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Type: Prelims Only

  • ‘Brahmastra’ Missile

    Why in the News?

    Indian scientists have achieved a breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology, developing a modern-day ‘Brahmastra’ with an astonishing speed of 12,144 km per hour (Mach 10).

    'Brahmastra' Missile

    About Brahmastra (Long Range Anti-Ship Missile – LRAShM): 

    • Brahmastra is a state-of-the-art hypersonic glide missile developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
    • It is designed to neutralize enemy warships and strategic naval targets with extreme speed and precision.
    • With a speed of Mach 10 (12,144 km/h) and a range of 1,500 km, Brahmastra is one of the fastest and most lethal weapons in India’s defense arsenal.
    • The missile’s hypersonic glide vehicle technology allows it to evade enemy radar and missile defense systems, ensuring high-precision strikes on naval targets.

    Features of Brahmastra:

    • It can be launched from both land and naval platforms, enhancing India’s maritime strike capabilities.
    • Due to its hypersonic speed, Brahmastra can destroy an enemy warship within 7 to 8 minutes of launch.
    • The missile is built with advanced heat-resistant materials, preventing it from disintegrating under extreme temperatures during flight.
    • Unlike conventional missiles, Brahmastra retains its structural integrity even at hypersonic speeds, ensuring precise impact.
    • It uses scramjet propulsion and glide vehicle technology for sustained hypersonic flight.
    • It can adjust its trajectory mid-flight, making it highly maneuverable and difficult to intercept.
    • Its stealth and radar-evading capabilities ensure low detection probability, reducing the risk of interception.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.

    2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.

    3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have found that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is slowing due to melting ice sheets. By 2050, it may weaken by 20%, affecting global climate, ocean circulation, and marine ecosystems.

    What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)?

    • The ACC is the strongest and largest ocean current on Earth.
    • It flows continuously from west to east around Antarctica, acting as a boundary between the Southern Ocean and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
    • It flows from west to east, driven by the westerly winds and the Coriolis effect, creating a loop that completely encircles Antarctica.
    • The ACC interacts with several regional currents, such as the Brazil Current, East Australian Current, and Agulhas Current.
    • It is influenced by both westerly winds and polar easterlies, which affect its strength and flow patterns.
    • Key features of the ACC:
      • It is five times stronger than the Gulf Stream and transports 130 million cubic meters of water per second.
      • It plays a crucial role in global heat and nutrient distribution, influencing climate patterns worldwide.
      • It prevents warmer northern waters from reaching Antarctica, helping to preserve the region’s ice sheets.
      • The ACC drives the global conveyor belt, regulating deep ocean currents and heat flow.
      • Its upwelling of nutrient-rich waters sustains Antarctic marine life, including krill, whales, and penguins.

    Why does Antarctic Ice Melt affect ACC?

    • Freshwater Dilution: Melting ice lowers salinity, weakening ocean density gradients that drive the ACC.
    • Slower Heat Exchange: Reduced current strength disrupts global heat distribution, leading to stronger storms and rising sea levels.

    Key Findings of the New Research

    A study by the University of Melbourne and NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, published in Environmental Research Letters, reveals:

    • ACC could slow by 20% by 2050 due to melting ice sheets.
    • Disrupted global climate as a weaker ACC reduces heat distribution, carbon absorption, and weather stability. 
    • Antarctic ecosystem at risk, with invasive species threatening penguins, krill, and whales.
    • Supercomputer simulations confirm that deep ocean circulation is slowing, worsening climate instability.
    • Reducing carbon emissions is crucial to prevent further ice melting and ACC weakening.

    PYQ:

    [2012] Consider the following factors:

    1. Rotation of the Earth

    2. Air pressure and wind

    3. Density of ocean water

    4. Revolution of the Earth

    Which of the above factors influence the ocean currents?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 1, 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 4

    (d) 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Plight of Prisoners with Disabilities needs attention SC

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has acknowledged a serious issue regarding the lack of disabled-friendly infrastructure in prisons, following a petition citing the trauma and inhumane conditions faced by Professor G. Saibaba and Stan Swamy.

    A bench comprising Justices Vikram Nath and Sandeep Mehta noted that even the Persons with Disabilities Act (2016) lacks a legal framework to safeguard the rights of disabled prisoners.

    Challenges Faced by Disabled Prisoners:

    • Inaccessible Infrastructure: Most prisons lack ramps, handrails, wheelchair-accessible cells, and essential assistive devices.
    • Denial of Medical Care: Many disabled prisoners do not receive necessary medical treatment, physiotherapy, or even basic aids like hearing devices or walking supports.
    • Psychological Distress: Isolation, lack of facilities, and mistreatment lead to anxiety, depression, and deteriorating mental health among disabled prisoners.
    • Data Deficiency: No official records track the number or condition of disabled prisoners, making policy implementation difficult.

    Rights of Persons with Disabilities (in Prisons)

    • Article 14 guarantees equality before the law, ensuring that prisoners are not discriminated against based on disability.
    • Article 21 upholds the right to life and dignity, including humane treatment for prisoners.
    • Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 mandates accessible public spaces, medical care, and assistive devices for persons with disabilities, but implementation in prisons remains inadequate.
    • Model Prison Manual, 2016 recommends disability-friendly infrastructure such as ramps and medical care provisions, yet many states have not adopted these reforms.
    • Supreme Court Judgments:
      • In Upendra Baxi vs. State of U.P. (1983), the Supreme Court reaffirmed that prisoners are entitled to humane treatment.
      • In Rama Murthy vs. State of Karnataka (1996), the Court highlighted the urgent need for prison reform, including facilities for disabled inmates.
      • The Stan Swamy Case (2021) brought attention to the denial of essential assistive tools such as straws and sippers for Parkinson’s patients.

    Past Committees on Prison Reform:

    • Mulla Committee (1983):
      • Recommended improved prison infrastructure, special provisions for disabled inmates, and measures to reduce overcrowding.
      • Suggested protection against abuse and better training for prison staff.
    • Krishna Iyer Committee (1987): Focused on the welfare of women prisoners, recommending separate facilities, healthcare, and special provisions for pregnant inmates.
    • Justice A.N. Mulla Committee (1993): Emphasized the need for humane treatment and rehabilitation, along with stricter measures against custodial torture.
    • Justice Krishna Iyer Report (2000): Called for legal aid for undertrial prisoners and mandatory inspections to monitor prison conditions.
    • Model Prison Manual (2016):
      • Provided guidelines for standardized prison reforms, including healthcare, accessibility, and rehabilitation programs.
      • Despite being issued by the Ministry of Home Affairs, many states have failed to adopt its recommendations.

    PYQ:

    [2016] Does the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 ensure effective mechanism for empowerment and inclusion of the intended beneficiaries in the society? Discuss.

     

  • ‘AI Kosha’ Platform

    Why in the News?

    The Union Government has launched AI Kosha, a platform dedicated to non-personal datasets, marking a major step in India’s AI research and development efforts.

    What is AI Kosha?

    • AI Kosha is a government-backed platform for non-personal datasets to support Artificial Intelligence (AI) R&D in India.
    • It serves as a centralized repository of structured datasets aimed at training AI models, particularly for Indian languages.
    • The platform is a key part of the IndiaAI Datasets Platform, one of the seven pillars of the ₹10,370 crore IndiaAI Mission, which aims to democratize AI access and innovation.
    • At launch, it hosts 316 datasets, with a significant portion focused on language translation tools for Indian languages.
    • The government has commissioned 14,000 GPUs for AI research, up from 10,000 earlier this year.
    • More computing power will be added quarterly to support advanced AI research and training.

    Key Features of AI Kosha:

    • AI Kosha aims to support India’s first foundational AI model, similar to China’s DeepSeek.
    • Works alongside the Open Governance Data Platform (data.gov.in), which already hosts 12,000 datasets from various government agencies.
    • Focuses on Indian languages, ensuring regional language AI development.
    • Includes health records, satellite imagery, Census 2011 data, meteorological and pollution data.
    • Supports AI development with access to high-performance computing (HPC) resources.
    • Equipped with secure API access, data encryption, and real-time filtering for data protection.

  • Ongole Cows

    Why in the News?

    India’s indigenous cattle breed from Ongole is experiencing a sharp decline domestically, even as it has become one of the most prized and expensive cattle breeds in Brazil.

    Ongole Cows

    About Ongole Cows

    • Ongole cattle, also known as Ongolu Gitta, are a native Indian breed originating from Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh.
    • This Bos indicus breed is historically renowned for its strength, resilience, and disease resistance.
    • It has been widely used for draught power, milk production, and breeding programs.
    • The breed has gained global prominence, especially in Brazil, where it forms the foundation of several superior cattle breeds used for beef production.
    • Though declining in India, they thrive in Brazil, where they form 80% of the cattle population and are used extensively for beef production.
    • LAM Farm, Guntur, is using IVF and embryo transfer for preservation.

    Distinct Features of Ongole Cattle:

    • Heat & Disease Resistance: Naturally adapted to high temperatures and immune to foot-and-mouth and mad cow disease.
    • Strength & Draught Power: Historically used for ploughing, transport, and bull races.
    • A2 Milk Production: Produces high-quality A2 milk, fetching ₹150+ per litre in premium markets.
    • Global Demand & Genetic Superiority: Exported to Brazil, USA, Argentina, and Australia. Used to develop breeds like Brahmana (USA) and Santa Gertrudis (USA).
    • Efficient Feed Conversion: Survives on minimal fodder, ideal for drought-prone regions.
    • High Fertility & Longevity: Strong reproductive lifespan, producing robust calves.
    • Cultural & Historical Importance:  Revered in Indian scriptures and associated with prosperity.

    PYQ:

    [2011] What is/are unique about ‘Kharai camel’, a breed found in India?

    1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in seawater.

    2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.

    3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Successful PHTA Test of ISRO’s Semi-Cryogenic Engine

    Why in the News?

    ISRO successfully conducted a hot test on the semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000), a key step towards finalizing the cryogenic stage for future launch vehicles. This Power Head Test Article (PHTA) is the first hardware test for semi-cryogenic engines.

    About the SE2000 Engine

    • The SE2000 engine is a semi-cryogenic rocket engine developed by ISRO to enhance propulsion for future heavy-lift launch vehicles.
    • It is designed to power the booster stages of rockets, increasing payload capacity and efficiency.
    • The engine operates on a Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Refined Kerosene (RP-1) combination, unlike traditional cryogenic engines that use LOX and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2).
    • Key features of the SE2000 engine:
      • Thrust capability: 2000 kN (kilonewtons), making it one of ISRO’s most powerful engines.
      • Higher density impulse: Provides better efficiency than LOX-LH2 combinations.
      • Cost-effective: Kerosene is cheaper and easier to handle than liquid hydrogen.
      • Storage advantages: Kerosene can be stored at ambient temperatures, unlike liquid hydrogen, which requires -253°C for storage.
    • The engine is expected to enhance the performance of LVM3 and will be used in ISRO’s Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV).
    • Applications of the SE2000 engine:
      • Heavy-lift launch missions with increased payload capacity.
      • Future space exploration programs, including human spaceflight missions like Gaganyaan.
      • Reusable launch vehicles, contributing to cost-effective and sustainable space travel.

    What is the PHTA Test?

    • The PHTA test is a crucial hardware test conducted as part of the SE2000 semi-cryogenic engine development process.
    • It is designed to validate key engine subsystems before full-scale integration and testing.
    • Purpose of the PHTA test:
      • Ensure subsystems perform as expected under operational conditions.
      • Evaluate pressure, temperature, thrust efficiency, and fuel combustion.
      • Identify potential technical issues before moving to full engine testing.
    • A previous attempt in July 2023 was aborted due to technical issues at ISRO’s Mahendragiri facility.

    Back2Basics: Semi-Cryogenic vs. Cryogenic Engines

    • A semi-cryogenic engine uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene as propellants, making it easier to handle and store than the cryogenic engine, which uses liquid hydrogen (LH2).
    • Semi-cryogenic engines are less efficient but more cost-effective and practical for Earth-orbit missions.
    • Cryogenic engines offer higher performance due to the higher specific impulse of liquid hydrogen but are more complex to store and manage.
    • Semi-cryogenic engines strike a balance between cost, efficiency, and simplicity.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:

    1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.

    2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

    3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch l vehicle with the first and third stages l using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 2

    (d) 3 only

     

  • UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

    Why in the News?

    In December 2024, a 500 kg metal object crashed in Makueni County, Kenya, highlighting the growing concern over uncontrolled satellite re-entries, for which the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) remains accountable.

    It has yet to implement binding regulations on space debris disposal and re-entry control.

    About the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

    • The COPUOS was established in 1958 to promote international cooperation in the peaceful use of outer space and address legal issues related to space exploration.
    • The committee currently has 102 member states (as of 2022) and meets annually in Vienna, Austria.
    • COPUOS plays a key role in preventing the militarization of space and ensuring responsible space activity.
    • Historical Context:
      • Established following the launch of Sputnik in 1957, COPUOS was instrumental in preventing space from becoming a new conflict zone.
      • Resolution 1721 (1961) declared that international law applies in outer space and directed states to report all space launches to the UN public registry.
    • Subcommittees:
      • Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (meets in February).
      • Legal Subcommittee (meets in April).

    Space Treaties overseen by COPUOS:

    • COPUOS oversees five key UN treaties and agreements related to space activities:
    1. Outer Space Treaty (1967):  Establishes principles for space exploration and prohibits national sovereignty over celestial bodies.
    2. Rescue Agreement (1968): Governs the rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
    3. Liability Convention (1972): Defines responsibility for damage caused by space objects, introducing absolute liability for damages on Earth.
    4. Registration Convention (1976): Requires states to register launched space objects with the UN.
    5. Moon Treaty (1984): Regulates activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies.

    Defining Space Debris in Law

    • Space debris has no universally accepted legal definition in international treaties.
    • The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) defines it as non-functional man-made objects in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere.
    • Legal disputes arise over whether a piece of debris qualifies as a “space object” under the 1972 Liability Convention.

    Liability Under International Space Law

    • Outer Space Treaty (1967), Article VI: States bear responsibility for national space activities, including those by private companies.
    • Liability Convention (1972): Introduced “absolute liability”, meaning launching states are automatically responsible for damage caused by space objects.
      • However, liability enforcement remains weak, and affected nations often struggle to claim full compensation.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] International civil aviation laws provide all countries complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above their territory. What do you understand by ‘airspace’? What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggest ways to contain the threat.

     

  • Wolly Mammoth Traits in Mice using Gene Editing

    Why in the News?

    Recently, Colossal Biosciences has created a “Woolly Mouse” by editing seven genes in mice embryos to mimic the cold-adaptive traits of woolly mammoths.

    What are Woolly Mammoths?

    • The Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) was a large, Ice Age herbivore that roamed Eurasia and North America, thriving in cold tundra environments.
    • It had a thick woolly coat, a fat layer for insulation, and small ears to minimize heat loss.
    • Mammoths lived in herds and primarily fed on grasses and shrubs.
    • They went extinct around 4,000 years ago, likely due to climate change, habitat loss, and human hunting.
    • Scientists believe reviving mammoth-like elephants could help restore Arctic ecosystems and slow permafrost thawing.

    Wolly Mammoth Traits in Mice using Gene Editing

    About Woolly Mice

    • The Woolly Mouse is a genetically modified laboratory mouse developed by Colossal Biosciences to test their de-extinction research.
    • Scientists successfully edited seven genes, resulting in mice with thick, woolly fur, mimicking the coat of a woolly mammoth.
    • Key Features of Woolly Mice:
      • Genetically engineered for cold-resistant traits using DNA modifications.
      • Long, thick, wavy fur and curled whiskers, resembling mammoth adaptations.
      • Created by combining multiple genetic variants into a single organism.
      • Serves as a model organism to test gene-editing techniques before applying them to Asian elephants, the closest living relatives of woolly mammoths.

    Technology Used in Woolly Mouse Development:

    • The CRISPR-Cas9 system was used to precisely modify DNA.
    • Scientists identified genes responsible for fur texture, length, and body fat metabolism, allowing them to engineer cold-resistant traits.
    • Scientists edited seven genes simultaneously, an unprecedented feat in genetic engineering.
    • Key genes modified included:
      • FGF5:  regulates hair growth, making it longer and thicker.
      • MC1R: controls hair color, giving the mice a golden hue similar to mammoth fur.
      • Hair follicle structure genes: induced woolly hair texture, wavy coats, and curled whiskers.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred:

    1. across different species of plants

    2. from animals to plants

    3. from microorganisms to higher organisms

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • J&K to promote Bangus Valley near LoC for Ecotourism

    Why in the News?

    The Jammu and Kashmir government has announced new ecotourism policies for Bangus Valley, a scenic yet lesser-known destination near the Line of Control (LoC) in North Kashmir.

    J&K to promote Bangus Valley near LoC for Ecotourism

    About Bangus Valley

    • It is situated in Kupwara district, Jammu & Kashmir, about 100 km from Srinagar in the Pir Panjal range, close to the Line of Control (LoC).
    • It consists of 2 valleys:
      • Boud Bangus (Big Bangus): ~300 sq km, surrounded by Rajwar, Mawar, and Shamasbury ranges.
      • Lokut Bangus (Small Bangus): A smaller valley northeast of Big Bangus, known for trekking routes.
    • Its name is derived from Sanskrit words “Van” (forest) and “Gus” (grass), meaning “Forest of Grass.”
    • Connectivity:
      • Handwara via Reshwari Mawer (shortest and most preferred route).
      • Handwara via Rajwar (trekking route).
      • Kupwara via Chowkibal (under development, expected completion by 2025).
      • Road connectivity via Handwara is complete (June 2022).

    Ecological Importance of Bangus Valley:

    • Biodiversity: Home to 50+ animal species and 10+ bird species.
    • Key Mammals: Musk deer, antelope, snow leopard, brown bear, black bear, red fox, monkeys.
    • Bird Species: Tragopan, monal pheasant, black partridge, bush quail, wild fowl.
    • Flora: Rich in medicinal plants and wildflowers, supporting traditional herbal medicine.
    • Water Conservation: 14 tributaries, including Roshan Kul, Tillwan Kul, Douda Kul, feed the Pohru River.
    • Climate Sensitivity: Threatened by glacial melt and changing precipitation patterns.

    PYQ:

    [2019] Siachen Glacier is situated to the:

    (a) East of Aksai Chin

    (b) East of Leh

    (c) North of Gilgit

    (d) North of Nubra Valley

     

  • Suspension of MLAs

    Why in the News?

    An MLA was suspended from the Maharashtra Assembly for praising and justifying the actions of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. This incident has sparked a debate on the rules and constitutional provisions governing the suspension of MLAs in India.

    What is the Suspension of MLAs?

    • Suspension of MLAs is a disciplinary measure imposed by the Speaker to maintain order and decorum in the House.
    • It is used when members engage in unruly behavior, disrupt proceedings, or violate parliamentary rules.
    • Duration can range from a single day to the remainder of the session.

    Rules Governing Suspension of MLAs:

    Rule 53 of Maharashtra Assembly
    • The Speaker can order a member to withdraw for grossly disorderly conduct.
    • If repeated, they can be suspended for the remainder of the session.
    “Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business” in Lok Sabha
    • Template for most state assemblies allows suspension for obstructing House business.
    • Suspension should not exceed the session.
    Maharashtra’s Suspension Practices vs Other States Maharashtra has no upper limit on suspension duration, unlike states like Odisha where it is capped at 7 days.
    Article 212 (1) [Protection of Legislative Proceedings]
    • Prevents courts from questioning legislative proceedings on procedural grounds.
    • Used to argue that courts have no jurisdiction over suspensions.
    Article 194 [Powers and Privileges of the Legislature] Grants legislative bodies the power to maintain order and discipline. Justifies suspensions beyond Rule 53.
    Article 190 (4) [Absence from Legislative Proceedings]
    • If an MLA is absent for more than 60 days without permission, their seat can be declared vacant.
    • Prolonged suspensions violate this provision.
    Representation of the People Act, 1951 – Section 151 (A) Mandates a by-election within six months if a seat becomes vacant. Supreme Court argues that suspensions beyond six months deprive constituencies of representation.

    Supreme Court Rulings on Suspension:

    (a) 2022 Supreme Court Ruling on Maharashtra BJP MLAs

    • In 2021, 12 BJP MLAs were suspended for one year for disrupting proceedings.
    • Judgment:
      • Suspensions beyond six months are unconstitutional.
      • Prolonged suspensions deprive voters of representation.
      • Governments could misuse suspensions to weaken the opposition.
      • The Speaker’s discretion is subject to constitutional limits.

    (b) Jambuwantrao Dhote Case (1964): Only Maharashtra MLA expelled for throwing a paperweight at the Speaker during Vasantrao Naik’s Government.

    PYQ:

    [2019] With reference to the Legislative Assembly of a State in India, consider the following statements:

    1. The Governor makes a customary address to Members of the House at the commencement of the first session of the year.

    2. When a State Legislature does not have a rule on a particular matter, it follows the Lok Sabha rule on that matter.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2