minor minerals
Managing local markets
Preventing land alienation and
Regulating intoxicants among other things
States and PESA Act
State governments are expected to amend their respective Panchayati Raj Acts without making any law that would be inconsistent with the mandate of PESA.
Ten states — Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, and Telangana — have notified Fifth Schedule areas that cover partially or fully several districts in each of these states.
After the PESA Act was enacted, the central Ministry of Panchayati Raj circulated model PESA Rules.
So far, six states have notified these Rules, including Gujarat.
What is the issue in Gujarat?
Gujarat notified the State PESA Rules in January 2017, and made them applicable in 4,503 gram sabhas under 2,584 village panchayats in 50 tribal talukas in eight districts of the state.
The provisions of the law deem the Gram Sabhas as “most competent”.
However, the Act has not been enforced in letter and spirit.
The Act lays down that the state must conduct elections in such a way that the tribal representation is to be dominant in the Gram Sabha Committees.
Yet again, there has been no attempt to proportionally increase the representation.
Try this PYQ:
Q.The Government enacted the Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas (PESA) Act in 1996. Which one of the following is not identified as its objective?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SSLV, PSLV, GSLV
Mains level: Not Much
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has said that the satellite onboard its’ maiden Small Satellite Launch Vehicle “are no longer usable” after the SSLV-D1 placed them in an elliptical orbit instead of a circular one.
What is SSLV?
The SSLV is a small-lift launch vehicle being developed by the ISRO with payload capacity to deliver:
It would help launching small satellites, with the capability to support multiple orbital drop-offs.
In future a dedicated launch pad in Sriharikota called Small Satellite Launch Complex (SSLC) will be set up.
A new spaceport, under development, near Kulasekharapatnam in Tamil Nadu will handle SSLV launches when complete.
After entering the operational phase, the vehicle’s production and launch operations will be done by a consortium of Indian firms along with NewSpace India Limited (NSIL).
Vehicle details
(A) Dimensions
Height: 34 meters
Diameter: 2 meters
Mass: 120 tonnes
(B) Propulsion
It will be a four stage launching vehicle.
The first three stages will use Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) based solid propellant, with a fourth terminal stage being a Velocity-Trimming Module (VTM).
SSLV vs. PSLV: A comparison
The SSLV was developed with the aim of launching small satellites commercially at drastically reduced price and higher launch rate as compared to Polar SLV (PSLV).
The projected high launch rate relies on largely autonomous launch operation and on overall simple logistics.
To compare, a PSLV launch involves 600 officials while SSLV launch operations would be managed by a small team of about six people.
The launch readiness period of the SSLV is expected to be less than a week instead of months.
The SSLV can carry satellites weighing up to 500 kg to a low earth orbit while the tried and tested PSLV can launch satellites weighing in the range of 1000 kg.
The entire job will be done in a very short time and the cost will be only around Rs 30 crore for SSLV.
Significance of SSLV
SSLV is perfectly suited for launching multiple microsatellites at a time and supports multiple orbital drop-offs.
The development and manufacture of the SSLV are expected to create greater synergy between the space sector and private Indian industries – a key aim of the space ministry.
Back2Basics: Various Orbits of Satellites
[1] Geostationary orbit (GEO)
Satellites in geostationary orbit (GEO) circle Earth above the equator from west to east following Earth’s rotation – taking 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds – by travelling at exactly the same rate as Earth.
This makes satellites in GEO appear to be ‘stationary’ over a fixed position.
In order to perfectly match Earth’s rotation, the speed of GEO satellites should be about 3 km per second at an altitude of 35 786 km.
This is much farther from Earth’s surface compared to many satellites.
GEO is used by satellites that need to stay constantly above one particular place over Earth, such as telecommunication satellites.
Satellites in GEO cover a large range of Earth so as few as three equally-spaced satellites can provide near-global coverage.
[2] Low Earth orbit (LEO)
A low Earth orbit (LEO) is, as the name suggests, an orbit that is relatively close to Earth’s surface.
It is normally at an altitude of less than 1000 km but could be as low as 160 km above Earth – which is low compared to other orbits, but still very far above Earth’s surface.
Unlike satellites in GEO that must always orbit along Earth’s equator, LEO satellites do not always have to follow a particular path around Earth in the same way – their plane can be tilted.
This means there are more available routes for satellites in LEO, which is one of the reasons why LEO is a very commonly used orbit.
It is most commonly used for satellite imaging, as being near the surface allows it to take images of higher resolution.
Satellites in this orbit travel at a speed of around 7.8 km per second; at this speed, a satellite takes approximately 90 minutes to circle Earth.
[3] Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
Medium Earth orbit comprises a wide range of orbits anywhere between LEO and GEO.
It is similar to LEO in that it also does not need to take specific paths around Earth, and it is used by a variety of satellites with many different applications.
It is very commonly used by navigation satellites, like the European Galileo system of Europe.
It uses a constellation of multiple satellites to provide coverage across large parts of the world all at once.
[4] Polar Orbit
Satellites in polar orbits usually travel past Earth from north to south rather than from west to east, passing roughly over Earth’s poles.
Satellites in a polar orbit do not have to pass the North and South Pole precisely; even a deviation within 20 to 30 degrees is still classed as a polar orbit.
Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, as they are at low altitudes between 200 to 1000 km.
[5] Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO)
SSO is a particular kind of polar orbit. Satellites in SSO, travelling over the polar regions, are synchronous with the Sun.
This means they are synchronised to always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative to the Sun.
This means that the satellite always visits the same spot at the same local time.
Often, satellites in SSO are synchronised so that they are in constant dawn or dusk – this is because by constantly riding a sunset or sunrise, they will never have the Sun at an angle where the Earth shadows them.
A satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit would usually be at an altitude of between 600 to 800 km. At 800 km, it will be travelling at a speed of approximately 7.5 km per second.
[6] Transfer orbits and geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
Transfer orbits are a special kind of orbit used to get from one orbit to another.
Often, the satellites are instead placed on a transfer orbit: an orbit where, by using relatively little energy from built-in motors, the satellite or spacecraft can move from one orbit to another.
This allows a satellite to reach, for example, a high-altitude orbit like GEO without actually needing the launch vehicle.
Reaching GEO in this way is an example of one of the most common transfer orbits, called the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Collegium system, NJAC
Mains level: Collegium system, NJAC
Why in news?
The Ramana Collegium has been particularly successful.
Meeting frequently and working quickly, they took the perennial problem of judicial vacancies by its horns and turned it around.
Success of Ramana Collegium
The collegium was able to recommend numerous judicial appointments and scripted history by getting nine Supreme Court judges appointed in one go.
Of the nine, Justice B.V. Nagarathna, is in line to be the first woman CJI in 2027.
What exactly is the Collegium System?
The collegium system was born out of years of friction between the judiciary and the executive.
The hostility was further accentuated by instances of court-packing (the practice of changing the composition of judges in a court), mass transfer of HC judges and two supersessions to the office of the CJI in the 1970s.
The Three Judges cases saw the evolution of the collegium system.
Evolution: The Judges Cases
First Judges Case (1981) ruled that the “consultation” with the CJI in the matter of appointments must be full and effective.
However, it rejected the idea that the CJI’s opinion, albeit carrying great weight, should have primacy.
Second Judges Case (1993) introduced the Collegium system, holding that “consultation” really meant “concurrence”.
It added that it was not the CJI’s individual opinion, but an institutional opinion formed in consultation with the two senior-most judges in the Supreme Court.
Third Judges Case (1998): On a Presidential Reference for its opinion, the Supreme Court, in the Third Judges Case (1998) expanded the Collegium to a five-member body, comprising the CJI and four of his senior-most colleagues.
How does the collegium system work?
The collegium of the CJI and four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court make recommendations for appointments to the apex court and High Courts.
The collegium can veto the government if the names are sent back by the latter for reconsideration.
The basic tenet behind the collegium system is that the judiciary should have primacy over the government in matters of appointments and transfers in order to remain independent.
The procedure followed by the Collegium
Appointment of CJI
The President of India appoints the CJI and the other SC judges.
As far as the CJI is concerned, the outgoing CJI recommends his successor.
In practice, it has been strictly by seniority ever since the supersession controversy of the 1970s.
The Union Law Minister forwards the recommendation to the PM who, in turn, advises the President.
Other SC Judges
For other judges of the top court, the proposal is initiated by the CJI.
The CJI consults the rest of the Collegium members, as well as the senior-most judge of the court hailing from the High Court to which the recommended person belongs.
The consultees must record their opinions in writing and it should form part of the file.
The Collegium sends the recommendation to the Law Minister, who forwards it to the Prime Minister to advise the President.
For High Courts
The CJs of High Courts are appointed as per the policy of having Chief Justices from outside the respective States. The Collegium takes the call on the elevation.
High Court judges are recommended by a Collegium comprising the CJI and two senior-most judges.
The proposal, however, is initiated by the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned in consultation with two senior-most colleagues.
The recommendation is sent to the Chief Minister, who advises the Governor to send the proposal to the Union Law Minister.
Does the Collegium recommend transfers too?
Yes, the Collegium also recommends the transfer of Chief Justices and other judges.
Article 222 of the Constitution provides for the transfer of a judge from one High Court to another.
When a CJ is transferred, a replacement must also be simultaneously found for the High Court concerned. There can be an acting CJ in a High Court for not more than a month.
In matters of transfers, the opinion of the CJI “is determinative”, and the consent of the judge concerned is not required.
However, the CJI should take into account the views of the CJ of the High Court concerned and the views of one or more SC judges who are in a position to do so.
All transfers must be made in the public interest, that is, “for the betterment of the administration of justice”.
Loopholes in the Collegium system
Lack of Transparency: Opaqueness and a lack of transparency, and the scope for nepotism are cited often.
Judges appointing Judge: The attempt made to replace it with a ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission’ was struck down by the court in 2015 on the ground that it posed a threat to the independence of the judiciary.
Criteria: Some do not believe in full disclosure of reasons for transfers, as it may make lawyers in the destination court chary of the transferred judge. It has even been accused of nepotism.
Way ahead
In respect of appointments, there has been an acknowledgment that the “zone of consideration” must be expanded to avoid criticism that many appointees hail from families of retired judges.
The status of a proposed new memorandum of procedure, to infuse greater accountability, is also unclear.
Even the majority opinions admitted the need for transparency, now Collegiums’ resolutions are now posted online, but reasons are not given.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Herbaria
Mains level: Not Much
With details of about one lakh plant specimens, the Indian Virtual Herbarium, the biggest virtual database of flora in the country, is generating a lot of interest and turning out to be an eye-catching endeavour.
Indian Virtual Herbarium
A herbarium specimen is consists of dried plant parts with labelled information on Scientific name and collection data.
It has immense use in plant identification, systematics studies and ecological studies.
The Botanical Survey of India has more than 30,00,000 herbarium specimens persevered in different herbaria located in different parts of the country.
Developed by scientists of the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), the herbarium was inaugurated by Union Minister of Environment Forest and Climate Change in Kolkata last month.
Why in news?
Since launch, the portal ivh.bsi.gov.in has had nearly two lakh hits from 55 countries.
The portal includes about one lakh images of herbarium specimens.
Each record in the digital herbarium includes an image of the preserved plant specimen, scientific name, collection locality, and collection date, collector name, and barcode number.
The digital herbarium includes features to extract the data State-wise, and users can search plants of their own States, which will help them identify regional plants and in building regional checklists.
Significance of the herbaria
Scientists say that there are approximately three million plant specimens in the country which are with different herbaria located at zonal centres of the BSI.
About 52% of our type specimens are from foreign nations and collected from 82 countries of the world during the British-era.
The herbarium is also deeply linked with the botanical history of the country.
The portal provides most valuable historical collections of botanists like William Roxburgh, Nathaniel Wallich and Joseph Dalton Hooker, considered the founding fathers of botany in India.
The digital herbarium has some of the oldest botanical specimens dating as early as 1696.
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NRC, NPR
Mains level: Read the attached story
Bowing to demands from tribal groups, the Manipur Assembly has resolved to implement the National Register of Citizens (NRC) and establish a State Population Commission (SPC).
To date, Assam is the only northeastern State to have implemented the NRC.
What is National Register of Citizens (NRC)?
The National Register of Citizens (NRC) is a register of all Indian citizens whose creation is mandated by the 2003 amendment of the Citizenship Act, 1955.
The register was first prepared after the 1951 Census of India.
Its purpose is to document all the legal citizens of India so that the illegal immigrants can be identified and deported.
It has been implemented for the state of Assam starting in 2013–2014.
The GoI announced plans to implement it for the rest of the country in 2021, but it has not yet been implemented.
NRC and Assam
Assam, being a border state with unique problems of illegal immigration, had a register of citizens created for it in 1951 based on the 1951 census data.
However, it was not maintained afterwards.
For decades, the presence of migrants, often called “bahiragat” or outsiders, has been a loaded issue here.
The Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act, 1983 was then passed by the Parliament, creating a separate tribunal process for identifying illegal migrants in Assam.
The Supreme Court struck it down as unconstitutional in 2005, after which the Centre agreed to update the Assam NRC.
Who is a Foreigner in Assam?
The National Register of Citizens now takes its definition of illegal immigrants from the Assam Accord – anyone who cannot prove that they or their ancestors entered the country before the midnight of March 24, 1971, would be declared a foreigner and face deportation.
Those who entered on or after March 25, 1971, the eve of the Bangladesh War, would be declared foreigners and deported.
This means you could be born in India in 1971 to parents who crossed the border in that year, and still be termed an illegal immigrant at the age of 48.
CAA and NRC protests
These were a series of protests in India against the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 which was enacted into law on December 12, 2019, and against the nationwide implementation of the NRC.
Protesters in all regions are concerned that the upcoming compilation of the National Register of Citizens might be used to deprive a community of its Indian citizenship.
Back2Basics: National Population Register (NPR)
The NPR is a database containing a list of all usual residents of the country.
Its objective is to have a comprehensive identity database of people residing in the country.
It is generated through house-to-house enumeration during the “house-listing” phase of the census, which is held once in 10 years.
A usual resident for the purposes of NPR is a person who has resided in a place for six months or more, and intends to reside there for another six months or more.
Once the basic details of the head of the family are taken by the enumerator, an acknowledgement slip will be issued. This slip may be required for enrolment in NPR, whenever that process begins.
And, once the details are recorded in every local (village or ward), sub-district (tehsil or taluk), district and State level, there will be a population register at each of these levels.
Together, they constitute the National Population Register.
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vice President of India
Mains level: Not Much
National Democratic Alliance candidate and former West Bengal Governor Jagdeep Dhankhar will be the 14th Vice-President of the country.
About Vice President of India
The VP is the deputy to the head of state of the Republic of India, the President of India.
His/her office is the second-highest constitutional office after the president and ranks second in the order of precedence and first in the line of succession to the presidency.
Qualifications
As in the case of the president, to be qualified to be elected as vice president, a person must:
Be a citizen of India
Be at least 35 years of age
Not hold any office of profit
Unlike in the case of the president, where a person must be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha, the vice president must be qualified for election as a member of the Rajya Sabha.
This difference is because the vice president is to act as the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
Roles and responsibilities
When a bill is introduced in the Rajya Sabha, the vice president decides whether it is a money bill or not.
If he is of the opinion that a bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha is a money bill, he shall refer it to the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
The vice president also acts as the chancellor of the central universities of India.
Election procedure
Article 66 of the Constitution of India states the manner of election of the vice president.
The vice president is elected indirectly by members of an electoral college consisting of the members of both Houses of Parliament and NOT the members of state legislative assembly.
The election is held as per the system of proportional representation using single transferable votes.
The voting is conducted by Election Commission of India via secret ballot.
The Electoral College for the poll will comprise 233 Rajya Sabha members, 12 nominated Rajya Sabha members and 543 Lok Sabha members.
The Lok Sabha Secretary-General would be appointed the Returning Officer.
Political parties CANNOT issue any whip to their MPs in the matter of voting in the Vice-Presidential election.
Removal
The Constitution states that the vice president can be removed by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an Effective majority (majority of all the then members) and agreed by the Lok Sabha with a simple majority( Article 67(b)).
But no such resolution may be moved unless at least 14 days’ noticein advance has been given.
Notably, the Constitution does not list grounds for removal.
No Vice President has ever faced removal or the deputy chairman in the Rajya Sabha cannot be challenged in any court of law per Article 122.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Genome sequencing, APOBEC3 protein
Mains level: NA
Researchers from across the world have made available over 650 complete genome sequences of monkeypox isolates to date in public domain databases including GISAID and GenBank.
What is Genome Sequencing?
Genome sequence is the unique code of genetic material of any organism, and determines the characteristic of any organism.
Whole genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome at a single time.
The gene composition of novel coronavirus, for instance, is different from that of the influenza virus. Every organism has a unique genome sequence.
Laboratories in various countries have been isolating and sharing the genome sequences of the virus on an international platform.
Why are so many genome sequences being isolated?
When viruses multiply, or reproduce, there is a copying mechanism that transfers the gene information to the next generation.
However, no copying mechanism is perfect. When the virus multiplies, there will be small changes, which are called mutations.
These mutations accumulate over time, and after prolonged periods, are responsible for evolution into new organisms.
Within a single reproduction, the changes are extremely minor. More than 95 per cent of the gene structure remains the same.
How does it help scientists?
However, the small changes that occur are crucial to understanding the nature and behaviour of the organism.
In this case, for example, the small changes could provide scientists with information about the origin, transmission, and impact of the virus on the patient.
It could also hold clues to the differing effects the virus could have on patients with different health parameters.
Accelerated evolution of Monkeypox
The monkeypox virus has a DNA genome of around 2,00,000 base pairs, roughly six times larger than that of SARS-CoV-2.
Like other viruses, the monkeypox virus evolves by the accumulation of genetic errors, or mutations, in its genome when it replicates inside a host.
Being a DNA virus, the monkeypox virus like other poxviruses was believed to have a small rate of accumulating genetic changes compared to viruses with an RNA genome like SARS-CoV-2, which have a much larger rate of mutations.
For poxviruses, this rate is estimated to be as low as a couple of genetic changes every year.
A recent study, however, revealed that the observed rate of genetic changes in the virus was higher than expected — average of around 50 genetic changes.
Key findings
Ans. APOBEC3 protein
The study also suggests that several mutations that have been identified in the new sequences of the monkeypox virus.
This may have emerged due to interaction between the virus genome and an important family of proteins coded by the human genome known as the Apolipoprotein B Editing Complex (or APOBEC3).
These proteins offer protection against certain viral infections by editing the genome sequence of the virus while it replicates in the cell.
Some researchers suggest that many of the genetic mutations in the monkeypox genomes from the current outbreak are relics of the effect of APOBEC3.
Conclusion
Genomic surveillance of pathogens provides interesting insights by following a molecular approach for contact tracing and understanding the transmission of the virus across the world.
As cases of monkeypox continue to rise, it is therefore important to strengthen the genomic surveillance for the monkeypox virus.
Since data from the present outbreak suggest a sustained human-to-human transmission, continuous genomic surveillance is important to understand the evolution and adaptation of the virus, apart from providing useful data to epidemiologists.
With COVID-19 continuing unabated and monkeypox around the corner, the time has never been better, and the need never more acute, to build a sustainable system for genomic surveillance in India.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Economic Censis
Mains level: Not Much
The Centre has blamed the States for a prolonged delay in releasing the findings of the Seventh Economic Census, a critical compendium of formal and informal non-farm enterprises operating across the country, in a submission to the Parliament.
What is National Economic Census?
In 1976, GoI launched a planning scheme called Economic Census and Surveys.
It is the census of the Indian economy through counting all entrepreneurial units in the country which involved in any economic activities of either agricultural or non-agricultural sector which are engaged in production and/or distribution of goods and/or services not for the sole purpose of own consumption.
It provides detailed information on operational and other characteristics such as number of establishments, number of persons employed, source of finance, type of ownership etc.
This information used for micro level/ decentralized planning and to assess contribution of various sectors of the economy in the GDP.
Censuses till date
Total Six Economic Censuses (EC) has been conducted till date.
In 1977 CSO conducted First economic census in collaboration with the Directorate of Economics & Statistics (DES) in the States/UTs.
The Second EC was carried out in 1980 followed by the Third EC in 1990. The fourth edition took place in 1998 while the fifth EC was held in 2005.
The Sixth edition of the Economic Census was conducted in 2013.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NFSA
Mains level: Schemes related to food security
The Centre has launched a common facility to register names in ration cards on a pilot basis for 11 States and Union Territories.
Ration Mitra
Ration Mitra’ Portal aims to enable these States to identify and verify the eligible beneficiaries for coverage under the National Food Security Act.
Named as Ration Mitr, this software developed by the National Informatics Centre can be used to enrol people of any State.
The portal is an enabler for States/UTs to complete their inclusion exercise under NFSA.
The NFSA provides food security coverage for 81.35 crore persons in the country. The present NFSA coverage is about 79.74 crore.
About National Food Security (NFS) Act
The NFS Act, 2013 aims to provide subsidized food grains to approximately two-thirds of India’s 1.2 billion people.
It converts into legal entitlements for existing food security programs of the GoI.
It includes the Midday Meal Scheme, Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme and the Public Distribution System (PDS).
Further, the NFSA 2013 recognizes maternity entitlements.
The Midday Meal Scheme and the ICDS are universal in nature whereas the PDS will reach about two-thirds of the population (75% in rural areas and 50% in urban areas).
Pregnant women, lactating mothers, and certain categories of children are eligible for daily free cereals.
Key provisions of NFSA
The NFSA provides a legal right to persons belonging to “eligible households” to receive foodgrains at a subsidised price.
It includes rice at Rs 3/kg, wheat at Rs 2/kg and coarse grain at Rs 1/kg — under the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS). These are called central issue prices (CIPs).
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vannuramma
Mains level: Not Much
The fort of legendry Vannuramma in Nallamala forest in the present day Mydukur mandal of Kadapa district is trending due to its rundown condition.
Who was Vannuramma?
Vannuramma ruled five ‘Durgams’ (under fiefdom) between 1781 and 1796 with Sakarlapadu as the administrative headquarters.
According to historical accounts, she was born in Pathimadugu Rekulakunta, now in Kadapa district, and got married to Veerneni Chinna Narasimha Naidu in 1764.
The family had the practice of praying at Vannuru Swamy temple in Kalyanadurgam of Anantapur district.
Vannuramma thus got her name as she was born, as believed, as the god’s gift.
Though there are not many historical accounts, Kadapa-based writer Bommisetty Ramesh brought out the first book last year on her.
Based on information culled out from the Mackenzie Kaifiyat of Kadapa, he extensively toured the region ruled by her, collected folklore and verified the same with historians.
Her legend
The very mention of the name ‘Vannuramma’ brought chill to the spine of the Matli kings and Kadapa Nawabs.
Of all the Polegars (local chieftains) who had ruled the regional territories of Rayalaseema before the advent of the British, the lone woman ruler remains forgotten from the pages of history.
Under attack from fellow Polegars, Vannuramma’s family fled Thippireddypalle and took shelter in Chagalamarri fort, where they lived for eight years before her husband breathed his last in 1780.
Vannuramma wielded the sword when the Matli king Appayya Raju and Mysore Sultan Hyder Ali’s follower Meeru Saheb waged a war, invaded Sakerlapadu Durgam and robbed the property of locals.
Mobilising her army, she declared a war and brought the territory back into her fold in 1781.
Her death
Even the Golconda Nawabs, through their Kadapa henchman Khadarvali Khan, tried in vain to control her.
It was then they hatched a plan to woo her adopted son and arrested her on some flimsy charges.
When the unsuspecting Vannuramma attended the Matli king’s court to prove her innocence, she was slapped with charges of treason.
The Nawabs captured her and sentenced her with ‘Korthi’, an inhuman form of punishment where a person is made to sit on a sharpened tree stump and left to die.
Vannuramma died in full public view in the year 1718 of Salivahana Saka, which translates to August 16, 1796, i.e., 226 years back.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: OTEC technology
Mains level: Renewable Energy in India
The National Institute of Ocean Technology is establishing an Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) plant with a capacity of 65 kilowatts (kW) in Kavaratti, the capital of Lakshadweep.
What is OTEC Plant?
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a process or technology for producing energy by harnessing the temperature differences (thermal gradients) between ocean surface waters and deep ocean waters.
Energy from the sun heats the surface water of the ocean.
In tropical regions, surface water can be much warmer than deep water.
This temperature difference can be used to produce electricity and to desalinate ocean water.
How do they work?
The OTEC technology uses the temperature difference between the cold water in the deep sea (5°C) and the warm surface seawater (25°C) to generate clean, renewable electricity.
The technology requires a minimum of 20°C difference between the surface and deep ocean temperatures.
Warm surface water is pumped through an evaporator containing a working fluid. The vaporized fluid drives a turbine/generator.
The vaporized fluid is turned back to a liquid in a condenser cooled with cold ocean water pumped from deeper in the ocean.
OTEC systems using seawater as the working fluid can use the condensed water to produce desalinated water.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: FRP
Mains level: Issues with Sugarcane Pricing
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs has approved Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane for sugar season 2022-23 (October – September) at ₹305 per quintal.
What is FRP?
FRP is fixed under a sugarcane control order, 1966.
It is the minimum price that sugar mills are supposed to pay to the farmers.
However, states determine their own State Agreed Price (SAP) which is generally higher than the FRP.
Factors considered for FRP:
The amended provisions of the Sugarcane (Control) Order, 1966 provides for fixation of FRP of sugarcane having regard to the following factors:
a) cost of production of sugarcane;
b) return to the growers from alternative crops and the general trend of prices of agricultural commodities;
c) availability of sugar to consumers at a fair price;
d) price at which sugar produced from sugarcane is sold by sugar producers;
e) recovery of sugar from sugarcane;
f) the realization made from the sale of by-products viz. molasses, bagasse, and press mud or their imputed value;
g) reasonable margins for the growers of sugarcane on account of risk and profits.
Who determines Sugarcane prices?
Sugarcane prices are determined by the Centre as well as States.
The Centre announces Fair and Remunerative Prices which are determined on the recommendation of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) and are announced by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, which is chaired by Prime Minister.
The State Advised Prices (SAP) are announced by key sugarcane producing states which are generally higher than FRP.
Minimum Selling Price (MSP) for Sugar
The price of sugar is market-driven & depends on the demand & supply of sugar.
However, with a view to protecting the interests of farmers, the concept of MSP of sugar has been introduced since 2018.
MSP of sugar has been fixed taking into account the components of Fair & Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane and minimum conversion cost of the most efficient mills.
Basis of price determination
With the amendment of the Sugarcane (Control) Order, 1966, the concept of Statutory Minimum Price (SMP) of sugarcane was replaced with the Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP)’ of sugarcane in 2009-10.
The cane price announced by the Central Government is decided on the basis of the recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP).
This is done in consultation with the State Governments and after taking feedback from associations of the sugar industry.
Try this PYQ:
Q.The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the:
(a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs
(b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices
(c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CITES, WPA Act
Mains level: Read the attached story
The Lok Sabha passed the Wildlife (Protection), Amendment Bill, with no significant modifications to the version of the Bill presented in the House for discussion.
What is the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972?
WPA provides for the protection of the country’s wild animals, birds and plant species, in order to ensure environmental and ecological security.
It provides for the protection of a listed species of animals, birds and plants, and also for the establishment of a network of ecologically-important protected areas in the country.
It provides for various types of protected areas such as Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks etc.
The act is also against Taxidermy, which is the preservation of a dead wild animal as a trophy, or in the form of rugs, preserved skins, antlers, horns, eggs, teeth, and nails.
In the case of wild birds and reptiles, the act also forbids disturbing or damaging their eggs.
The act was amended in the year 2006 and its purpose is to strengthen the conservation of tigers and other endangered species by combating crimes against them through the special Crime Control Bureau.
There are six schedules provided in the WPA for protection of wildlife species which can be concisely summarized as under:
Schedule I:
These species need rigorous protection and therefore, the harshest penalties for violation of the law are for species under this Schedule.
Schedule II:
Animals under this list are accorded high protection. They cannot be hunted except under threat to human life.
Schedule III & IV:
This list is for species that are not endangered. This includes protected species but the penalty for any violation is less compared to the first two schedules.
Schedule V:
This schedule contains animals which can be hunted.
Schedule VI:
This list contains plants that are forbidden from cultivation.
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Bill: Key Features
(1) CITES
CITES is an international agreement between governments to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species.
Under CITES, plant and animal specimens are classified into three categories (Appendices) based on the threat to their extinction.
The Convention requires countries to regulate the trade of all listed specimens through permits.
It also seeks to regulate the possession of live animal specimens. The Bill seeks to implement these provisions of CITES.
(2) Obligations under CITES:
The Bill provides for the central government to designate a: (i) Management Authority, which grants export or import permits for trade of specimens, and (iii) Scientific Authority, which gives advice on aspects related to impact on the survival of the specimens being traded.
Every person engaging in trade of a scheduled specimen must report the details of the transaction to the Management Authority.
As per CITES, the Management Authority may use an identification mark for a specimen.
The Bill prohibits any person from modifying or removing the identification mark of the specimen.
Additionally, every person possessing live specimens of scheduled animals must obtain a registration certificate from the Management Authority.
(3) Rationalising schedules
Currently, the Act has six schedules for specially protected plants (one), specially protected animals (four), and vermin species (one).
Vermin refers to small animals that carry disease and destroy food.
The Bill reduces the total number of schedules to four by:
Reducing the number of schedules for specially protected animals to two (one for greater protection level)
Removes the schedule for vermin species
Inserts a new schedule for specimens listed in the Appendices under CITES (scheduled specimens)
(4) Invasive alien species
The Bills empowers the central government to regulate or prohibit the import, trade, possession or proliferation of invasive alien species.
Invasive alien species refers to plant or animal species which are not native to India and whose introduction may adversely impact wild life or its habitat.
The central government may authorise an officer to seize and dispose the invasive species.
(5) Control of sanctuaries
The Act entrusts the Chief Wild Life Warden to control, manage and maintain all sanctuaries in a state.
The Chief Wild Life Warden is appointed by the state government.
The Bill specifies that actions of the Chief Warden must be in accordance with the management plans for the sanctuary.
These plans will be prepared as per guidelines of the central government, and as approved by the Chief Warden.
For sanctuaries falling under special areas, the management plan must be prepared after due consultation with the concerned Gram Sabha.
Special areas include a Scheduled Area or areas where the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 is applicable.
Scheduled Areas are economically backward areas with a predominantly tribal population, notified under the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution.
(6) Conservation reserves
Under the Act, state governments may declare areas adjacent to national parks and sanctuaries as a conservation reserve, for protecting flora and fauna, and their habitat.
The Bill empowers the central government to also notify a conservation reserve.
(7) Surrender of captive animals
The Bill provides for any person to voluntarily surrender any captive animals or animal products to the Chief Wild Life Warden.
No compensation will be paid to the person for surrendering such items.
The surrendered items become property of the state government.
Back2Basics: CITES
CITES stands for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
It is as an international agreement aimed at ensuring “that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival”.
It was drafted after a resolution was adopted at a meeting of the members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1963.
It entered into force on July 1, 1975, and now has 183 parties.
The Convention is legally binding on the Parties in the sense that they are committed to implementing it; however, it does not take the place of national laws.
India is a signatory to and has also ratified CITES convention in 1976.
CITES Appendices
CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls.
All import, export, re-exports and introduction from the sea of species covered by the convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
It has three appendices:
Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade-in specimens of these species are permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
Appendix II provides a lower level of protection.
Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling trade.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2022:
Q. With reference to Indian laws about wildlife protection, consider the following statements:
Wild animals are the sole property of the government.
When a wild animal is declared protected, such animal is entitled for equal protection whether it is found in protected areas or outside.
Apprehension of a protected wild animal becoming a danger to human life is sufficient ground for its capture or killing.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hellfire R9X Missile
Mains level: Strategic weapons
The US military used its ‘secret weapon’ — the Hellfire R9X missile – to kill Al Qaeda chief Ayman al-Zawahiri on the balcony of a safehouse in Kabul.
What is the Hellfire R9X missile?
Better known in military circles as the AGM-114 R9X, the Hellfire R9X is a US-origin missile known to cause minimum collateral damage while engaging individual targets.
Also known as the ‘Ninja Missile’, this weapon does not carry a warhead and instead deploys razor-sharp blades at the terminal stage of its attack trajectory.
This helps it to break through even thick steel sheets and cut down the target using the kinetic energy of its propulsion without causing any damage to the persons in the general vicinity or to the structure of the building.
The blades pop out of the missile and cut down the intended target without causing the massive damage to the surroundings which would be the case with a missile carrying an explosive warhead.
When did the Hellfire missile enter active service?
The Hellfire 9RX missile is known to have been in active service since 2017.
However, its existence became public knowledge two years later in 2019.
It is a variant of the original Hellfire missile family which is used in conventional form with warheads and is traditionally used from helicopters, ground-based vehicles, and sometimes small ships and fast moving vessels.
For several years now, the Hellfire family of missiles, including the ‘Ninja Missile’, are armed on Combat Unmanned Aerial Vehicles or drones.
What is known about the other Hellfire missile variants?
Hellfire is actually an acronym for Heliborne, Laser, Fire and Forget Missile and it was developed in the US initially to target tanks from the Apache AH-64 attack helicopters.
Later, the usage of these missiles spread to several other variants of helicopters and also ground and sea-based systems and drones.
Developed by Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman, the Hellfire missile has other variants such as ‘Longbow’ and ‘Romeo’ apart from the ‘Ninja’.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Disposal of Seized Narcotics
Mains level: Not Much
The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) has destroyed 30,000 kg of seized drugs at four locations – Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi and Guwahati — in the virtual presence of Union Home Minister.
Destruction of Seized Narcotic Drugs
Section 52-A of the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985 allows probe agencies to destroy seized substances after collecting required samples.
Officials concerned must make a detailed inventory of the substance to be destroyed.
A five-member committee comprising the area SSP, director/superintendent or the representative of the area NCB, a local magistrate and two others linked to law enforcement and legal fraternity is constituted.
The substance is then destroyed in an incinerator or burnt completely leaving behind not any trace of the substance.
Exact procedure that is followed
The agency first obtains permission from a local court to dispose of the seized narcotic substances.
These substances are then taken to the designated place of destruction under a strict vigil.
The presiding officer tallies the inventory made at the storeroom with that material brought to the spot.
The entire process is videographed and photographed.
Then one by one, all the packets/gunny bags of the substance/s are put in the incinerator.
As per rules, committee members cannot leave the place until the seized drugs have been completely destroyed.
Which agency is authorized to carry out such an exercise?
Every law enforcement agency competent to seize drugs is authorized to destroy them after taking prior permission of the area magistrate.
These include state police forces, the CBI and the NCB among others.
Why destroy seized drugs?
The hazardous nature of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances, their vulnerability to theft, substitution, and constraints of proper storage space are among the reasons that make agencies destroy them.
There have been instances when seized narcotics were pilfered from the storeroom.
To prevent such instances, authorities try to destroy seized drugs immediately after collecting the required samples out of the seized substances.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Resolving judicial pendency
Over 59 lakh cases were pending in the High Courts until July 22, Law Minister said in a written reply in Rajya Sabha.
What else?
There are serving women judges in various courts, including 4 in the Supreme Court and 96 in the High Courts, as of July 25.
Indian Judiciary: A Backgrounder
Our Judicial system has been the nation’s moral conscience keeper.
It speaks truth to political power, upholds the rights of citizens, mediates between Centre-state conflicts, provides justice to the rich and poor alike, and on several momentous occasions, saved democracy itself.
Despite its achievements, a gap between the ideal and reality has been becoming clear over the years.
The justice delivery is slow, the appointment of judges is mired in controversy, disciplinary mechanisms scarcely work, hierarchy rather than merit is preferred, women are severely under-represented, and constitutional matters often languish in the Supreme Court for years.
As Justice Chelameswar said in his dissent in the NJAC judgment, the courts must reform, so that they can preserve.
Challenges to the judicial system
Lack of infrastructure of courts
High vacancy of judges in the district judiciary
Pendency of Cases
Ineffective planning in the functioning of the courts
Delay in the delivery of judgements
Lack of transparency in appointments and transfers.
Corruption
Undertrials serving Jail
Outdated laws ex. Section 124A IPC
What led to the underperformance of the Indian Judiciary?
The primary factors contributing to docket explosion and arrears as highlighted by the Justice Malimath Committee report are as follows:
Population explosion
Litigation explosion
Hasty and imperfect drafting of legislation
Plurality and accumulation of appeals (Multiple appeals for the same issue)
Inadequacy of judge strength
Failure to provide adequate forums of appeal against quasi-judicial orders
Lack of priority for disposal of old cases (due to the improper constitution of benches)
Recent developments:
Proposal for the creation of National Judicial Infrastructure Corporation (NJIC)
The CJI has pitched to set up a National Judicial Infrastructure Corporation (NJIC) to develop judicial infrastructure in trial courts.
He indicated a substantial gap in infrastructure and availability of basic amenities in the lower judiciary.
There is a dearth of court halls, residential accommodation, and waiting rooms for litigants in trial courts, especially in smaller towns and rural areas.
Experience shows that budgetary allocation for state judiciary often lapses since there is no independent body to supervise and execute such works.
NJIC is expected to fill this vacuum and overcome problems related to infrastructure.
Way forward
Creating NJIC: It will bring a revolutionary change in the judicial functioning provided the proposed body is given financial and executive powers to operate independently of the Union and the State governments.
Appointment reforms: There are many experts who advocate the need to appoint more judges with unquestionable transparency in such appointments.
Creating All Indian Judiciary Services: It would be a landmark move to create a pan-India Service that would result in a wide pool of qualified and committed judges entering the system.
Technology infusion: The ethical and responsible use of AI and ML for the advancement of efficiency-enhancing can be increasingly embedded in legal and judicial processes. Ex. SUPACE.
Legal education: This should be in alignment with the evolving dynamics of the law and must be propagated in trial and constitutional courts. This will improve the competence of the judicial system.
Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR): ADR mechanisms should be promoted for out-of-court settlements. Primary courts of appeal should be set up.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AlphaFold
Mains level: Not Much
DeepMind, a company based in London and owned by Google, announced that it had predicted the three-dimensional structures of more than 200 million proteins using AlphaFold.
This is the entire protein universe known to scientists today.
What is AlphaFold?
AlphaFold is an AI-based protein structure prediction tool.
It is based on a computer system called deep neural network.
Inspired by the human brain, neural networks use a large amount of input data and provide the desired output exactly like how a human brain would.
The real work is done by the black box between the input and the output layers, called the hidden networks. AlphaFold is fed with protein sequences as input.
When protein sequences enter through one end, the predicted three-dimensional structures come out through the other.
It is like a magician pulling a rabbit out of a hat.
How does AlphaFold work?
It uses processes based on “training, learning, retraining and relearning.”
The first step uses the available structures of 1,70,000 proteins in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) to train the computer model.
Then, it uses the results of that training to learn the structural predictions of proteins not in the PDB.
Once that is done, it uses the high-accuracy predictions from the first step to retrain and relearn to gain higher accuracy of the earlier predictions.
By using this method, AlphaFold has now predicted the structures of the entire 214 million unique protein sequences deposited in the Universal Protein Resource (UniProt)
What are the implications of this development?
Proteins are the business ends of biology, meaning proteins carry out all the functions inside a living cell.
Therefore, knowing protein structure and function is essential to understanding human diseases.
Scientists predict protein structures using x-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, or cryogenic electron microscopy.
These techniques are not just time-consuming, they often take years and are based mainly on trial-and-error methods.
The development of AlphaFold changes all of that.
It is a watershed movement in science and structural biology in particular.
What does this development mean for India?
Vaccine development: Understanding the accurate structures of COVID-19 virus proteins in days rather than years will accelerate vaccine and drug development against the virus.
Structural biology: From the seminal contribution of G. N. Ramachandran in understanding protein structures to the present day, India is no stranger to the field and has produced some fine structural biologists.
Back2Basics: Proteins
Protein is found throughout the body—in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other body part or tissue.
It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in your blood.
At least 10,000 different proteins make you what you are and keep you that way.
Protein is made from twenty-plus basic building blocks called amino acids.
Because we don’t store amino acids, our bodies make them in two different ways: either from scratch or by modifying others.
Nine amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—known as the essential amino acids, must come from food.
Chemically, amino acids are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur.
There are seven types of proteins: antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymes, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins.
