Why in the News?
The IUCN’s World Heritage Outlook 4 has downgraded India’s Western Ghats, Manas, and Sundarbans National Parks to “Significant Concern” due to climate change, tourism, invasive species, and road expansion.
About IUCN World Heritage Outlook:
- Overview: Launched in 2014 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to evaluate the long-term conservation prospects of all natural and mixed UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
- Cycle & Methodology: Conducted every three years (2014, 2017, 2020, 2025) using scientific data, field reports, remote-sensing, and expert review to assess retention of Outstanding Universal Value (OUV).
- Coverage: The 2025 edition (World Heritage Outlook 4) assesses 200+ sites worldwide, measuring their state, threats, and management effectiveness.
- Assessment Categories:
- Good – Values secure.
- Good with Some Concerns – Moderate threats.
- Significant Concern – Serious pressures.
- Critical – Imminent loss of key values.
Key Findings World Heritage Outlook 4:
- Global Trends: “Positive outlook” sites fell from 63 % (2020) to 57 % (2025); ≈40 % of sites now face significant or critical challenges.
- Dominant Threats: Climate change has overtaken hunting and logging as the leading pressure, joined by tourism overload, invasive species, and infrastructure expansion.
- Management Gaps: Only half of sites effectively funded or staffed; weak law enforcement and community participation slow recovery.
- Positive Models: China (Mt Wuyi, Mt Huangshan) and Sri Lanka (Sinharaja) show improvement through youth involvement and sustainable tourism.
- Policy Relevance: Serves as a “litmus test for global conservation”, informing the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022) and supporting the 30×30 goal.
Key Findings on India’s Western Ghats:
- UNESCO Status: Inscribed in 2012 as a serial World Heritage Site; one of the world’s eight hottest biodiversity hotspots across six states (Gujarat → Tamil Nadu).
- 2025 Outlook Rating: Classified as “Significant Concern” due to rising ecological stress and habitat fragmentation.
- Biodiversity: Home to 325 globally threatened species; endemics include Nilgiri tahr, Malabar civet, Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri flycatcher.
- Major Threats:
- Hydropower & Infrastructure – e.g., ₹ 5,843 crore Sillahalla Pumped Storage Project (1,000 MW) altering river systems.
- Unregulated Tourism – garbage, wildlife disturbance, elephant conflicts.
- Monoculture Expansion – tea, coffee, rubber replacing native forests.
- Climate Shift – upslope migration of species like the Black-and-Orange Flycatcher.
- Invasive Flora – eucalyptus and acacia reducing soil fertility.
- Conservation Imperatives: Strengthen eco-sensitive zone rules, restore corridors, and expand community-based initiatives (Eco-Development Committees, MGNREGS).
- Regional Significance: Regulates South India’s monsoon and river systems (Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) sustaining 245 million people.
- Outlook Note: Despite threats, recovery is achievable through landscape-level management, sustainable tourism, and native vegetation restoration.
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Why in the News?
The National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) has begun the wet commissioning of the first 250 MW unit of the Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project (SLHEP), India’s largest hydropower installation.
About Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project (SLHEP):
- Overview: A run-of-the-river hydroelectric project located on the Subansiri River at Gerukamukh, straddling Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the Lower Subansiri district.
- Developer: Implemented by the National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) Limited, India’s leading central public-sector hydropower enterprise.
- Installed Capacity: 2,000 MW (8×250 MW), the largest hydroelectric project in India upon completion.
- Dam Structure: A concrete gravity dam, 116 m high from riverbed (130 m from foundation) and 284 m long, built to withstand high flood discharge and seismic activity of the Eastern Himalayas.
- Reservoir & Components: Features a 34.5 km reservoir, five diversion tunnels, eight spillways, and a surface powerhouse on the right bank.
- Power Output & Benefits: Expected to generate 7,500 MUs annually (90% dependable year), contributing to clean power supply, flood moderation, irrigation, and drinking water for downstream Assam.
- Timeline: Construction began 2005, stalled 2011 due to environmental protests, resumed October 2019 after NGT clearance and PMO intervention.
- Recent Milestone: In October 2025, NHPC began wet commissioning of the first 250 MW unit, marking the project’s operational phase.
Back2Basics: Subansiri River
- Overview: Arises in the Tibetan Himalayas, flows southeast through Miri Hills (Arunachal Pradesh), entering Assam, and joins the Brahmaputra at Lakhimpur.
- Tributary Importance: Largest right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra, contributing ~7.9% of total river flow.
- Catchment Area: Covers 32,640 sq. km, combining steep Himalayan terrain and fertile plains.
- Local Name: Known as the “Gold River” due to historic alluvial gold traces in its sands.
- Ecological Significance: Supports endemic fish species, riparian forests, and floodplain livelihoods across Dhemaji and Lakhimpur.
- Strategic Relevance: Its high gradient and perennial discharge make it ideal for renewable hydropower, central to Northeast India’s energy security.
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| [UPSC 2024] Recently, the term “pumped-storage hydropower” is actually and appropriately discussed in the context of which one of the following? Options: (a) Irrigation of terraced crop fields
(b) Lift irrigation of cereal crops
(c) Long duration energy storage*
(d) Rainwater harvesting system |
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Why in the News?
The Government of India has announced the Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar as Padma-style national awards for excellence in science, technology, and innovation.
Key Highlights of 2025 Awards:
- Vigyan Ratna: Jayant Vishnu Narlikar (posthumously) – astrophysicist and cosmologist known for the Hoyle–Narlikar theory.
- Vigyan Shri: Eight scientists including Gyanendra Pratap Singh, Yusuf M. Shaikh, K. Thangaraj, Pradeep Thapalil, A.B. Pandit, Venkata Mohan, Mahan Mj, and Jayan N.
- Vigyan Yuva: Fourteen young scientists across biology, physics, and data science domains.
- Vigyan Team: CSIR Aroma Mission – for contributions to India’s flavour and fragrance sector, enhancing rural livelihood and agro-innovation.
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About Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar (RVP):
- Establishment: Instituted in January 2024 as India’s national Padma-style award for science and technology excellence, recognising scientists, technologists, and innovators of Indian origin, in India or abroad.
- Purpose: Created to replace legacy awards like the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, ensuring transparency, inclusivity, and broader scientific domain coverage.
- Governing Authority: Administered by the Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar Committee (RVPC), chaired by the Principal Scientific Adviser (PSA) to the Government of India, comprising 17 members from major science ministries and research councils.
- Award Calendar:
- Announcement: Every May 11 on National Technology Day.
- Conferment: Every August 23 on National Space Day at Rashtrapati Bhavan, by the President of India.
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- Vigyan Ratna (VR): For lifetime achievement; up to 3 awards annually.
- Vigyan Shri (VS): For distinguished contributions; up to 25 awards.
- Vigyan Yuva – Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (VY-SSB): For scientists under 45 years; up to 25 awards.
- Vigyan Team (VT): For collaborative research groups (≥ 3 members); up to 3 awards.
Coverage & Eligibility:
- Scientific Domains: Thirteen fields including physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, medicine, engineering, agriculture, space science, and innovation.
- Eligibility: Open to Indian citizens and Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs); self-nominations not permitted only institutional, departmental, or peer nominations accepted.
- Award Components: Each recipient receives a Sanad signed by the President, a medallion, and a citation booklet; posthumous awards transferred to next of kin.
| [UPSC 2014] For outstanding contribution to which one of the following’ fields is Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize given?
Options: (a) Literature (b) Performing Arts (c) Science* (d) Social Service |
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Why in the News?
Google DeepMind and Google Research has unveiled Cell2Sentence-Scale 27B (C2S-Scale), an AI model based on the Gemma family, marking a major advance in scientific research.
About C2S-Scale:
- Overview: It is a large-language-model (LLM) foundation system created by Google Research, Google DeepMind, and Yale University, designed to interpret the language of cells by converting single-cell transcriptomic data into textual “cell sentences.”
- Foundation & Architecture: Built on the Gamma family of open models with 27 billion parameters, it is among the world’s largest LLMs for biological data analysis.
- Purpose: Bridges single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and natural-language reasoning, allowing biologists to query models conversationally and obtain mechanistic hypotheses instead of raw statistics.
- Experimental Validation: Predicted a CK2-inhibition (silmitasertib + interferon) pathway that increases MHC-I antigen presentation in “cold” tumours, subsequently validated in live-cell assays.
Key Features:
- Parameter Scale: ~27 B parameters showing clear scaling-law gains in biological task performance.
- Data Representation: Converts ranked gene-expression profiles into gene-name sequences, enabling LLMs to treat transcriptomes as text.
- Multimodal Training: Trained on 50 million + single-cell profiles (human + mouse) plus metadata and scientific literature, aligning molecular data with context.
- Functional Range: Performs cell-type identification, perturbation-response prediction, dataset summarisation, cluster captioning, and biological Q&A.
- Reasoning Capability: Generates new, testable hypotheses, extending AI use from pattern detection to biological inference.
- Open-Source Access: Model weights and code released via Hugging Face and partner labs for community replication and benchmarking.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing.
II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS).
III. Deep learning is machine learning.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
(a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only * (d) I, II and III |
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Why in the News?
The Union Ministry of Culture will formalise partnerships with around 20 institutions under the Gyan Bharatam Mission, a flagship national initiative for manuscript conservation, digitisation, and research.
About Gyan Bharatam Mission:
- Overview: It is a flagship national mission of the Ministry of Culture (GoI) to preserve, digitise, and promote India’s manuscript heritage.
- Launch: Approved as a Central Sector Scheme (2024–2031) with an outlay of ₹482.85 crore.
- Background: Builds upon the National Mission for Manuscripts (2003), which documented over 44 lakh manuscripts.
- Objective: To integrate traditional conservation with modern digital technologies including AI, cloud storage, and blockchain authentication.
- Core Goal: Establish a National Digital Repository (NDR), a unified, globally accessible platform showcasing India’s intellectual and cultural heritage.
- Vision Alignment: Supports Viksit Bharat @2047 and India’s role as a Vishwa Guru in global knowledge preservation.
Key Features:
- Comprehensive Scope: Covers identification, conservation, digitisation, translation, and public dissemination.
- Survey & Documentation: Creation of a national manuscript inventory through Manuscript Resource Centres (MRCs).
- National Digital Repository (NDR): Uses AI-based Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR) for searchable digital access.
- Institutional Network: Implements through Cluster Centres and Independent Centres for nationwide coordination.
- Scientific Conservation: Strengthens Manuscript Conservation Centres (MCCs) for preventive and curative preservation.
- Funding Structure: 70% upfront release and 30% post-verification based on measurable outcomes.
- Public Engagement: Promotes youth and researcher participation via Gyan-Setu AI Innovation Challenge.
- Quality Assurance: Ensures accountability through third-party audits, utilisation checks, and review mechanisms.
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Why in the News?
The Prime Minister called the National Makhana Board a “revolution” in India’s farm value chain, aiming to formalise and commercialise makhana cultivation.
National Makhana Board (NMB)
- Objective: To enhance production, processing, value addition, and export competitiveness of makhana (fox nut) through a structured national framework.
- Establishment: Constituted in 2025 under the Ministry of Food Processing Industries with an initial outlay of ₹100 crore to institutionalise India’s makhana value chain.
- Functions: Provides training, technical support, quality regulation, and export facilitation, aligning makhana with schemes such as PM-FME, One District One Product (ODOP), and Atmanirbhar Bharat.
- Regional Presence: Operates regional centres in Darbhanga, Purnea, and Katihar (Bihar) for farmer outreach and capacity building.
- Institutional Linkages: Coordinates with ICAR, NABARD, and agricultural universities to promote high-yield varieties (HYVs), mechanised harvesting, and standardised processing.
- Governance Structure: Comprises Central and State officials, FPO representatives, and industry experts ensuring multi-stakeholder participation.
- Core Goals: Expand exports, ensure fair farmer pricing, and build sustainable livelihoods for makhana-growing communities.
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About Makhana:
- Overview: Edible seed of the prickly water lily (Euryale ferox), found in freshwater wetlands across South and East Asia.
- Nutritional Profile: Protein-rich, low-fat, and mineral-dense, recognised globally as a superfood.
- Cultural & Medicinal Use: Integral to Ayurveda, Unani, and Chinese medicine; used for blood pressure control, fertility, and immunity.
- Policy & Branding: Listed under ODOP, backed by branding and export support; granted GI tag “Mithila Makhana” (2022).
- Global Market: Valued at USD 43.5 million (2023), projected to reach USD 100 million by 2033, positioning India as global leader.
- Export market: Almost 30% to US, UAE 20%, UK 15% , Canada 10%, Singapore 7-8%.
Makhana Cultivation in India:
- Geographic Concentration: Bihar produces ≈ 90 % of India’s makhana from Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, Katihar, Saharsa districts.
- Agro-Climatic Needs: Thrives in stagnant ponds/lakes, 20–35 °C temperature, 100–250 cm rainfall, and loamy soils.
- Area & Yield: Grown on 15,000 ha producing ≈ 10,000 tonnes annually; HYVs like Swarna Vaidehi and Sabour Makhana-1 yield 3–3.5 t/ha vs 1.7–1.9 t/ha earlier.
- Other States: Cultivated marginally in West Bengal, Manipur, Assam, Tripura, Odisha, MP, Rajasthan, UP.
- Challenges: Labour-intensive manual harvesting, limited mechanisation, and high input costs.
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Why in the News?
The Reserve Bank of India released draft “Capital Market Exposure Directions, 2025” to overhaul rules on banks’ exposure to capital markets.
What is Capital Market Exposure (CME)?
It simply means how much a bank is involved in the stock market and related financial activities.
When banks deal with the capital market, they can do this in two main ways:
- Direct Exposure: When the bank itself invests in shares, bonds, or mutual funds, just like an investor would. Example: if a bank buys shares of a company or invests in government bonds, that’s direct exposure.
- Indirect Exposure: When the bank gives loans linked to the stock market, for example, lending money to stockbrokers, mutual funds, or investors who want to buy shares.
Because the stock market goes up and down, these activities are riskier than normal banking (like giving home or business loans). So, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) keeps a close watch and sets limits on how much banks can invest or lend in the capital market. |
About Draft Norms on Capital Market Exposure, 2025:
- Objective: To modernise, unify, and simplify rules on banks’ capital-market lending and investment exposures.
- Expanded Scope: Permits acquisition-finance lending for corporates and higher credit limits for individuals participating in Initial Public Offerings (IPOs), Follow-on Public Offerings (FPOs), and Employee Stock Option Plans (ESOPs).
Key Features of the Draft CME Norms:
- Exposure Limits:
- Direct exposure (investments + acquisition finance) capped at 20 percent of Tier-1 capital on solo and consolidated bases.
- Aggregate exposure (direct + indirect) capped at 40 percent of consolidated Tier-1 capital.
- Acquisition Finance:
- Banks may finance up to 70 percent of acquisition cost, with borrowers contributing 30 percent equity from own funds.
- Permitted only for listed companies with sound financials and independent valuations compliant with Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) norms.
- Aggregate acquisition-finance exposure limited to 10 percent of Tier-1 capital; not allowed for Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs), or related parties.
- Individual Market-Participation Loans:
- Maximum loan per individual increased to ₹ 25 lakh; up to 75 percent of subscription value may be financed with a 25 percent margin.
- Shares allotted under IPOs, FPOs, or ESOPs must be pledged and lien-marked to the lending bank.
- Loans Against Securities:
- Capped at ₹ 1 crore per individual for eligible securities (government securities, mutual-fund units, listed shares, or high-rated corporate debt).
- Banks must maintain prudent LTV ratios and adopt internal risk-control systems for valuation and monitoring.
Need for Such Norms:
- Modernisation: Replaces fragmented rules with a unified prudential framework.
- Corporate Expansion: Enables M&A financing, supporting Indian firms’ global competitiveness.
- Retail Participation: Encourages individual investment and deepens equity-market access.
- Risk Containment: Exposure caps and buffers ensure stability and discipline in bank lending.
- Global Alignment: Harmonises with Basel III and international acquisition-finance standards.
- Economic Impact: Enhances financial depth, liquidity, and investment-led growth in capital markets.
| [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following activities of the Reserve Bank of India is considered to be part of ‘sterilisation?
Options: (a) Conducting ‘Open Market Operations’ *
(b) Oversight of settlement and payment systems
(c) Debt and cash management for the Central and State Governments
(d) Regulating the functions of Non-banking Financial Institutions |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India, led by the Chief Justice of India (CJI), directed the Jharkhand government to submit an undertaking to notify a new wildlife sanctuary in the Saranda Forest, West Singhbhum district.
Judicial Background and Case Chronology:
- Origin: Stemmed from NGT’s July 2022 order directing Jharkhand to notify Saranda as a Wildlife Sanctuary or Conservation Reserve.
- Petitioner’s Argument: Claimed Saranda was already a “game sanctuary” (1968, Bihar), deemed protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
- Non-Compliance: State inaction led the case to the Supreme Court, which between Nov 2024–Sept 2025 repeatedly criticised delay and evasive conduct.
- SC Intervention: CJI D. Y. Chandrachud-led Bench (Apr 16, Sept 17 hearings) condemned “dilly-dallying tactics” and demanded clarity on committees altering sanctuary boundaries in mining belts.
Back2Basics: What is a Wildlife Sanctuary?
- Legal Basis: Under Section 18, Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, areas declared by States to protect flora, fauna, and habitats.
- Objective: Preserve ecological integrity, sustain biodiversity, and enable natural regeneration.
- Permissible Use: Limited human activities, grazing, fuelwood, traditional use, allowed with Chief Wildlife Warden’s permission.
- Prohibitions: Hunting, felling, quarrying, mining banned under Sections 27–33.
- Continuity Clause: Section 66(3) deems all pre-1972 “game sanctuaries” as wildlife sanctuaries.
- Governance: Managed by State Forest Department; often part of eco-sensitive zones under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
- Examples: India has 550+ sanctuaries, incl. Chilika, Bhadra, Periyar, many upgraded to national parks or tiger reserves.
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About Saranda Forest:
- Location: West Singhbhum, Jharkhand; ~856 sq km (816 reserved, rest protected forest).
- Etymology: “Saranda” in Ho language = “seven hundred hills.”
- Vegetation: Dense Sal (Shorea robusta) forests with bamboo, mahua, terminalia; among India’s richest Sal ecosystems.
- Waterbodies: the Karo River and the Koina River.
- Ecological Role: Identified by WII as a biogeographic bridge between Jharkhand and Odisha within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.
- Fauna: Asian elephant, four-horned antelope, sloth bear, leopard, civet, diverse birds and butterflies.
- Elephant Corridors: Links to Keonjhar & Sundargarh (OD) and Hasdeo-Arand (CG).
- Threats: Illegal iron/manganese mining, fragmentation, pollution, flagged by Justice M. B. Shah Commission (2014).
- Economic Value: Holds ~26 % of India’s iron ore reserves, mined by SAIL and private lessees.
Significance of Supreme Court’s Ruling (2025):
- Directive: Ordered Jharkhand to notify 31,468 ha (314.68 sq km) of Saranda as a Wildlife Sanctuary, enforcing NGT 2022 order.
- Legal Strengthening: Reinforces Wildlife Act 1972, Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, and Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
- Ecological Impact: Grants protection to Sal canopy, corridors, and watersheds, ensuring habitat connectivity with Odisha.
- Mining Clause: Existing valid leases (e.g., SAIL) remain unaffected, balancing economy and ecology.
- Tribal Safeguards: Upholds rights of Ho & Munda Adivasis under FRA 2006 and PESA 1996.
- Outcome: Sanctuary notification to curb deforestation, revive corridors, and enhance carbon sequestration.
- Precedent Value: Sets national model for reconciling mining, tribal rights, and biodiversity in resource-rich landscapes.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1. The definition of “Critical Wildlife Habitat” is incorporated in the Forest Rights Act, 2006.
2. For the first time in India, Baigas have been given Habitat Rights.
3. Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change officially decides and declares Habitat Rights for Primitive and Vulnerable Tribal Groups in any part of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Culture is commemorating 200 years of Rani Chennamma’s victory over the British, marking her as a pioneering figure in India’s early anti-colonial resistance.
Who was Rani Chennamma?
- Birth and Early Life: Born on 23 October 1778 in Kakati village, Belagavi district, Karnataka, to a Lingayat family known for valour and self-reliance.
- Marriage: Married at the age of 15 to Raja Mallasarja Desai, ruler of Kittur, a small princely state in present-day Karnataka.
- Ascension to Power: After her husband’s death in 1816, and the death of her only son, she adopted Shivalingappa as her heir to secure the throne.
- Conflict with the British: The British East India Company rejected the adoption under the Doctrine of Lapse, declaring Kittur annexed to British India.
- Battle of Kittur (1824): When John Thackery, the British political agent at Dharwad, attacked Kittur with 20,000 troops, she led her army personally and killed Thackery in battle.
- Resistance and Leadership: Trained in horse-riding, swordsmanship, and military strategy, she employed guerrilla tactics and rallied local soldiers and peasants against British forces.
- Defeat and Imprisonment: After initial victory, the British reinforced their attack, captured Kittur Fort, and imprisoned her at Bailhongal Fort, where she died in 1829.
- Historical Position: Recognised as India’s first female freedom fighter, her uprising predates the Revolt of 1857 and symbolizes early defiance against colonial annexation.
Back2Basics: Doctrine of Lapse
- Origin: Introduced by Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of India (1848–1856), as a tool of colonial expansion under British East India Company rule.
- Core Principle: Stated that any princely state without a natural male heir would be annexed by the British; adopted heirs were not recognised.
- Purpose: Justified British annexations under the pretext of maintaining “good governance” and administrative efficiency.
- Annexed States: Applied to Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854), among others.
- Violation of Indian Customs: Contradicted the Indian tradition of adoption and hereditary succession, angering princely rulers across India.
- Impact on Revolt of 1857: The doctrine became one of the major causes of resentment leading to the First War of Independence (1857).
- Abolition: The policy was abandoned in 1859, after the end of Company rule and the assumption of power by the British Crown.
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[UPSC 2014] What was/were the object/objects of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858)?
1. To disclaim any intention to annex Indian States
2. To place the Indian administration under the British Crown
3. To regulate East India Company’s trade with India
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Central Asian countries have endorsed a new six-year Work Programme (2025–2031) under the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI) to conserve 17 migratory mammal species across shared borders.
What is the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI)?
- Origin & Launch: Established in 2014 at the 11th Conference of the Parties (COP11) to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) in Quito, Ecuador.
- Purpose: Aims to halt population decline and ensure long-term survival of migratory mammals across Central Asia’s steppes, deserts, and mountain ecosystems through coordinated conservation.
- Participating Countries: Involves 14 range states, Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
- Framework: Provides a transboundary conservation platform uniting governments, NGOs, and scientific institutions to address poaching, habitat loss, climate threats, and migration barriers.
- Species Focus: Covers 17 migratory mammals, including argali sheep, Asiatic cheetah, snow leopard, saiga antelope, wild yak, wild camel, Przewalski’s horse, and Bukhara deer.
- Work Programme (2025–2031): Adopted at Tashkent (Uzbekistan); prioritises key landscapes, ecological corridors, and community-based conservation partnerships.
- Approach: Integrates science, cross-border policy harmonisation, and pastoral community engagement, promoting coexistence between wildlife and livelihoods.
- Key Partners: Supported by IUCN, WWF, CMS Secretariat, and national agencies to strengthen ecosystem connectivity across Central Asia.
Back2Basics: Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)
- Objective: To conserve migratory species and their habitats across borders, sustaining ecological networks throughout their migratory ranges.
- Establishment: Signed on 23 June 1979 in Bonn, Germany, under UNEP; entered into force in 1983.
- Unique Mandate: The only global treaty exclusively protecting terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory species.
- Legal Instruments:
- Agreements – binding treaties for specific species/regions.
- MoUs – non-binding cooperation arrangements.
- Conference of the Parties (COP): The CMS decision-making body adopting strategies like CAMI.
- Membership: Over 130 Parties worldwide, promoting science-based conservation and international cooperation.
- Global Significance: Aligns with SDG-15 (Life on Land) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
- Next COP: CMS COP15, to be held March 23–29, 2026, in Brazil, will review and advance regional frameworks including CAMI.
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Why in the News?
India’s Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) programme was commended by the World Trade Organization (WTO) for significantly enhancing MSME participation in global trade.
What is AEO India Scheme?
- Overview: It is a voluntary certification programme launched by the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC) in 2011 to promote secure and efficient cross-border trade.
- Objective: Identifies and accredits trusted traders demonstrating high customs compliance and supply chain security, offering trade facilitation benefits.
- Evolution: Began as a pilot in 2011, revised in 2016 to merge with the Accredited Client Programme (ACP), aligning with the World Customs Organization (WCO) SAFE Framework of Standards.
- Certification Tiers: Consists of AEO-T1, AEO-T2, AEO-T3, and AEO-LO (Logistics Operator) each offering progressively higher benefits based on compliance, solvency, and security.
- Key Benefits: Provides faster customs clearances, deferred duty payments, direct port delivery, reduced inspections, priority adjudication, and dedicated client managers.
About WCO AEO Framework:
- Origin: Established by the World Customs Organization (WCO) under the SAFE Framework of Standards (2005) to enhance trade security and customs modernisation.
- Core Aim: Ensures secure, legitimate trade through collaboration between Customs authorities and private traders.
- Three Pillars:
- Customs-to-Customs cooperation for border coordination.
- Customs-to-Business partnership via AEO certification.
- Customs-to-Other Agencies collaboration for integrated control.
- AEO Concept: Certifies compliant entities as trusted operators, granting simplified and expedited procedures.
- Benefits: Enables faster clearances, mutual recognition between countries, enhanced risk management, and lower transaction costs.
- Global Adoption: Over 90 countries have operational AEO programmes with Mutual Recognition Arrangements (MRAs) ensuring standardisation.
- India’s Alignment: India’s AEO model is fully harmonised with the WCO SAFE Framework, ranking among the most comprehensive customs–business partnership systems in the developing world.
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology proposed mandatory labelling of Artificial Intelligence–generated synthetic content on social media to curb deepfakes, under draft amendments to the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021.
2025 Draft Amendment on AI Content:
- AI Regulation: Introduced by MeitY to address synthetic and AI-generated media such as deepfakes.
- Mandatory Disclosure: Users must self-declare AI-generated content; platforms must detect and label undeclared synthetic material.
- Labelling Standards: Labels to cover 10% of image/video area or duration (audio); applies to text, audio, and video formats.
- Platform Obligations: Ensure metadata embedding and automated verification of user declarations.
- Legal Liability: Non-compliance leads to loss of “safe harbour” protection under Section 79(1), making intermediaries liable for hosted content.
- Public Consultation: Comments open till 6 November 2025.
Back2Basics: IT Rules, 2021:
- Legal Basis: Framed under Sections 87(2)(z) and 87(2)(zg) of the Information Technology Act, 2000 to regulate social media, digital news, and OTT platforms.
- Objective: To ensure accountability, transparency, and user protection in India’s digital ecosystem while balancing free speech with responsible governance.
- Evolution: Replaced the IT (Intermediary Guidelines) Rules, 2011, expanding obligations for intermediaries like Facebook, X (Twitter), YouTube, and Instagram.
- Scope: Applies to social media intermediaries, messaging services, digital news publishers, and OTT streaming platforms.
- Compliance Framework: Platforms must appoint Chief Compliance Officer (CCO), Nodal Contact Person, and Resident Grievance Officer (RGO), all based in India.
- Traceability Clause (Rule 4(2)): Mandates messaging services to identify the “first originator” of unlawful content, raising privacy and surveillance concerns.
Regulation of Social Media Content in India:
- Legislative Basis: Governed by the IT Act, 2000, notably Section 69A (blocking powers) and Section 79(1) (safe harbour for intermediaries).
- Obligations: Intermediaries must remove unlawful content within 36 hours of a government or court order.
- 2023 Amendment: Proposed removal of false content about the government; implementation stayed by Supreme Court.
- Judicial Context:
- Shreya Singhal (2015): Struck down Section 66A, upholding free speech.
- K.S. Puttaswamy (2017): Recognised privacy as a fundamental right influencing digital governance.
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Why in the News?
Kerala will be officially declared free from extreme poverty on November 1st, marking a national first in poverty eradication.
To assess this, Kerala relied on NITI Aayog’s assessment of Kerala using its Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI).
What is Extreme Poverty?
- Overview: According to the World Bank, extreme poverty is defined as living on less than $2.15 per day (2017 Purchasing Power Parity), representing absolute deprivation.
- Revised Thresholds: In 2025, the World Bank updated the extreme poverty benchmark to $3/day (PPP 2021) for low-income countries, reflecting inflation and rising living costs.
- Measurement Basis: It uses Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) to compare cost of living across countries and Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) data as a proxy for income.
- Nature: Extreme poverty signifies absolute poverty, unlike relative poverty, which measures inequality within societies.
- Indicators: It encompasses lack of access to essentials such as food security, safe housing, healthcare, education, clean water, and sanitation.
Extreme Poverty in India:
- Overview: India has achieved major success in reducing extreme poverty through inclusive growth and welfare-based redistribution over the past decade.
- Global Benchmark: As per the World Bank (2025), India’s extreme poverty rate declined from 27.1% (2011–12) to 5.3% (2022–23), among the fastest reductions globally.
- Population Impact: Nearly 270 million people were lifted out of extreme poverty; those living below the $3/day threshold fell from 344 million to 75 million.
- Rural Transformation: The decline was steeper in rural India, supported by flagship programmes like MGNREGA, PM Awas Yojana, National Food Security Act (NFSA), and Ayushman Bharat.
- Social Protection Role: Expansion of direct benefit transfers (DBT), PDS coverage, and rural employment improved income security and consumption stability.
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What has Kerala achieved?
- Milestone: Kerala has been officially declared free from extreme poverty as of November 1, 2025, becoming the first Indian state to achieve this feat.
- Programme Launch: The Extreme Poverty Eradication Programme began in 2021, following one of the first Cabinet decisions of the Left Democratic Front (LDF) government.
- Scale: Out of 64,006 families identified as extremely poor, 59,277 families have been uplifted after targeted interventions across housing, health, and livelihoods.
- Interventions:
- Houses built for 3,913 families and land allotted to 1,338 families.
- Repairs up to ₹2 lakh provided for 5,651 homes.
- Essential documents like ration and Aadhaar cards issued to 21,263 individuals.
- Methodology: Each family was covered through a micro plan, integrating state welfare schemes and social audits with geo-tagged verification.
- Outcome: Kerala now has 0% extreme poverty, aligning with UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 1) to eradicate poverty by 2030.
- Significance: The achievement demonstrates Kerala’s model of inclusive governance, where local bodies, irrespective of political control, collaborated to ensure last-mile welfare delivery.
[UPSC 2012] The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support covers which of the following?
1. Deprivation of education, health, assets and services at household level
2. Purchasing power parity at national level
3. Extent of budget deficit and GDP growth rate at national level
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only *
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Andhra Pradesh launched the Great Green Wall project, inspired by Africa’s Great Green Wall, to turn its 1,034 km Bay of Bengal coast into a bio-shield against cyclones and sea-level rise.
About Great Green Wall of Andhra Pradesh:
- Overview: Launched as a flagship coastal afforestation and climate resilience project; Forms part of the state’s Coastal Green Mission, aligning with SDG 13 (Climate Action) and India’s National Coastal Mission.
- Objective: To protect Andhra Pradesh’s 1,034 km Bay of Bengal coastline from cyclones, tsunamis, and sea-level rise.
- Inspired by: Africa’s Great Green Wall, adapted for India’s eastern coastal ecosystems.
- Target: Enhance Andhra Pradesh’s green cover from 30% (2025) to 37% by 2029 and 50% by 2047 through sustained plantation and protection efforts.
Key Features:
- Geographical Coverage: Extends from Tirupati to Srikakulam, spanning the full 1,034 km coastline.
- Width: Green belt stretches up to 5 km inland, with a variable width of 50–200 metres.
- Core Species: Plantation includes mangroves, casuarina, palmyra, bamboo, and other shelterbelt trees.
- Launch Site: Officially inaugurated at Surya Lanka Beach (Bapatla district) on 11 September 2025.
- Community Role: Involves Self-Help Groups, eco-clubs, MGNREGS workers, fishermen, and local coastal communities.
- Integration: Develops green buffers around ports, SEZs, industrial corridors, and aquaculture ponds.
- Funding: Supported by CAMPA, MISHTI, Green Credit Programme, MGNREGS, CSR funds, and District Mineral Funds.
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Why in the News?
Scientists from the United States and South Korea have developed a novel “atomic stencilling” method to coat gold nanoparticles with polymer patches, enabling unprecedented nanoscale precision in material design.
What is Atomic Stencilling?
- Overview: A novel nanofabrication technique where iodide atoms act as nanoscale masks (stencils) on gold nanoparticle surfaces, allowing scientists to “paint” polymer patches with atomic-level precision.
- Mechanism: These polymer-coated patches create distinct functional zones on each nanoparticle, enabling controlled self-assembly into complex 3D nanostructures.
- Innovation Context: Represents a breakthrough in atomic-scale material patterning, advancing nanotechnology toward programmable matter and precision material design.
Advantages Offered:
- Atomic Precision: Achieves atomic-scale patterning, precisely controlling patch size, geometry, and placement.
- High Uniformity: Generates identical nanoparticles for consistent, predictable self-assembly behaviour.
- Scalability: Allows large-scale synthesis of patchy nanoparticles with simplified processing.
- Material Versatility: Compatible with multiple materials — gold, silver, silica — and adaptable to various polymer coatings.
- Enhanced Self-Assembly: Promotes spontaneous formation of ordered 3D superlattices and metamaterials.
- Functional Tunability: Enables customisation of surface chemistry, optical, and electronic properties.
Key Applications:
- Targeted Drug Delivery: Functional patches enable selective binding and controlled release to specific biological targets.
- Catalysis: Distinct surface domains improve reactivity and catalytic precision.
- Optoelectronics & Photonics: Supports creation of plasmonic and light-responsive metamaterials.
- Energy Systems: Enhances charge transfer and stability in batteries and solar cells.
- Smart Materials: Forms basis for programmable, self-assembling nanostructures with adaptive functions.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:
1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.
2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.
3. Nanoparticles of some commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3 * |
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Why in the News?
After the C. Rangarajan Committee (2014) set India’s last official poverty line, economists from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) have now revisited and updated the estimates using new household consumption data from Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2022–23.
Evolution of Poverty Measurement in India:
- Planning Commission (1962): ₹20 (rural) and ₹25 (urban) per month; excluded health and education.
- Dandekar & Rath Committee (1971): Calorie-based standard (2250 kcal/day).
- Y. K. Alagh Committee (1979): Calorie-linked poverty line (2400 kcal rural; 2100 kcal urban).
- Lakdawala Committee (1993): Introduced state-specific and composite consumption baskets.
- Tendulkar Committee (2009): Uniform basket for rural/urban; ₹816 rural and ₹1000 urban (2011–12); shifted from calorie to expenditure-based poverty.
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About C. Rangarajan Committee on Poverty Estimation:
- Objective: To evolve a broader and realistic poverty metric incorporating food, health, education, clothing, and shelter costs, beyond calorie-based norms.
- Overview: Formed by the Planning Commission in 2012, chaired by Dr. C. Rangarajan, former RBI Governor, to review India’s poverty measurement methodology.
- Report Submission: Submitted in June 2014; became a major benchmark in the debate on India’s official poverty line and methodological framework.
- Definition of Poverty: Based on Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) ₹972 (rural) and ₹1,407 (urban) at 2011–12 prices, equating to ₹32/day (rural) and ₹47/day (urban).
- Data & Methodology: Used Modified Mixed Reference Period (MMRP) consumption data with separate rural–urban baskets, adjusting for state-wise price differentials.
- Poverty Estimate (2011–12): Found 29.5% of India’s population below the poverty line.
- Key Revision over Tendulkar: Expanded consumption basket to include education, healthcare, rent, transport, and other essentials; replaced calorie-based with expenditure-based cost-of-living approach.
RBI 2025 Update (DEPR Study):
- Source & Method: Conducted by RBI’s Department of Economic & Policy Research (DEPR) using HCES 2022–23 data for 20 states; retained Rangarajan framework.
- New Price Index: Created a Poverty Line Basket (PLB) index instead of CPI reflecting actual consumption inflation more accurately.
- PLB Composition: Rural PLB had 57% food share (vs 54% in CPI); Urban PLB had 47% (vs 36% in CPI).
- Key Findings:
- Rural Odisha poverty fell from 47.8% → 8.6%; Urban Bihar from 50.8% → 9.1%.
- Lowest Poverty: Himachal Pradesh (0.4% rural), Tamil Nadu (1.9% urban).
- Highest Poverty: Chhattisgarh (25.1% rural; 13.3% urban).
- Significance: Confirms broad-based poverty decline yet highlights regional disparities; renews calls for a new official poverty line reflecting modern consumption trends.
[UPSC 2019] In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because
Options: (a) poverty rates vary from State to State
(b) price levels vary from State to State *
(c) Gross State Product varies from State to State
(d) quality of public distribution varies from State to State |
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Why in the News?
For centuries, astronomers and observers have recorded strange, short-lived visual events on the Moon’s surface, known as Transient Lunar Phenomena (TLPs).
About Transient Lunar Phenomena (TLPs):
- What is it: Short-lived flashes, glows, or hazy patches observed on the Moon’s surface, lasting seconds to several hours before fading.
- Observation History: Reported for over a thousand years, including Apollo 11 astronauts (1969) who noted a luminous lunar glow.
- Appearance Types: Include reddish glows, star-like flashes, and mist-like obscurations.
- Active Regions: Concentrated around Aristarchus and Plato craters, considered the most dynamic lunar zones.
- Scientific Implication: Suggests that the Moon remains geologically active, contradicting earlier assumptions of total dormancy.
- Theories on Origin: Scientists propose several explanations for TLPs:
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- Lunar Outgassing: Trapped gases such as radon or argon may escape through fissures, triggered by gravitational stresses or surface heating, causing dust or gas to glow or reflect sunlight.
- Meteoroid Impacts: Frequent meteoroid collisions on the Moon’s airless surface produce brief, intense flashes, accounting for many observed TLPs.
- Electrostatic Dust Levitation: Charged lunar dust particles, activated by solar radiation, may levitate and scatter light, producing transient luminous effects.
- Atmospheric Distortion on Earth: Some TLPs may be optical artifacts, caused by turbulence or refraction in Earth’s atmosphere altering the Moon’s apparent brightness or colour.
Recent Research and Monitoring:
- Observation Technology: Use of automated telescopes and CCD (charge-coupled device) imaging systems for real-time detection.
- Space Missions: NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and ISRO’s Chandrayaan series monitor gas release and new impact craters.
- Spectroscopic Evidence: Studies of Aristarchus Plateau show episodic radon emissions, supporting the outgassing theory.
- Integrated Monitoring: Global programs combine optical, seismic, and spectrometric data to validate events.
- Scientific Aim: To understand lunar surface dynamics, internal processes, and signs of ongoing geological activity.
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Why in the News?
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) delayed a vote on its 2027 carbon pricing plan under the 2023 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Strategy after U.S. pressure, stalling efforts for net-zero shipping by 2050.
What the IMO is trying to achieve?
- Decarbonisation Goal: Targets net-zero emissions in global shipping by 2050, aligning with the Paris Agreement’s 1.5 °C limit; shipping contributes 2–3 % of global CO₂.
- Carbon Intensity Reduction: Implements fuel-efficiency standards and CIIs to cut CO₂ per tonne-mile of cargo transported.
- Fuel Transition: Promotes shift from heavy fuel oil to green ammonia, methanol, hydrogen, and biofuels, supported by a global carbon pricing framework.
- Equitable Transition: Upholds common but differentiated responsibilities, offering financial and technological aid to developing and island nations.
- Market-Based Mechanisms: Developing carbon-pricing and fuel-levy systems to internalise environmental costs and fund innovation.
- Regulatory Uniformity: Seeks to avoid fragmented regional rules (e.g., EU ETS) by maintaining global maritime emission standards.
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About IMO’s 2023 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Strategy:
- Adoption: Finalised in July 2023 at Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC-80) (London) under the MARPOL Annex VI framework.
- Carbon Intensity Targets: Cut 40 % by 2030 (vs 2008) and strive for 70 % by 2040.
- Net-Zero Timeline: Achieve full sectoral decarbonisation by 2050.
- Zero/Low-Emission Fuels: Ensure 5 % (aspire 10 %) of shipping energy from near-zero-GHG fuels by 2030; expand hydrogen and electrified propulsion.
- Fuel & Emission Standards: Introduce Global Fuel Standard (GFS) and Global Pricing Mechanism (GPM) by 2027, covering ships above 5,000 GT (~85 % of emissions).
- MRV Framework: Strengthen monitoring, reporting, and verification with emission databases and compliance audits.
- Support Mechanisms: Establish GHG Fund to assist developing states in retrofits, technology adoption, and port upgrades.
Significance:
- Global Climate Milestone: First binding, worldwide roadmap for a high-emission transport sector outside aviation.
- Regulatory Shift: Moves from voluntary action to enforceable standards in maritime law.
- Strategic Impact: Positions the IMO as a key climate-governance body, linking trade regulation and environmental responsibility.
| [UPSC 2024] According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which one of the following is the largest source of sulphur dioxide emissions?
Options: (a) Locomotives using fossil fuels
(b) Ships using fossil fuels
(c) Extraction of metals from ores
(d) Power plants using fossil fuels* |
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Why in the News?
A recent study has revealed that the composition of microbial communities in rice paddies critically determines the buildup of arsenic compounds in rice grains.
Arsenic Toxicity in Agriculture:
- Overview: Arsenic (As) is a potent carcinogen and phytotoxin, bioaccumulating in rice and posing severe health and agronomic risks in Asian paddies.
- Mechanism in Flooded Fields: Under anaerobic conditions, microbes convert arsenic into soluble, bioavailable forms that rice roots readily absorb.
- Toxic Compounds: Organic forms like dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and dimethylated monothioarsenate (DMMTA) cause straighthead disease, producing sterile, erect panicles and yield losses up to 70 %.
- Speciation vs. Concentration: Toxicity depends on arsenic speciation, not total soil As levels, even low-As soils may cause poisoning.
- Geographic Hotspots: Severe in West Bengal, Bihar, and Bangladesh, where arsenic-laden groundwater is used for irrigation.
About Soil Age and Microbial Composition:
- Research Insight: Study by Peng Wang (Nanjing Agricultural University) shows soil age dictates microbial dominance and arsenic behaviour.
- Young Soils (< 700 yrs): Dominated by arsenic-methylating bacteria that convert inorganic As into toxic organic forms (DMA, DMMTA).
- Old Soils (> 700 yrs): Rich in demethylating archaea that detoxify As by breaking down methylated compounds.
- Global Microbiome Survey: Across 801 paddy soils, identified 11 methylators and 6 demethylators as key toxicity predictors.
- Risk Threshold: When methylator: demethylator ratio > 1.5, probability of straighthead disease rises sharply.
How does Microbial balance govern Arsenic toxicity?
- Biological Equilibrium: Arsenic toxicity depends on balance between methylating bacteria (risk) and demethylating archaea (detoxification).
- Environmental Triggers: Flood duration, oxygen, temperature, and hydrological shifts can tilt this balance toward higher toxicity.
- Mitigation Measures: Mid-season drainage, silicon fertilisation, and microbial community management restore redox balance and reduce As uptake.
| [UPSC 2013] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India?
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India has temporarily permitted the sale and bursting of green crackers in the Delhi–NCR region from October 18 to 21 for Diwali celebrations.
Background and Judicial Origin:
- Trigger: Severe air pollution episodes during Diwali (2016–2017) pushed Delhi’s Air Quality Index (AQI) beyond 500, creating a public-health emergency.
- Supreme Court Intervention (2018):
- Affirmed that cultural freedom cannot override the Fundamental Right to Life (Article 21).
- Banned conventional firecrackers containing heavy metals such as barium, lead, and mercury.
- Directed CSIR to develop less-polluting alternatives, with PESO (Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation) tasked to test and certify them.
- Outcome: Introduction of green crackers as a compromise solution balancing festive traditions with public-health protection.
- Legal Oversight: The Supreme Court continues to monitor compliance, permitting use only within fixed time windows and under strict emission-control standards.
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About Green Crackers:
- Overview: Green crackers are eco-friendly fireworks developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research – National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI) to curb air pollution during festive celebrations.
- Chemical Composition: Manufactured using modified formulations that exclude barium nitrate and significantly reduce sulphur and aluminium content, thereby cutting toxic emissions.
- Emission Reduction: These crackers emit about 30 % less particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀) and 10 % less sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO₂) than conventional firecrackers.
- Identification & Legality: Each authorised packet carries the Green Fireworks logo and a QR code verifiable through the CSIR-NEERI Green QR Code App; crackers without codes are illegal.
- Purpose: Designed to retain the cultural and festive appeal of fireworks while mitigating health and environmental impacts in pollution-prone regions such as Delhi-NCR.
Types of Green Crackers:
- SWAS (Safe Water Releasable): Releases water vapour during combustion to reduce dust and temperature, lowering particulate emissions.
- STAR (Safe Thermite Cracker): Uses thermite-based reactions instead of conventional oxidisers, producing bright light and sound with reduced toxic output.
- SAFAL (Safe Minimal Aluminium): Limits metallic fuel content, maintaining luminosity and sound intensity while reducing aluminium and sulphur emissions.
All three maintain sound levels around 100–120 dB, comparable to traditional fireworks but with a cleaner emission profile and shorter atmospheric residence time.
| [UPSC 2024] What is the common characteristic of the chemical substances generally known as CL-20, HMX and LLM-105, which are sometimes talked about in media?
(a) These are alternatives to hydro- fluorocarbon refrigerants
(b) These are explosives in military weapons *
(c) These are high-energy fuels for cruise missiles
(d) These are propulsion fuels for rocket |
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