Why in the News?
Earlier this month, severe weather in the United States, including heavy rainfall, strong winds, and thunderstorms, was caused by an Atmospheric River.
What is an Atmospheric River?
- An atmospheric river is a narrow, fast-moving band of moisture and wind that transports large amounts of water vapor across vast distances.
- They form when large-scale weather patterns align, creating channels of moisture transport from tropical oceans, guided by low-level jet streams toward the coast.
- They typically span 402-606 km in width and can extend over 1600 km in length.
- The most powerful atmospheric rivers transport moisture equivalent to the Mississippi River’s flow.
- Example: The Pineapple Express, a well-known atmospheric river, transports moisture from Hawaii to the West Coasts of the U.S. and Canada.
- The intense rainfall from atmospheric rivers leads to flooding, mudslides, and infrastructure damage, with wind speeds comparable to hurricanes.
Impact and Climate Change:
- Rising global temperatures cause more water to evaporate, and warmer air can hold more moisture.
- For every 1°C increase, the atmosphere can hold 7% more moisture, leading to stronger storms.
- Research indicates such events will likely grow longer and more intense.
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to the Earth’s atmosphere, which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) The total amount of insolation received at the equator is roughly about 10 times of that received at the poles.
(b) Infrared waves are largely absorbed by carbon dioxide that is concentrated in the upper atmosphere.
(c) Infrared waves are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere.
(d) Ultraviolet rays are absorbed by the ozone layer lying in the ionosphere. |
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Why in the News?
On April 11, 2025, the Prime Minister paid tribute to Mahatma Jyotiba Phule on his 199th birth anniversary.
About Mahatma Phule
- Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, born on April 11, 1827, near Pune, was from the Mali caste.
- His father was a vegetable vendor, and his mother died when he was young.
- He pursued education at the Scottish Mission High School in Pune despite caste-based discrimination.
- He was inspired by Western thinkers like Thomas Paine and John Stuart Mill, fuelling his social justice dedication.
- At 13, he married Savitribai Phule, who became his partner in social reforms, particularly promoting education for women and marginalized communities.
His Contributions as a Social Reformer:
Educational Reforms:
- In 1848, Phule and his wife established India’s first girls’ school in Pune.
- He focused on educating Dalits and lower-caste groups, traditionally excluded from education.
- He founded night schools for working-class individuals, especially women.
Fighting Caste Discrimination:
- Phule criticized the caste system, calling it a means of oppression.
- In 1873, Phule’s book Gulamgiri condemned caste discrimination, comparing Dalits’ plight to slavery.
- Phule coined the term ‘Dalit’ to describe those outside the caste system.
Women’s Welfare and Empowerment:
- Phule advocated for widow remarriage and provided a dignified life for widows.
- In 1863, he opened homes to help pregnant widows.
- He co-founded an infanticide prevention center, tackling the killing of female infants.
Social Justice and Equality:
- Phule founded Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 to promote social equality, rational thinking, and religious reform.
- The Samaj rejected idolatry and supported a more rational spiritual approach.
- He broke the social stigma of untouchability by opening his house and water-well to the oppressed.
Religious and Philosophical Contributions:
- Phule was an advocate for critical thinking of religion, rejecting superstition and blind faith.
- He believed in equality and justice across religions and cultures.
- He was influenced by Bhakti saints like Sant Kabir and Sant Tukaram in his fight against social oppression.
His Literary Contributions:
- Gulamgiri (Slavery) (1873): Critiqued the caste system and called for Dalit liberation.
- Shetkaryacha Asud (Farmer’s Whip) (1881): Addressed the exploitation of farmers and advocated for land reforms.
- Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Poostak: Promoted rationalist thought and social justice.
- Tritiya Ratna (1855): A significant work in advocating for social equality.
- Brahmananche Kasab (1869): Criticized the exploitation by the Brahmin class.
- Powada: Chatrapati Shivajiraje Bhosle Yancha (1869): A work celebrating the legacy of Shivaji Maharaj.
- Satsar Ank (1885): Another rationalist work addressing societal issues.
- Akhandadi Kavyarachana: A literary contribution reflecting Phule’s thoughts on social justice.
| [UPSC 2016] Satya Shodhak Samaj organized:
(a) a movement for the upliftment of tribals in Bihar’
(b) a temple-entry movement in Gujarat
(c) an anti-caste movement in Maharashtra
(d) a peasant movement in Punjab |
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Why in the News?
A recent study conducted in Kolkata shows that the toxicity value of PM2.5 experiences a sudden jump when the pollution level reaches around 70 µg/m³.
About PM2.5
- PM2.5 refers to fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller.
- It is a major air pollutant linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Long-term exposure increases the risk of lung cancer, heart disease, asthma, and other health issues.
- Major sources include vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, construction dust, biomass burning, and solid waste burning, contributing to both outdoor and indoor pollution.
- WHO recommends that the annual average PM2.5 concentration should NOT exceed 5 µg/m³, and the 24-hour average should not exceed 15 µg/m³ for more than 3-4 days per year.
PM2.5 on Govt. Focus: National Clean Air Program (NCAP)
- Launched in 2019 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), the NCAP aims to reduce particulate matter by 40% by 2026 compared to 2017 levels.
- It targets 131 non-attainment cities across India, focusing on improving air quality and addressing sources of pollution.
|
About the Notified Toxicity Standard for PM2.5
- A new toxicity standard for PM2.5 in Kolkata sets the critical threshold at 70 µg/m³.
- Below this level, toxicity remains stable, but it sharply increases once the concentration exceeds 70 µg/m³.
- It emphasizes reducing pollution sources, particularly biomass and solid waste burning, which contribute significantly to high PM2.5 levels and increased toxicity in Kolkata.
- Policy Recommendation: To reduce health risks, air quality control measures should aim to keep PM2.5 levels below 70 µg/m³.
| [UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:
1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 µg/m3 and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 µg/m3.
2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.
3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.
4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only |
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Why in the News?
India is set to operationalise INS Varsha, a highly strategic naval base designed specifically to house nuclear-powered submarines, on the eastern coast near Rambilli in Andhra Pradesh by 2026.
About INS Varsha
- INS Varsha is being developed as a specialized base to house India’s growing fleet of nuclear-powered submarines, including both Nuclear-Powered Ballistic Missile Submarines (SSBNs) and Nuclear-Powered Attack Submarine (SSNs).
- It will be situated near the coastal village of Rambilli, about 50 km south of Visakhapatnam, home to the Eastern Naval Command.
- The naval bases lies on the confluence of Sarada and Varaha rivers.
- The facility will have underground pens and tunnels to ensure stealthy operations for nuclear submarines.
- This design will allow submarines to enter and exit the base undetected, maintaining their stealth, particularly important for SSBNs which carry nuclear missiles during long patrols.
- The base will cover an area of 20 square kilometers and is designed to accommodate at least 10 nuclear submarines.
- Like China’s nuclear submarine base at Hainan Island (in the South China Sea), INS Varsha will be situated in waters that allow submarines to operate without detection from satellite surveillance.
Project Varsha
- INS Varsha is part of Project Varsha, a top-secret initiative aimed at bolstering India’s maritime deterrence capabilities by building a dedicated facility for its nuclear-powered submarines.
- This project is crucial to countering the growing naval presence and strategic expansion of China in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
- It will support the fleet of Arihant-class submarines, which are crucial for India’s sea-based nuclear deterrent
|
| [UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?
(a) Amphibious warfare ship
(b) Nuclear-powered submarine
(c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel
(d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier |
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Why in the News?
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has recently updated its classification of industries, introducing a new category known as the ‘Blue Category.’
Classification of Industries by CPCB:
- The CPCB classifies industries based on their environmental impact, focusing on air pollution, water pollution, and hazardous waste generation.
- Industries are classified using the Pollution Index (PI), which is calculated by considering air, water, and waste pollution, with equal weight given to each factor.
- PI Categories:
-
- White: PI < 25 (least polluting industries)
- Green: 25 ≤ PI < 55
- Orange: 55 ≤ PI < 80
- Red: PI > 80 (most polluting industries)
- This system helps determine industry locations, inspection norms, and pollution-related health impacts.
- It is regulated by the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to improve environmental standards.
- Presently 419 industrial sectors are categorized into Red, Orange, Green, White, and Blue.
About the ‘Blue’ Category (Newly Introduced):
- The Blue Category was introduced for industries providing Essential Environmental Services (EES) like pollution management and waste control.
- It recognizes industries involved in critical environmental management, such as waste-to-energy plants, sewage treatment plants, and landfill management.
- Industries in the Blue category receive a 2-year extension on their consent to operate as an incentive for their role in managing pollution.
- Scope: Includes industries that manage waste from both domestic and industrial sources, such as:
- Waste-to-Energy (WTE) Plants: Now in the Blue category despite their high PI, due to their role in waste energy recovery.
- Compressed Biogas (CBG) Plants: Classified as Blue for their low environmental impact when processing municipal waste and agro residue.
- Sewage Treatment Plants & Landfills: These facilities manage environmental hazards through controlled waste disposal.
- Blue category industries must comply with all environmental norms, and their Pollution Index is still calculated as per the standard formula.
- Industries showing successful management may receive extended operating permits and other incentives.
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to furnace oil, consider the following statements:
1.It is a product of oil refineries. 2.Some industries use it to generate power. 3.Its use causes sulfur emissions into the environment.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 |
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Why in the news?
China has unveiled the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye telescope in Antarctica.
About the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye Telescope
- The Three Gorges Antarctic Eye is a 3.2m wide radio/millimetre-wave telescope located at China’s Zhongshan Station in Antarctica.
- It was developed by China Three Gorges University (CTGU) and Shanghai Normal University (SHNU).
- This telescope can detect radio waves and millimeter waves, types of invisible light, allowing scientists to study phenomena like neutral hydrogen and ammonia molecules, essential for understanding star formation and gas movement in space.
- Unlike most telescopes, it works with both radio and millimeter waves, providing a more comprehensive view of space.
- It is built in one of the harshest environments on Earth, with operating temperatures below -60°C and strong winds, making construction particularly challenging.
| [UPSC 2015] The term ‘IndARC’, sometimes seen in the news, is the name of:
(a) an indigenously developed radar system inducted into Indian Defence
(b) India’s satellite to provide services to the countries of Indian Ocean Rim
(c) a scientific establishment set up by India in Antarctic region
(d) India’s underwater observatory to scientifically study the Arctic region |
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Why in the News?
The preliminary findings of Genome India Project, based on the whole genome sequencing of 10,074 healthy and unrelated Indians from 85 populations across the country, were published recently.
About Genome India Project
- The Genome India Project was launched in January 2020 to map the genetic diversity of India’s population.
- It is a collaborative project supported and funded by the Department of Biotechnology, GoI, involving multiple institutions across the country.
- Objectives:
- Decode the genetic diversity of India’s population through large-scale genome sequencing.
- Create an exhaustive catalog of genetic variations, including common, low-frequency, rare, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and structural variations.
- Develop a reference haplotype structure for Indians, which can be used to impute missing genetic variation in future studies.
- Design genome-wide arrays for research and diagnostics at an affordable cost.
- Establish a biobank for DNA and plasma collected for future research use.
- The Genome India Database, which houses the genetic data, is now available to researchers worldwide and is stored at the Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC) in Faridabad, Haryana.
Preliminary findings of the Study
- The project genotyped 10,074 individuals from 85 populations, including 32 tribal and 53 non-tribal groups across India.
- Blood samples were collected from around 20,000 individuals, with DNA samples from 10,074 individuals subjected to whole genome sequencing.
- A total of 180 million genetic variants were identified, of which 130 million are in non-sex chromosomes (22 autosomes) and 50 million are in sex chromosomes X and Y.
- Variant Significance:
- Variants associated with diseases.
- Rare variants.
- Variants unique to India or specific communities.
| [UPSC 2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to
(a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing
(b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism
(c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression
(d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cell |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Navkar Mahamantra Divas
Why in the News?
Prime Minister has inaugurated and participated in Navkar Mahamantra Divas at Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi.
What is Vishwa Navkar Mahamantra Divas?
- The event is observed annually on April 9 to promote peace, non-violence, and spiritual harmony globally by chanting the Navkar Mantra collectively.
- The mantra venerates the 5 supreme beings:
-
- Arihants: Represent those who have attained “Keval Gyan” (perfect knowledge) and guide “Bhavya Jeevas” (souls destined for liberation). They possess twelve divine qualities.
- Siddhas: Those who have eradicated all karmas and attained Moksha. They are endowed with eight pure qualities.
- Acharyas: The leaders who follow Mahavrat and guide others on the spiritual path. They embody 36 virtues.
- Upadhyayas: Scholars who impart knowledge related to the path to Moksha, with 25 virtues.
- Sadhus: Renunciants who refine themselves through penance, with 27 significant qualities.
Key Jain Principles Associated:
- Ahimsa (Non-Violence): The Navkar Mantra embodies the principle of Ahimsa, advocating for peace and harmony by acknowledging the interconnectedness of all life forms, thus promoting Maitri (friendliness) towards all beings.
- Anekantavada (Non-Absolutism) and Syadvada: This principle promotes appreciating diverse perspectives and truths, which was emphasized as a solution to global challenges like terrorism and environmental degradation, reflecting the Jain concept of Syadvada (conditional truth).
- Tapas (Self-Discipline) and Vairagya (Detachment): The mantra is seen as a spiritual tool for self-realization, mental stability, and fostering inner peace, encouraging Tapas and Vairagya as means to achieve spiritual growth.
- Samyak Darshana (Right Faith) and Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge): The teachings of the Navkar Mantra were connected to building a developed India rooted in heritage while embracing progress without losing cultural values, emphasizing the importance of Samyak Darshana and Samyak Jnana.
- Svadhyaya (Self-Study) and Sadhana (Spiritual Practice): The mantra encourages self-discipline and truth as guiding principles for personal growth and societal harmony, promoting Svadhyaya and Sadhana as essential practices.
| [UPSC 2011] The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by:
(a) Universal Law (b) Universal Truth (c) Universal Faith (d) Universal Soul |
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Why in the News?
Colossal Biosciences, a biotech firm based in US, has successfully bred the extinct Dire Wolf pups using gene-editing technologies.
About Dire Wolf (Aenocyon dirus)
- The dire wolf lived during the Pleistocene Epoch, approximately 6 million to 11,700 years ago, and went extinct around 13,000 years ago.
- Physical Characteristics and Behaviour:
- It was larger than the modern gray wolf, standing about 5 feet tall at the shoulder and weighing up to 150 pounds, significantly heavier than the average gray wolf.
- It had a stockier body, a robust skull, and powerful jaws, adapted for hunting and consuming large prey. It likely had light or white fur, unlike the gray, black, or white coats of modern wolves.
- As an apex predator, the dire wolf primarily preyed on large mammals like bison and horses.
- While it did not hunt in packs as effectively due to its size, it was capable of cooperative hunting when needed.
- Extinction:
- The species went extinct likely due to a combination of prey depletion, climate change, and the impact of human activities.
- Fossils have been found across a wide geographical range, from the La Brea Tar Pits in California to the Mississippi River Valley.
- Genomic Comparison:
- The gene-edited pups share 5% DNA of gray wolves but differ in the remaining 0.5%, which accounts for the dire wolf traits.
- These pups are not exact clones of the dire wolf but are considered “dire wolves” based on their physical resemblance.
Technologies Used for Resurrection:
- Ancient DNA Extraction & Analysis: DNA from 13,000 to 72,000-year-old fossils was sequenced to identify key genetic traits.
- Gene Editing (CRISPR): Scientists used CRISPR to edit gray wolf DNA, introducing features like size, fur color, and muscular traits to resemble the dire wolf.
- Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT): Edited somatic cells from gray wolves were used to create embryos implanted in dog surrogates. Genetically modified pups were born after 62 days.
- Embryo Implantation: The gene-edited embryos developed into the first de-extinct dire wolf pups.
| [UPSC 2018] The term “”sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction”” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:
(a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.
(b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.
(c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.
(d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Iron Inside the Sun
Why in the News?
Recent findings have revealed that iron’s opacity inside the Sun may be much higher than previously predicted, challenging current solar models.
Iron Inside the Sun:
- Iron makes up approximately 0.14% of the Sun’s mass, which is significantly less than hydrogen (~74%) and helium (~24%).
- Despite its small percentage, iron plays a crucial role in the Sun’s opacity. In the Sun, opacity influences how energy moves from the core to the surface.
- The higher the opacity, the more energy is trapped, impacting the Sun’s temperature, density, and fusion rates.
Highlights of the New Study:
- A 2025 study published in Physical Review Letters revealed that iron’s opacity in the Sun’s interior is 30-400% higher than previously predicted by models.
- Researchers exposed a thin iron sample to X-rays and used spectrometers to measure the shadow cast by the sample.
- By analyzing how strongly the iron absorbed the radiation, they were able to infer the element’s opacity.
- Significance:
- This discovery has important implications for how solar models are constructed.
- By correcting the opacity of iron, models of the Sun’s temperature profile, fusion rates, and energy distribution may need to be revised.
- This will lead to a more accurate understanding of stellar behaviour and energy transfer.
Back2Basics: Composition of the Sun
- The Sun primarily comprises hydrogen and helium, but other elements such as oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron also play significant roles.
|
Element
|
Composition by Mass (%)
|
Key Role
|
| Hydrogen (H) |
74% |
The primary fuel for nuclear fusion in the Sun’s core. It undergoes fusion to form helium, releasing energy that powers the Sun. |
| Helium (He) |
24% |
A byproduct of hydrogen fusion, helium helps maintain the Sun’s stability and supports continued fusion processes. |
| Oxygen (O) |
~0.8% |
Oxygen contributes to the Sun’s opacity, assisting in the transport of energy within the star. It also plays a role in nucleosynthesis, where heavier elements are formed in the Sun’s core. |
| Carbon (C) |
~0.3% |
Carbon is involved in nucleosynthesis and plays a significant role in determining the Sun’s opacity and energy transport mechanisms. |
| Neon (Ne) |
~0.2% |
Neon is found in the Sun’s atmosphere and is involved in the absorption of radiation, affecting the Sun’s energy output and behavior. |
| Iron (Fe) |
~0.14% |
Although small in mass, iron significantly impacts the Sun’s opacity, scattering and absorbing radiation, which influences energy transfer. Iron’s opacity affects the Sun’s temperature, density, and fusion rates. |
| [UPSC 2002] Which one of the following statements is correct with reference to our solar system?
(a) The Earth is the densest of all the planets in our solar system
(b) The predominant element in the composition of Earth is silicon
(c) The Sun contains 75 per cent of the mass of the solar system
(d) The diameter of the Sun is 190 times that of the Earth |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Biomass Mission
Why in the News?
The European Space Agency (ESA) is preparing to launch Biomass Mission to map the world’s forests and enhance our understanding of their crucial role in the global carbon cycle.
About the Biomass Mission by ESA
- The ESA will launch the Biomass mission on April 29, 2025, aboard the Vega C rocket from French Guiana.
- The mission aims to map the world’s forests, gathering data on their role in the carbon cycle and how they change over time.
- It will be placed in a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at around 666 km, optimizing sunlight for observations.
- It is the 7th mission in ESA’s Earth Explorer Program, focusing on data related to Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, and land surface.
Features of the Biomass Mission:
- Biomass uses a P-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensor (70 cm frequency), capable of penetrating forest canopies to measure carbon storage in trees and the forest floor.
- It will be the first satellite to use this cutting-edge P-band SAR technology, offering unprecedented forest biomass data.
- Equipped with a 12-meter antenna, the satellite will deploy upon launch to conduct broad Earth observations.
- It will create 3D images of forests, from canopy to roots, providing detailed insights into forest health and carbon storage.
Significance of the Biomass Mission:
- The mission will fill critical gaps in forest biomass and height data, improving understanding of forests’ role in the carbon cycle and climate change.
- Biomass will measure carbon storage in forests and track changes due to deforestation and human activity.
- The mission’s data will aid climate change mitigation strategies by tracking carbon fluxes between forests and the atmosphere.
- It will support environmental monitoring, assist policymakers, and contribute to global climate change strategies.
| [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in
1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.
2. predicting the onset of monsoons.
3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Metallo-Nanozymes
Why in the News?
Researchers from the CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), Chennai has developed a new nanozyme, Cu-Phen, using a catalyst-by-design strategy. A nanozyme is a type of synthetic enzyme made from nanomaterials (extremely tiny particles) that can mimic the function of natural enzymes in biological systems.
About the Metallo-Nanozymes
- Cu-Phen (Copper-Phenylalanine) is a type of metallo-nanozyme developed by Indian researchers.
- It is a synthetic enzyme that mimics the functions of natural enzymes in the body, particularly in controlling the flow of energy at the cellular level.
- It is made by combining copper ions (Cu²⁺) with phenylalanine, an amino acid, using a special design method called “catalyst-by-design”.
- It forms a self-assembled nano-structure with a well-defined active site, which is where the enzyme’s function occurs.
- This structure helps Cu-Phen control the electron transfer process, which is important for many biological functions.
- Unlike traditional nanozymes, which often have poorly defined active sites, Cu-Phen has a precisely structured active site, allowing it to work more efficiently like natural enzymes in the body.
- Cu-Phen interacts with cytochrome c, a protein that plays a key role in the electron transport chain, which is part of how our body generates energy.
- It helps reduce oxygen to water without producing harmful substances called reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage cells.
Potential Applications
- Cu-Phen could be used to make energy systems more efficient, like in bioenergy (energy from living things), by mimicking natural energy-making processes.
- It could help treat diseases like neurodegenerative diseases and cancer by controlling energy production in cells and reducing harmful effects on the body.
- These nanozymes can help clean water and make energy systems work better, while reducing pollution and harmful by-products.
- Cu-Phen can also be used in factories to help make useful products like medicines and chemicals by working like artificial enzymes.
- This new nanozyme is a step forward in creating artificial enzymes that could be used in many areas like medicine, energy, and manufacturing.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements :
1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.
2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.
3. Nanoparticles of some commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
(a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mesoscale Convective System
Why in the News?
A recent study in Nature Geoscience suggests that soil moisture levels could help predict severe thunderstorms, like mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), especially in regions like India.
About Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCS):
- MCSs are larger than individual thunderstorms but smaller than larger weather systems like cyclones.
- They typically cover areas between 100 to 1,000 km in diameter.
- They form when warm, moist air rises, creating storms that feed off each other, growing in size and intensity as they move across the region.
- They can cause flash floods, damaging winds, and severe thunderstorms, and are often responsible for large-scale weather events.
- In tropical regions, MCSs account for 50 to 90 % of total rainfall, making them a major cause of severe weather-related damage.
- A notable example is the March 2024 thunderstorm in West Bengal, which caused significant property damage and loss of life.
Soil Moisture’s Role in MCS as per the Study:
- Shifts in soil moisture can be detected two to five days before the formation of storms, providing critical lead time for early warnings in vulnerable regions.
- Contrasting soil moisture levels over large areas (hundreds of kilometers) lead to changes in atmospheric conditions, including A notable example is the March 2024 thunderstorm in West Bengal, which caused significant property damage and loss of life.
- Larger contrasts in moisture content between dry and wet regions cause greater temperature differences, which in turn lead to changes in wind direction and speed.
- These variations contribute to turbulence, making storms more intense and spreading rainfall over a wider area.
| [UPSC 2013] During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the
1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky 2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds 3. violent upward movement of air and water particles
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of the above produces the thunder |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hadean Protocrust
Why in the News?
A study from Macquarie University, Australia, suggests that plate tectonics may have started earlier than previously thought, with signs of it possibly existing in the Hadean protocrust even before the plates began to move.
What is Hadean Protocrust?
- The Hadean protocrust is the Earth’s first crust, formed within the first 200 million years of the planet’s creation.
- During this time, the surface was mostly molten and constantly hit by space rocks, making it very hot and unstable.
- Over time, parts of the molten surface began to cool and solidify, creating the first crust.
Back2Basics: Hadean Aeon
- The Hadean Aeon is the earliest geological eon in Earth’s history, lasting from about 4.6 billion to 4 billion years ago.
- The surface was incredibly hot and volcanic activity was widespread, often described as “hellish.”
- It was followed by the Archean Eon (about 4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago), characterized by the formation of Earth’s first stable crust, the beginning of plate tectonics, and the earliest known forms of life.
- As the surface cooled, the thick parts of the crust formed the first continents, which moved on the hot, semi-fluid layer beneath them called the asthenosphere.
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Key Findings of the Recent Study:
- The researchers found that the chemical signatures linked to plate tectonics might have appeared earlier, even when the Earth’s crust was still forming in the Hadean protocrust.
- This discovery suggests that early movements of the Earth’s crust, similar to plate tectonics, could have happened before plates began to move as we know them today.
- The study used models and experiments to support these ideas, but further research is needed to confirm these findings.
| [UPSC 2013] Which of the following are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
1. Electromagnetic radiation 2. Geothermal energy 3. Gravitational force 4. Plate movements 5. Rotation of the earth 6. Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 4 and 6 only (d) 2 and 4 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree
Why in the News?
PM Narendra Modi recently visited the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi temple in the historic city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
About the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree
- The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree is considered the oldest living cultivated plant globally.
- It is believed to have grown from a branch of the original Bodhi Vruksha in Bodhgaya under which Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment.
- This branch was carried to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitra, eldest daughter of Emperor Ashoka and his first wife, Queen Devi.
- The original tree under which Buddha meditated was reportedly destroyed, possibly by Ashoka’s wife Tishyarakshita in some legends.
- Sanghamitra’s arrival in Sri Lanka with the tree is commemorated during the Uduvapa Poya, a festival observed annually on a full moon night in December.
Legend of Sanghamitra’s Journey to Sri Lanka
- Sanghamitra, originally named Ayapali, lived from 282 BC to 203 BC.
- Following the Third Buddhist Council (held in 250 BC in Pataliputra) during Ashoka’s reign, it was decided to send missionaries to various regions, including Sri Lanka, to spread Buddhism.
- The mission to Sri Lanka was led by Mahinda (Mahendra), Ashoka’s son, who converted King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura to Buddhism.
- After several royal ladies expressed interest in joining the Buddhist monastic order, Mahinda sent for his sister, Sanghamitra, to initiate them.
- Both siblings lived in Anuradhapura for the rest of their lives.
- She played a pivotal role in establishing the Order of Nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha or Meheini Sasna) in Sri Lanka, which later spread to other Theravada Buddhist countries like Burma, China, and Thailand.
| [UPSC 2020] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism. 2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism. 3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pamban Bridge
Why in the News?
The newly constructed Pamban Bridge was inaugurated by PM Modi to replace a 110-year-old structure that connected Rameswaram to the Indian mainland.
About the Pamban Bridge
- The Pamban Bridge, completed in 1914, was India’s first sea bridge, connecting Rameswaram on Pamban Island to the mainland.
- It featured a double-leaf bascule span, allowing ships to pass through when the bridge lifted.
- Standing 12.5 meters above sea level and spanning 145 piers, the bridge faced challenges, including cyclones and workforce issues.
- The old bridge had become unsafe due to severe corrosion and structural weaknesses, highlighted by vibrations detected in 2022.
- The new bridge features a vertical lift span that can raise in just 5 minutes, with a 22-meter clearance to allow larger vessels to pass, compared to the old bridge’s 1.5 meters.
- Trains can now travel at speeds up to 75 km/h, a significant improvement from the previous 10 km/h limit.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CAPTCHA
Why in the News?
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.
What is CAPTCHA?
- CAPTCHA stands for Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart.
- It is a security measure used to differentiate humans from automated bots on websites.
- It helps protect websites against spam and misuse by ensuring that the user performing actions is a human.
- It was developed in the early 2000s by Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas J. Hopper, and John Langford as a response to the proliferation of automated bots on the internet that created fake accounts, spammed websites, and stole data.
- The first patent for CAPTCHA was filed in 2003.
How Does CAPTCHA Work?
- CAPTCHA presents tasks that are easy for humans to solve but hard for machines.
- These tasks typically involve recognizing distorted text, images, or sounds that machines cannot interpret as reliably as humans.
- It operates on the principle of the Turing test, designed by British mathematician Alan Turing in the 1950s.
- This assesses a machine’s ability to exhibit human-like behaviour.
- Over the years, CAPTCHA has evolved from simple text recognition to more complex tests:
- Image Recognition CAPTCHA: Users are asked to identify specific objects within images, such as cars, traffic lights, or storefronts.
- reCAPTCHA: Launched by Google in 2009, this system not only serves as a CAPTCHA but also helps digitize text from scanned documents. Users transcribe words that OCR software has been unable to recognize.
- Invisible reCAPTCHA: Introduced by Google in 2014, this version analyzes the user’s interaction with the website, such as mouse movements, to determine if they are human without needing them to complete a specific challenge.
Limitations of CAPTCHA
- Accessibility Issues: CAPTCHA can be challenging for people with disabilities, such as visual or hearing impairments.
- User Inconvenience: The need to solve CAPTCHAs can be cumbersome, particularly on mobile devices, and may detract from user experience.
- Advancing Bot Technology: As bots become more sophisticated with AI, they are increasingly capable of bypassing CAPTCHA systems, necessitating more complex solutions.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements: A digital signature is
1. an electronic record that identifies the certifying authority issuing it
2. used to serve as a proof of identity of an individual to access information or server on Internet.
3. an electronic method of signing an electronic document and ensuring that the original content is unchanged
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Undersea Cables
Why in the news?
India is gradually expanding its undersea cable infrastructure, with new systems like Airtel’s 2Africa Pearls and SEA-ME-WE-6 boosting its international internet bandwidth.
What are Undersea Cables?
- Undersea cables are fiber optic cables laid on the ocean floor that connect internet networks between countries.
- These cables are heavily insulated and contain fiber optic strands for transmitting data.
- They surface at landing points, connect to landing stations, and then link to broader terrestrial networks.
- Approximately 600 undersea cables exist globally.
- These cables handle 90% of global data, 80% of world trade, and $10 trillion in financial transactions.
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India’s Current Undersea Cable Ecosystem:
- India’s two main hubs for subsea cables are Mumbai and Chennai.
- 17 international cables land in India, with 95% of subsea cables concentrated in a 6-km stretch in Versova, Mumbai.
- India has two domestic cable systems:
- Chennai–Andaman–Nicobar Islands (CANI)
- Kochi–Lakshadweep Islands
- While current bandwidth is considered sufficient, rising data traffic may soon outpace available capacity.
- Experts warn that India’s current capacity may become inadequate in the near future.
- India contributes only 1% of global cable landing stations and 3% of subsea cable systems, highlighting its underrepresentation in the global network.
| [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It uses light as the medium for high speed data transmission.
2. It is wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise INDRA 2025
Why in the News?
The bilateral naval exercise INDRA 2025 between the Indian and Russian navies was held from 28 March to 02 April 2025.
About Exercise INDRA
- INDRA is a biennial joint military exercise that began in 2003.
- Over time, INDRA transformed into a tri-service exercise involving Army, Navy, and Air Force, making it more comprehensive and multifaceted.
- Recent Editions of INDRA:
- 2021 (12th Edition): Held in Volgograd, Russia; Focused on counter-terrorism operations and enhancing operational synergy.
- 2023 (13th Edition): Conducted in the Bay of Bengal, India; Involved naval forces from both countries, enhancing maritime cooperation and joint operations.
- 2025 (14th Edition): It is being conducted in two phases: Harbour phase at Chennai and Sea phase in the Bay of Bengal.
Strategic Importance
- The exercise reinforced jointmanship between the Indian and Russian forces, strengthening their ability to collaborate in maritime security operations.
- It highlighted the shared commitment to upholding maritime order and promoting global peace and stability.
- Best practices were exchanged, fostering a deeper understanding of each other’s operational doctrines and enhancing the capacity to respond effectively to contemporary maritime security challenges.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ramakien Murals
Why in the News?
The Prime Minister has highlighted the release of iStamp depicting Ramakien mural paintings by Thai Government.
About the Ramakien Murals:
- The murals were first painted in 1783 during the reign of King Rama I, who commissioned the adaptation of the Indian epic Ramayana into the Thai version called the Ramakien.
- The Ramakien holds a vital role in Thai culture, influencing literature, dance, and art, and the murals serve as a visual representation of this national epic.
- The murals are predominantly displayed in the Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) in the Grand Palace complex, Bangkok.
- It illustrates episodes from the Ramakien, highlighting the eternal battle between good and evil.
- It is located in the Phra Rabiang gallery, a two-kilometer corridor surrounding the temple, with 178 panels depicting scenes from the epic.
India-Thailand Cultural Connect
Historical and Cultural Ties:
- Thailand, part of the Suvarnabhumi territory, is mentioned in the Ramayana.
- Ancient trade links with South India, and kingdoms like Dvaravati and Khmer had strong ties with India.
- Brahmanism coexisted with Buddhism, and Thai worship includes Indian deities like Ganesha, Shiva, and Vishnu.
- Emperor Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to Thailand in the 3rd century BCE, deeply influencing Thai culture and religion.
- The Thai language includes Sanskrit and Pali words, while Thai art and architecture exhibit Indian influences, particularly in temples.
- Association with Lord Rama:
- The Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana, is central to Thai culture, with murals depicting episodes in temples.
- The title Rama has been adopted by all the monarchs of Thailand’s Chakri Dynasty, which began with King Rama I in 1782.
- Ayutthaya city was the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767) in present-day Thailand, and it is thought that the name is derived from the Indian city of Ayodhya.
Modern Diplomatic and Cultural Relations:
- Diplomatic Ties were established in 1947, the two countries celebrated 75 years of relations in 2022.
- Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge (1940) promotes educational and cultural exchanges. Thai citizens visit India for religious and cultural purposes, especially Buddhist sites.
Recent Initiatives:
- Exhibitions like “Indo-Siam Connect” showcase shared heritage.
- Joint research and academic exchanges continue to deepen mutual understanding.
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| [UPSC 2010] There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta Caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(a) Bagh Caves (b) Ellora Caves (c) Lomas Rishi caves (d) Nasik Caves |
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