Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip
Why in the News?
Microsoft has unveiled Majorana 1, a groundbreaking quantum chip that introduces a more stable and scalable approach to quantum computing.
What is Microsoft’s Majorana 1 Chip?
- Majorana 1 is Microsoft’s latest quantum processor that introduces a new type of stable and scalable qubit based on Majorana fermions.
- Microsoft believes that this breakthrough could enable practical quantum computing by 2027-29.
- Majorana Fermions:
- First theorized by Ettore Majorana in 1937.
- Exotic particles that act as their own antiparticles.
- Microsoft engineered them using topological conductors, making qubits more stable and resistant to errors.
Features of Majorana 1 Chip:
- Uses topological qubits, which require less error correction compared to traditional superconducting qubits.
- More scalable, allowing the quantum chip to reach up to 1 million qubits in the future.
- Built from indium arsenide-aluminum topo-conductors, unlike conventional silicon-based quantum chips.
- Operates at near absolute zero temperature, tuned with magnetic fields to create a stable quantum environment.
- Currently an 8-qubit chip, but designed with an architecture that supports significant expansion.
What is Quantum Computing?
- Quantum computing is a new approach to computation based on the principles of quantum mechanics that allows computers to process information exponentially faster than classical computers.
- Unlike classical computers that use binary bits (0 or 1), quantum computers use qubits, which can exist in both 0 and 1 simultaneously (superposition).
- Key Principles of Quantum Computing:
- Superposition: Qubits exist in multiple states at once.
- Entanglement: –Qubits can be linked, meaning a change in one affects the other instantly.
- Quantum Tunneling: Qubits can pass through energy barriers.
- Quantum Interference: Enhances correct probabilities while canceling out incorrect ones.
- Quantum computers solve complex problems that are impossible for classical computers, such as simulating molecules, optimizing logistics, and advancing AI.
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PYQ:
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services
(b) Quantum Computing
(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies
(d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BOD
Why in the News?
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has raised concerns over the water quality of the Ganga at Triveni Sangam in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. The river is failing to meet bathing standards due to high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and faecal coliform contamination.
Key Findings of the Ganga Water Quality Assessment at Triveni Sangam:
- Water is unsafe for bathing as per Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) standards.
- BOD levels exceeded the permissible limit of 3 mg/L on multiple days in January 2025.
- Government releasing 10,000-11,000 cusecs of fresh water to improve quality.
- Faecal coliform levels (E. coli) far exceed safe limits due to sewage contamination.
- Safe limit: 2,500 MPN/100 ml; Detected levels: 49,000 MPN/100 ml (Ganga) and 33,000 MPN/100 ml (Yamuna).
What is Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)?
- BOD measures the amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down organic matter in water.
- Higher BOD levels indicate higher organic pollution, which can lead to oxygen depletion and aquatic life destruction.
- Safe limit for bathing water is below 3 mg/L.
- Excessive BOD levels suggest sewage, industrial waste, or decomposing organic matter contamination.
- BOD levels above safe limits can cause waterborne diseases and disrupt aquatic ecosystems.
PYQ:
[2017] Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for:
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
Why in the News?
The latest edition of PLFS report (October-December 2024) has highlighted key labour market indicators.
About Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
- The PLFS is conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) to assess employment and unemployment trends in India.
- Launched in April 2017, PLFS provides quarterly estimates for urban areas and annual estimates for both rural and urban areas.
- Key Indicators:
- Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): Percentage of people working or seeking jobs.
- Worker Population Ratio (WPR): Percentage of people employed.
- Unemployment Rate (UR): Percentage of job seekers unable to find employment.
- Current Weekly Status (CWS): Employment status based on work done in the last 7 days.
- Survey Methodology:
- Urban Areas: Rotational Panel Sampling (each household surveyed four times).
- Data Collected (Oct-Dec 2024): 5,742 urban units surveyed, covering 1,70,487 individuals across 45,074 households.
- Publication: Quarterly Bulletins for urban areas, Annual Reports for rural and urban regions.
Key Highlights of PLFS (Oct-Dec 2024)
- Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): 50.4% (↑ from 49.9% in 2023).
- Male LFPR: 75.4% (↑ from 74.1% in 2023).
- Female LFPR: 25.2% (↑ from 25.0% in 2023).
- Worker Population Ratio (WPR): 47.2% (↑ from 46.6% in 2023).
- Male WPR: 70.9% (↑ from 69.8% in 2023).
- Female WPR: 23.2% (↑ from 22.9% in 2023).
- Unemployment Rate (UR): 6.4% (↓ from 6.5% in 2023).
- Male UR: 5.8% (unchanged).
- Female UR: 8.1% (↓ from 8.6% in 2023).
PYQ:
[2023] Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements.
[2013] Disguised unemployment generally means:
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
(b) alternative employment is not available
(c) marginal productivity of labour is zero
(d) productivity of workers is low |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Saturn’s Rings
Why in the News?
A new study has challenged previous assumptions, suggesting that Saturn’s rings could be as old as the Solar System (~4.5 billion years old).
About Saturn and Its Rings
- Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, is famous for its iconic ring system, made up of billions of ice and rock particles ranging in size from tiny grains to massive chunks.
- It is primarily composed of water ice (95%), with some dust and rocky debris.
- The rings are divided into seven main sections (A to G), with gaps like the Cassini Division.
- Scientists have debated whether the rings formed with Saturn (~4.5 billion years ago) or if they are only 100-400 million years old.
- Over time, tiny space rocks should darken the rings, yet they remain surprisingly bright.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Earlier estimates, based on Cassini data, suggested the rings were 100-400 million years old because they looked clean and bright.
- The new study suggests that micrometeoroid collisions remove dust efficiently, preventing the rings from darkening over time.
- High-speed micrometeoroid impacts (~108,000 km/h) cause dust to vaporize, rather than accumulate.
- The vaporized dust either escapes Saturn’s gravity, falls into the planet’s atmosphere, or gets ejected into space, keeping the rings pristine.
- 100 million years ago, the Solar System was stable, making ring formation unlikely.
- 4 billion years ago, the Solar System was chaotic, increasing the chances of violent planetary collisions that could have formed Saturn’s rings.
Various Missions to Saturn
Saturn has been explored by multiple spacecraft, each providing valuable insights into its rings, atmosphere, and moons.
1. Pioneer 11 (1979)
- First spacecraft to fly past Saturn, capturing basic images.
2. Voyager 1 & Voyager 2 (1980-1981)
- Discovered new moons and ring structures.
- Provided detailed images of Saturn’s rings.
3. Cassini-Huygens (1997-2017)
- A NASA-ESA-ASI mission that orbited Saturn for 13 years.
- Key discoveries:
-
- Confirmed liquid oceans on Enceladus.
- Found methane lakes on Titan.
- Observed Saturn’s rings losing material into the planet’s atmosphere.
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PYQ:
[2009] Which one of the following planets has largest number of natural satellites or moons?
(a) Jupiter
(b) Mars
(c) Saturn
(d) Venus |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Iron Age; Important Sites
Why in the News?
Tamil Nadu CM recently proclaimed that the Iron Age began on Tamil soil over 5,300 years ago (4th millennium BCE), based on findings from Mayiladumparai, Sivagalai, Adichanallur, and Kilnamandi.
Iron Age in India
- The Iron Age in India was initially thought to have begun around 700-600 BCE.
- Radiocarbon dating pushed the timeline back to 1800 BCE, with evidence of iron smelting found in Central Ganga Plain and Eastern Vindhyas.
- Recent discoveries in Tamil Nadu suggest that iron metallurgy was established in South India as early as 3300 BCE.
Notable Iron Age Sites in India:
- Central and Northern India
- Raja Nala-ka-tila (UP): Iron tools and slag found in pre-NBP (Northern Black Polished) deposits (1400–800 BCE).
- Malhar (Chandauli, UP): Furnaces and iron slag indicate a major iron metallurgy center (1200 BCE).
- Dadupur (UP): Large-scale iron smelting evidence dating back to 1000 BCE.
- Hastinapur (UP): Iron tools associated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture (1000 BCE).
- Takshashila (Punjab, Pakistan): Iron tools found in Gandhara settlements (800 BCE).
- Western and Central India
- Ahar (Rajasthan): Chalcolithic culture (2500–1700 BCE) showed early evidence of iron artifacts.
- Naikund (Vidarbha, Maharashtra): Discovery of an iron smelting furnace (1000 BCE).
- Mahurjhari (Nagpur, Maharashtra): Horse ornaments made of copper with iron knobs (800 BCE).
- South India
- Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu): Large-scale iron smelting and slag deposits (1200 BCE).
- Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu): Iron tools and burial urns linked to Megalithic culture (1000 BCE).
- Mayiladumparai (Tamil Nadu): Recent findings date iron usage to 3300 BCE, making it one of the oldest sites of iron metallurgy in India.
- Sivagalai (Tamil Nadu): Iron artifacts and slag deposits, indicating early smelting practices (1100 BCE).
Iron Age in Tamil Nadu: New Discoveries
- Earlier studies in Mayiladumparai Excavation (2022) suggested that the Iron Age began 4,200 years ago (3rd millennium BCE).
- This timeline coincides with the Copper/Bronze Age in North India, indicating a technological divergence between the regions.
- The latest State Archaeology Department’s report, “Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu”, confirms that Iron smelting began as early as 3,345 BCE – 2,953 BCE.
- Limited availability of copper ores in South India might have led to the early adoption of iron technology.
- Excavations in Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Kilnamandi, and Mayiladumparai indicate that the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu predates much of North India.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
- Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
- Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Polarized Moonlight
Why in the News?
Scientists at Macquarie University, Sydney, have discovered that two species of nocturnal bull ants (Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia midas) rely on polarised moonlight for navigation.
What is Polarised Moonlight?
- Polarised moonlight refers to moonlight that has undergone scattering in Earth’s atmosphere, causing its waves to oscillate in a specific direction.
- Unlike direct moonlight, which is unpolarised, the light that scatters in the sky becomes linearly polarised, meaning its electric field aligns in a fixed plane.
- The moon emits unpolarised light, but when it interacts with air molecules and dust particles in the atmosphere, it scatters and becomes polarised.
- The intensity of polarised moonlight is much lower than polarised sunlight, making it harder for most animals to detect.
- The pattern of polarisation in moonlight remains stable, allowing nocturnal animals to use it as a reliable navigation tool.
- Why is it Important for Navigation?
- Many nocturnal animals, including bull ants (Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia midas), rely on celestial cues to orient themselves.
- Unlike the moon’s direct position, which changes with phases and cloud cover, the polarisation pattern remains detectable throughout the night.
- This enables ants to navigate effectively even under crescent or waning moons, where light intensity is significantly lower.
E-Vector Pattern and Ant Navigation
- Polarised moonlight forms a distinct pattern in the sky, known as the E-vector pattern.
- This pattern shifts based on the moon’s position, but its orientation remains stable, allowing insects like ants to use it as a natural compass.
- The E-vector pattern aligns at 90° to the moon’s direct light, creating a predictable navigation reference.
- How do Bull Ants use it?
- Ants detect the E-vector pattern in the night sky using their specialised compound eyes, which are sensitive to polarised light.
- Even in dim conditions, they adjust their movements according to the orientation of polarised moonlight.
- Researchers found that when the E-vector was artificially rotated, the ants changed their paths accordingly, confirming that they rely on this pattern.
- When the moonlight disappeared (during a new moon phase), the ants struggled to navigate, further proving their dependence on polarised lunar light.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Deposit Insurance
Why in the News?
The Centre is actively considering increasing the deposit insurance cover beyond the current ₹5 lakh limit, as confirmed by Financial Services Secretary.
What is Deposit Insurance?
- Deposit Insurance is a financial protection mechanism for depositors if a bank fails or faces restrictions imposed by the RBI.
- It ensures compensation up to a set limit, even if the bank cannot return the money.
- It is provided by Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC), a subsidiary of RBI.
- Coverage & Exclusions:
- Covers: Savings accounts, fixed deposits (FDs), recurring deposits (RDs), current accounts (both principal & interest).
- Does NOT cover: Deposits from foreign governments, central/state governments, inter-bank deposits, and primary cooperative societies.
History of Deposit Insurance in India:
- 1962: First in Asia to introduce Deposit Insurance Corporation (DIC), covering ₹1,500 per depositor.
- 1978: Merged with the Credit Guarantee Corporation to form DICGC.
- 1993: Deposit limit raised to ₹1 lakh.
- 2020: After the PMC Bank crisis in Pune, the limit was increased from ₹1 lakh to ₹5 lakh.
- 2021: Law amended to ensure insured payouts within 90 days of a bank facing restrictions.
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About DICGC & Its Functions
- DICGC was established in 1961, a wholly-owned RBI subsidiary under the DICGC Act, 1961.
- It covers all commercial banks, regional rural banks, foreign banks in India, and cooperative banks.
- Banks pay the insurance premium; depositors do not pay any charges.
- It ensures timely compensation within 90 days of a bank’s collapse.
How does Deposit Insurance work?
- DICGC insures deposits up to ₹5 lakh per depositor per bank.
- The ₹5 lakh limit includes both principal and interest amounts.
- If a bank is facing financial distress or RBI-imposed restrictions, depositors are eligible to claim insurance under Section 18A of the DICGC Act, 1961.
- Payout Timeline:
- Within 45 days: The troubled bank must submit a list of depositors to DICGC.
- Within 90 days: DICGC processes and pays depositors up to ₹5 lakh.
- If a bank goes into liquidation, DICGC pays the insured amount within two months of receiving a claim list from the bank’s liquidator.
- When RBI restricts withdrawals from a bank, depositors are eligible to receive their insured deposits.
PYQ:
[2013] Which of the following grants/grant direct credit assistance to rural households? (2013)
- Regional Rural Banks
- National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
- Land Development Banks
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Dharma Guardian
Why in the News?
India and Japan are set to commence the 6th edition of the Dharma Guardian military exercise at Mount Fuji.
Other India-Japan Military Exercises
- JIMEX (Japan-India Maritime Exercise): Naval cooperation between the Indian Navy and Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF).
- Veer Guardian: Joint air force exercise between the Indian Air Force (IAF) and Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF).
- Malabar Exercise: Japan participates along with India, the US, and Australia (Quad nations) in this high-level naval exercise.
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About Exercise Dharma Guardian
- It is an annual joint military exercise between the Indian Army and Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), conducted alternatively in India and Japan.
- It was commenced in 2018
- The 6th edition will be held from February 25 to March 9, 2025, at Mount Fuji, Japan.
- 120 Indian soldiers from the Madras Regiment will participate, focusing on urban warfare and counter-terrorism operations.
-
- Joint Counter-Terrorism Training: Focus on urban and semi-desert warfare.
- Advanced Tactical Drills: Close-quarters combat, live fire, and battlefield medical evacuation.
- 48-hour Validation Exercise: Tests real-time combat coordination.
- Cultural and Professional Exchange: Strengthens India-Japan military ties.
Significance:
- Strengthens Strategic Ties: Expands India-Japan defence cooperation under the Indo-Pacific framework.
- Enhances Regional Security: Aligns with Quad nations’ vision (India, Japan, US, Australia).
- Boosts Defence Technology Collaboration: Includes co-development of Unicorn Stealth Antenna System.
- Improves Military Readiness: Supports joint UN peacekeeping and disaster response operations.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Delhi Earthquake and its causes
Why in the News?
A magnitude 4 earthquake struck New Delhi with epicentre near Dhaula Kuan. The quake was shallow (5 km depth), highlighting Delhi’s seismic vulnerability due to its location in Zone IV of India’s earthquake hazard map.
Possible Causes of the Earthquake
- Tectonic Activity along the Delhi-Hardwar Ridge:
- Delhi sits on the Delhi-Hardwar Ridge, an active seismic fault.
- Continuous collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates builds tectonic stress, leading to earthquakes when stress is released.
- Groundwater Extraction as a Seismic Trigger: Excessive exploitation alters rock pressure, potentially inducing fault movements.
- Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Activity:
- Urbanization, metro construction, and large-scale infrastructure projects alter subsurface stress.
- Vibrations from construction activities can contribute to localized seismic instability.
About the Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt
- The Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt is a major geological formation that extends from southern Rajasthan to Haryana and Delhi.
- It consists of ancient folded rock formations that have undergone millions of years of geological transformation.
- This region has several pre-existing faults, meaning seismic activity can occur without direct tectonic subduction.
- Although historically more active, tectonic movements in the belt have slowed over time.
- These earthquakes occur due to fault reactivation and local stress accumulation rather than large-scale tectonic shifts.
- Himalayan earthquakes are caused by subduction, where the Indian plate moves under the Eurasian plate.
PYQ:
[2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.
[2015] The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Aravalli Range
Why in the News?
The Haryana government has proposed an ambitious 3,858-hectare Aravalli Safari Park spread across Gurugram and Nuh, which aims to be the world’s largest safari park.
About the Aravalli Range
- The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, dating back to the Proterozoic era.
- It stretches 692 km from Gujarat to Delhi, passing through Rajasthan and Haryana.
- The range acts as a natural green barrier, preventing the expansion of the Thar Desert into eastern Rajasthan and the Gangetic plains.
- Highest Peak: Guru Shikhar (1,722 meters) in Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
- Rivers originating from the Aravalli Range:
- Banas and Sahibi Rivers (tributaries of the Yamuna).
- Luni River, which flows into the Rann of Kutch.
- Rich in mineral resources, including copper, zinc, lead, and marble.
- The Aravalli hills play a critical role in groundwater recharge, acting as natural aquifers.
- 80% of the range is in Rajasthan, while the rest is in Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat.
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What is the Aravalli Safari Park Project?
- The Haryana government has proposed a 3,858-hectare Aravalli Safari Park, intended to be the world’s largest.
- The project covers 2,574 hectares in Gurugram and 1,284 hectares in Nuh.
- It will include animal enclosures, botanical gardens, aquariums, cable cars, hotels, and an animal hospital.
- Initially managed by the Tourism Department, the project is now under the Forest Department, with an expert committee overseeing its execution.
Why is there Opposition?
- Ecological Concerns: The Aravallis prevent desertification, and large-scale construction could disrupt groundwater recharge and biodiversity.
- Threat to Water Security: The region acts as an aquifer, and excessive tourism, vehicular traffic, and construction could worsen Gurugram and Nuh’s water crisis, already classified as “over-exploited” by the Central Ground Water Board.
- Legal Violations: The project falls under protected forest areas, governed by:
- Forest Conservation Act, 1980.
- Punjab Land Preservation Act (PLPA), 1900, restricting deforestation.
- T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad Judgment (1996), which extends legal protection to non-notified forest land.
PYQ:
[2011] The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diversity. Which one among the following is the most appropriate reason for this Phenomenon?
(a) It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant vegetative growth
(b) It is a confluence of different bio-geographical zones.
(c) Exotic and invasive species have not been introduced in this region.
(d) It has less human interference. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Matsya-6000
Why in the news?
India’s 4th generation deep-ocean submersible Matsya-6000 has successfully completed wet testing at Chennai harbor, paving the way for shallow-water demonstrations at depths of up to 500 meters by 2025.
![[pib] Matsya-6000](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mats.jpg)
About Matsya-6000
- Made of titanium alloy to withstand extreme oceanic pressure.
- Built with a 2.1-meter diameter sphere to accommodate three crew members.
- Moves at speed of 5.5 km/hr using multidirectional thrusters.
- Uses GPS, underwater acoustic positioning, and joystick-controlled maneuverability.
- Operates for 12 hours, with an emergency endurance of 96 hours.
- Includes emergency buoyancy modules and high–pressure-resistant escape hatches.
- Features robotic arms for sample collection.
- Uses high–resolution imaging and oceanographic sensors for deep-sea research.
- Future Trials:
- Shallow-water tests up to 500m planned by late 2025.
- Full deep-sea trials at 6,000m scheduled for 2026.
What is Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)?
-
- The DOM launched by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) in 2021, aims to enhance India’s deep-sea exploration capabilities while supporting the Blue Economy policy.
- It focuses on resource utilization, climate monitoring, and marine biodiversity conservation.
- Develop advanced technologies for ocean mining, biodiversity assessment, and deep-sea surveillance.
-
- Enable climate change research through real-time ocean data collection.
- Establish a Marine Station for Ocean Biology for research on marine ecosystems and pharmaceuticals.
- Support the Samudrayaan Mission, which includes the development of Matsya-6000, India’s first deep-ocean human submersible.
- Structural Mandate of DOM:
-
- Deep-ocean survey and identification of polymetallic nodule and sulfide deposits.
- Harnessing ocean energy through wave, tidal, and thermal sources.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Project NAKSHA
Why in the News?
Union Minister of Rural Development has inaugurated the National Geospatial Knowledge-based Land Survey of Urban Habitations (NAKSHA) in 152 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) across 26 States and 3 Union Territories (UTs).
What is Project NAKSHA?
- It is an AI-driven urban land survey and digitization initiative launched by the Department of Land Resources under the Ministry of Rural Development.
- Announced in the Union Budget 2024-25, the project aims to modernize urban land records through geospatial mapping, drone technology, and AI.
- Launched in February 2025, the initiative will digitize and update land records in 152 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) across 26 States and 3 Union Territories (UTs) in its pilot phase.
- Survey of India is the technical partner, conducting aerial mapping and high-resolution imaging to create accurate, tamper-proof property records.
- The Madhya Pradesh State Electronic Development Corporation (MPSEDC) is developing an end-to-end web-GIS platform.
- National Informatics Centre Services Inc. (NICSI) will provide storage and data security.
- The Survey of India will provide orthorectified imagery for accurate mapping.
- Project NAKSHA builds on:
- Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) for digitizing rural land records.
- SVAMITVA Scheme, using drone technology to map village properties.
-
- Pilot phase funding: ₹194 crore, fully financed by the Government of India.
- Overall Phase 1 budget: ₹5,000 crore for nationwide expansion.
Aims and Objectives of Project NAKSHA:
- Standardizing urban property ownership details to eliminate land disputes.
- Ensuring fraud-proof, legally valid land documentation.
- Drone surveys and satellite imagery for precision mapping.
- Detecting encroachments, illegal constructions, and land use changes.
- Providing spatial data for urban expansion and infrastructure projects.
- Digital land records enable seamless property transactions and ownership transfers.
Features and Provisions:
- 150+ cities covered in the first year, with full urban coverage in five years.
- AI-enabled classification to identify disputed, encroached, or illegal land parcels.
- Web-GIS Platform for Land Record Management to be developed by MPSEDC, ensuring real-time data access and updates.
- States and UTs to conduct field surveys and ground verification.
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to land reforms in independent India, which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) The ceiling laws were aimed at family holdings and not individual holdings.
(b) The major aim of land reforms was providing agricultural land to all the landless.
(c) It resulted in cultivation of cash crops as a predominant form of cultivation.
(d) Land reforms permitted no exemptions to the ceiling limits. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Similipal Tiger Reserve
Why in the News?
The Similipal Tiger Reserve in Odisha has witnessed a significant reduction in poaching incidents following the installation of TrailGuard AI, an AI-powered early alert system that detects intruders in the forest.
About Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR)
- Located in Mayurbhanj District, Northern Odisha, characterized by hilly and undulating terrain with open grasslands and dense forests.
- Twin peaks: Khairiburu and Meghashini, reaching 1,515 meters above sea level.
- Inhabited by tribal communities such as Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Gondas, Khadia, Mankadia, and Sahara.
- Declared a Tiger Reserve in 1956 and brought under Project Tiger in 1973.
- Recognized as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 2009.
- Flora:
- 1,078 species of plants, including 94 species of orchids.
- Sal (Shorea robusta) is the dominant tree species.
- Fauna:
- Rich in wildlife, including Leopards, Elephants, Gaurs, Langurs, Barking Deer, Sloth Bears, Sambar, Pythons, Pangolins, and Flying Squirrels.
- Diverse birdlife, including migratory species like Bar-Headed Geese and Brahmini Ducks.
- Home to freshwater snails (Radix genus) in its water bodies.
Melanistic Tigers of Similipal:
- Similipal is the only place in the world where pseudo-melanistic tigers are found in the wild.
- 27 of Odisha’s 30 tigers (AOTE-2023-24) live in Similipal, including 13 pseudo-melanistic tigers.
- The unique black-striped pattern in these tigers is due to a mutation in the Taqpep gene.
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PYQ:
[2011] Two important rivers – one with its source in Jharkhand (and known by a different name in Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha – merge at a place only a short distance from the coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an important site of wildlife and biodiversity and a protected area.
Which one of the following could be this?
(a) Bhitarkanika
(b) Chandipur-on-sea
(c) Gopalpur-on-sea
(d) Simlipal |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Loggerhead Turtles
Why in the News?
A new study in Nature reveals that loggerhead turtles can learn and remember the magnetic signature of an area, using Earth’s geomagnetic field for navigation during long migrations.
About Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta)
- Loggerhead Sea Turtles belong to the Cheloniidae family, widely distributed across the world’s oceans.
- They are commonly found in Atlantic, Pacific, Indian Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea.
- They Spends most of its life in saltwater and estuarine habitats, coming ashore only to nest.
- They are omnivorous, feeding primarily on bottom-dwelling invertebrates.
- It is listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
- International trade banned under CITES Appendix I.
Significance of the study
- Loggerhead turtles travel thousands of kilometers across oceans and return to the same feeding and nesting sites.
- Their ability to store magnetic memories helps them navigate vast distances, reinforcing the hypothesis that other migratory species may also rely on Earth’s magnetic field.
PYQ:
[2019] Consider the following statements:
- Some species of turtles are herbivores.
- Some species of fish are herbivores.
- Some species of marine mammals are herbivores.
- Some species of snakes are viviparous.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Corruption Perceptions Index, 2024
Why in the News?
India has ranked 96 out of 180 countries in the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) 2024, released by Transparency International on February 11, 2025.
About the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), 2024
- The CPI is an annual ranking published by Transparency International, assessing public sector corruption perceptions across 180 countries and territories.
- The CPI score ranges from 0 to 100:
- 0 = Highly Corrupt
- 100 = Very Clean
- The index is based on expert analysis and business surveys from reputable institutions such as the World Bank and World Economic Forum.
- It highlights trends in corruption levels worldwide, enabling comparisons between countries and regions.
Significance of the CPI:
- The CPI helps assess the effectiveness of anti-corruption policies across countries.
- Corruption affects foreign investment, ease of doing business, and economic growth.
- The CPI 2024 emphasizes corruption as a major threat to climate action.
- Funds for climate mitigation and adaptation are often misused, delaying environmental progress.
- Countries with low scores face pressure to strengthen anti-corruption laws.
India’s Ranking in CPI, 2024:
- Overall Performance:
- India ranked 96 out of 180 countries, with a CPI score of 38 (dropping from 39 in 2023 and 40 in 2022).
- The decline highlights ongoing governance challenges, enforcement gaps, and institutional corruption issues.
- Comparison with Other Countries:
- China (76), Sri Lanka (121), Pakistan (135), and Bangladesh (149) ranked below India.
- Denmark remains the least corrupt nation, while over two-thirds of countries scored below 50, indicating widespread corruption.
- Challenges & Areas for Improvement:
- Weak enforcement of anti-corruption laws, regulatory loopholes, and opacity in political funding remain concerns.
- Strengthening institutional accountability, judicial independence, and transparency in governance is essential.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to the ‘Prohibition of Benami Property Transactions Act, 1988 (PBPT Act)’, consider the following statements:
- A property transaction is not treated as a benami transaction if the owner of the property is not aware of the transaction.
- Properties held benami are liable for confiscation by the Government.
- The Act provides for three authorities for investigations but does not provide for any appellate mechanism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: mRNA (Messenger RNA)
Why in the News?
In December 2024, Russia announced the development of a new mRNA-based personalized cancer vaccine, with plans to make it available for free to patients by early 2025.
What is mRNA (Messenger RNA)?
- mRNA is a type of RNA that transports genetic information from DNA to ribosomes, guiding the production of proteins.
- It tells the cell which proteins to make by providing the exact sequence of amino acids.
- Unlike DNA, mRNA does not stay in the cell permanently; it gets degraded after protein synthesis.
- mRNA-based vaccines (like COVID-19 vaccines) teach cells to produce harmless viral proteins, triggering an immune response.
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What is an mRNA Cancer Vaccine?
- Unlike traditional vaccines, mRNA vaccines provide genetic instructions to train the immune system to detect and attack cancer cells.
- This technology gained prominence with the COVID-19 vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna) and is now being adapted for cancer treatment.
- These vaccines are therapeutic, designed for patients who already have cancer, not for prevention.
How do mRNA Cancer Vaccines Work?
- Cancer cells evade the immune system by suppressing immune responses.
- Immunotherapy works by enhancing the body’s natural ability to detect and destroy these cancerous cells.
- Unlike chemotherapy, which kills both healthy and cancerous cells, immunotherapy selectively targets only cancer cells, reducing harmful side effects.
- mRNA cancer vaccines are customized for each patient, targeting specific tumor antigens, making them highly personalized and potentially more effective.
- While traditional infectious disease vaccines prevent illness, mRNA cancer vaccines are therapeutic, meaning they are administered to patients who already have cancer to help their immune system fight the disease.
PYQ:
[2019] RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?
- It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.
- It can be used in developing therapies for the treatment of cancer.
- It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.
- It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1 and 4 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dhokra Artwork
Why in the News?
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has gifted a Dhokra (or Dokra) artwork to French President Emmanuel Macron.
About Dhokra Artwork
- Dhokra Art is an ancient metal-casting craft from India, primarily practiced by the Dhokra Damar tribes.
- It uses the lost-wax casting technique, where a wax model is made, coated in clay, and molten metal is poured into the mold after the wax melts.
- This technique has been in use for over 4,000 years, with the earliest known artifact being the dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro.
- Dhokra is practiced in Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Telangana, with distinct regional styles.
- In 2018, Adilabad Dokra from Telangana received the GI tag for its distinct style.
Features of Dhokra Art:
- Primitive: The designs are rustic and simplistic, often featuring animals, religious figures, and tribal motifs.
- Seamless: Dhokra pieces are crafted as a single unit without joints, providing a unique and smooth finish.
- Long Crafting Time: Each figurine can take up to a month to complete due to the intricate processes involved.
- Non-ferrous Metal: Brass and copper are mainly used in Dhokra Art due to their strength and malleability.
- Casting Types:
- Solid Casting: Common in Southern India, uses solid wax.
- Hollow Casting: Predominant in Central and Eastern India, uses a clay core.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sṛjanam
Why in the News?
Union Ministry of Science & Technology has launched India’s first indigenous Automated Biomedical Waste Treatment Plant, named “Sṛjanam,” at AIIMS, New Delhi.
About Sṛjanam
- Sṛjanam is India’s first indigenously developed Automated Biomedical Waste Treatment Rig, designed by CSIR-NIIST, Thiruvananthapuram.
- It provides a sustainable, non-incineration-based solution for biomedical waste disposal, aligning with India’s Waste to Wealth vision.
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- Eco-Friendly & Non-Incineration-Based: Eliminates the need for incineration, reducing toxic emissions.
- High-Efficiency Pathogen Elimination: Disinfects blood, urine, sputum, and lab disposables, with third-party validated antimicrobial action.
- Safe & Fully Automated: Minimizes human exposure, reducing the risk of infections and spills.
- Capacity & Scalability: Processes 400 kg of biomedical waste daily, with 10 kg/day degradable waste capacity in phase one.
- Odor Neutralization: Eliminates foul smells, ensuring safer surroundings.
- Supports Circular Economy: Enhances waste segregation and recyclability, reducing landfill burden.
PYQ:
[2019] In India, ‘extended producer responsibility’ was introduced as an important feature in which of the following?
(a) The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998
(b) The Recycled Plastic (Manufacturing and Usage) Rules, 1999
(c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011
(d) The Food Safety and Standard Regulations, 2011 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Einstein Ring
Why in the News?
The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Euclid Space Telescope has captured a rare Einstein Ring around a galaxy nearly 590 million light-years away from Earth.
What is an Einstein Ring?
- An Einstein Ring is a circular ring of light caused by gravitational lensing, a phenomenon predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.
- It occurs when a massive celestial object (like a galaxy) bends and magnifies light from a more distant background galaxy that lies directly behind it.
- The recent discovery by ESA’s Euclid telescope identified an Einstein Ring around NGC 6505, located 590 million light-years away, acting as a lens for a distant galaxy 4.42 billion light-years away.
- Features of an Einstein Ring:
- Perfect circular shape (only if source, lens, and observer align precisely).
- Example of strong gravitational lensing, distorting background light.
- Extremely rare (found in less than 1% of galaxies).
- Not visible to the naked eye, observed only with advanced space telescopes like Euclid or Hubble.
Significance of the Discovery:
- Reveals Dark Matter: Helps indirectly map dark matter, which makes up 85% of the universe.
- Magnifies Hidden Galaxies: Makes faint, distant galaxies visible for study.
- Measures Universe’s Expansion: Tracks how light stretches over time, refining cosmological models.
- Confirms Einstein’s Theory: Proves light bends in curved space-time, supporting gravitational lensing theory.
- Demonstrates Euclid’s Capabilities: Shows Euclid’s high-resolution potential, promising more discoveries.
PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following phenomena:
- Light is affected by gravity.
- The Universe is constantly expanding.
- Matter warps its surrounding space-time.
Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PARAS-2 Spectrograph
Why in the News?
Scientists at PRL, Ahmedabad, discovered the exoplanet TOI-6038A b, a dense sub-Saturn-sized planet with a mass of 78.5 Earth masses and a radius of 6.41 Earth radii, using the PARAS-2 spectrograph at Mount Abu Observatory.
About TOI-6038A b
- TOI-6038A b is a dense sub-Saturn-sized planet with a mass of 78.5 Earth masses and a radius of 6.41 Earth radii, orbiting a bright, metal-rich F-type star every 5.83 days in a circular orbit.
- This is the 2nd exoplanet discovery using the PARAS-2 spectrograph.
- It is also the 5th exoplanet detection combining efforts of PARAS-1 and PARAS-2, showcasing India’s growing expertise in astronomical instrumentation.
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About PARAS-2 Spectrograph:
- PARAS-2 (PRL Advanced Radial-velocity All-sky Search-2) is a state-of-the-art high-resolution spectrograph designed for exoplanet detection.
- The development of PARAS-2 began in mid-2018 and was successfully installed at the telescope site in mid-2022.
- It is the highest-resolution stabilized radial velocity (RV) spectrograph in Asia, operating at a precision level of 30 cm/s.
- It is installed at PRL’s 2.5-meter telescope at the Mount Abu Observatory, benefiting from high-altitude, clear sky conditions.
- Key Features of PARAS-2:
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- Operates in the 380-690 nm waveband, making it suitable for studying a wide range of celestial objects.
- Resolution of ~107,000, the highest in Asia, enabling ultra-precise exoplanetary studies.
- Ultra-stable temperature and pressure environment: Maintained at 24 ± 0.001 °C and 0.005 ± 0.0005 mbar, ensuring minimal instrumental drift.
- Uses a Uranium Argon Hollow Cathode Lamp (UAr HCL) for calibration, achieving a velocity precision of better than 2 m/s.
- Advanced optical fiber system for capturing stellar light and spectral calibration data simultaneously.
- It uses the radial velocity method, which detects tiny wobbles in a star’s motion caused by the gravitational pull of an orbiting planet.
- These wobbles cause shifts in the star’s light spectrum, allowing scientists to determine a planet’s presence, mass, and orbital period.
- It can detect minute stellar movements, making it ideal for finding low-mass exoplanets like super-Earths.
PYQ:
[2015] The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of:
(a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth
(b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available
(c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space
(d) search for meteorites containing precious metals |
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