Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Three-Stage Cycle of Addiction
Why in the News?
A groundbreaking study at the University of British Columbia, published in Nature Mental Health, reveals that addiction involves a complex neural circuit regulating cravings, emotions, and decision-making, shifting approaches to treatment and recovery.
Key Findings of the Research:
- Addiction Alters a Network of Brain Regions: A multi-center study analyzing 144 neuroimaging studies with 9,000 participants confirmed that addiction does not affect isolated brain areas but rather disrupts a circuit responsible for craving, emotional regulation, and decision-making.
- Brain’s Reward System is Hijacked: The nucleus accumbens releases dopamine, reinforcing pleasurable behaviors. Addictive substances exploit this mechanism, making substance use compulsive over time.
- Withdrawal Causes Emotional Distress: The extended amygdala triggers stress, anxiety, and irritability when substance use stops, driving continued consumption to avoid discomfort.
- Decision-Making is Impaired: The prefrontal cortex weakens, reducing impulse control and rational thinking, making quitting extremely difficult despite awareness of harm.
- Adolescents are More Vulnerable: Since the prefrontal cortex matures last, early substance exposure increases long-term addiction risk.
- Neuroadaptations Persist Even After Abstinence: Brain changes caused by addiction do not immediately reverse, leading to relapse vulnerability even after long periods of sobriety.
|
The Three-Stage Cycle of Addiction
- Binge/Intoxication Stage (Basal Ganglia – Reward Processing)
-
- Substance use triggers dopamine release, reinforcing pleasurable behaviors.
- Over time, the brain associates substance use with intense rewards, increasing dependence.
- Users experience cravings, leading to compulsive drug-seeking behavior.
- Withdrawal/Negative Affect Stage (Extended Amygdala – Emotional Distress)
-
- When substance use stops, individuals experience withdrawal symptoms like stress, anxiety, and depression.
- The brain craves relief, pushing individuals toward continued substance use to avoid discomfort.
- This stage makes quitting extremely difficult, reinforcing addiction.
- Preoccupation/Anticipation Stage (Prefrontal Cortex – Impulse Control & Cravings)
-
- The prefrontal cortex weakens, impairing decision-making and self-control.
- Cravings dominate thoughts, leading to obsessive focus on substance use.
- Despite knowing the negative consequences, individuals struggle to quit due to impaired cognitive function.
This cycle continuously repeats, making addiction a self-reinforcing loop.
PYQ:
[2007] Which one of the following parts of the human brain is the regulating center for swallowing and vomiting?
Options:
(a) Cerebellum (b) Cerebrum (c) Medulla oblongata (d) Pons |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mycelium Bricks
Why in the News?
A promising eco-friendly alternative gaining attention is mycelium bricks—a biodegradable, lightweight, and fire-resistant material derived from fungal filaments.
What Are Mycelium Bricks?
- Mycelium is a network of thin fungal strands called hyphae that function similarly to plant roots.
- It grows in soil or other substrates, secreting digestive enzymes to break down organic material, providing nutrients to the fungi, plant partners, and other organisms.
- Mycelium bricks are made by combining sawdust, husk, and fungal spores, which then solidify into a lightweight, insulating material over a few days.
- They are biodegradable, fire-resistant, and offer thermal insulation, making them a potential green alternative to conventional bricks.
Advantages of Mycelium Bricks
- Lower Carbon Footprint: Mycelium bricks don’t require high-temperature kilns, significantly reducing CO₂ emissions.
- Lightweight: Easier to transport and handle, reducing logistics-related emissions.
- Good Thermal Insulation: Helps regulate indoor temperatures, reducing energy consumption in buildings.
- Biodegradability: Mycelium naturally decomposes, making it a zero-waste material.
- Versatile Applications: Potential use in interior panelling, circuit boards, liquid filters, and sports equipment.
Challenges Limiting Large-Scale Adoption
- Lower Load-Bearing Strength: Mycelium composites have a high strength-to-weight ratio, but they are 100 times weaker than concrete.
- Susceptibility to Moisture: Mycelium is highly absorbent, making it prone to fungal decay and moisture damage in humid environments.
- Shorter Lifespan: Unlike conventional bricks, mycelium biodegrades within a few years, raising concerns about long-term durability.
PYQ:
[2023] Consider the following statements:
1.Some mushrooms have medicinal properties.
2.Some mushrooms have psychoactive properties.
3.Some mushrooms have insecticidal properties.
4.Some mushrooms have bioluminescent properties.
How many of the above statements are correct?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)
Why in the News?
The PM chaired the 7th meeting of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) at Gir National Park, marking the first full-body meeting of the NBWL since 2012.
What is National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)?
|
Details |
| About |
- NBWL is India’s apex statutory advisory body for wildlife conservation and policy formulation.
- Established in 2003 under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, replacing the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
|
| Evolution from IBWL to NBWL |
- 1952: IBWL formed;
- 1961: Declared Peacock as National Bird;
- 1972: Wild Life (Protection) Act (WLPA) passed;
- 1973: Project Tiger launched; 1982-83: Keoladeo National Park declared a Ramsar site;
- 1997: IBWL last met under PM H.D. Deve Gowda;
- 2003: IBWL replaced by NBWL.
|
| Structure of NBWL |
- Chairperson: Prime Minister of India (ex officio).
- Vice-Chairperson: Union Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
- Members (47 total): – Government Officials: Chiefs of Army Staff, Secretaries from Defence, Tribal Affairs, Finance, I&B Ministries.
- Parliamentary Members: 3 Lok Sabha MPs, 1 Rajya Sabha MP.
- Experts: 10 eminent conservationists, ecologists, environmentalists.
- NGO: 5 from non-governmental sectors.
- + Director General of Forests (MoEFCC).
|
| Mandate of NBWL |
- Wildlife Conservation Policy: Formulates and updates India’s wildlife policies and provides recommendations on biodiversity conservation.
- Development Project Regulation: Reviews and grants environmental clearances for projects near wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, and eco-sensitive zones (ESZs).
- Protected Area Management: Recommends creation and expansion of protected areas.
- Monitoring Conservation Programs: Oversees Project Tiger (1973), Project Elephant (1992), Project Cheetah (2022), and Project Lion Expansion.
- Ecological Impact Assessment: Evaluates deforestation, poaching, and human-wildlife conflicts.
Standing Committee of NBWL:
- A smaller body that evaluates infrastructure projects impacting wildlife habitats, grants fast-track approvals, and advises on conservation policies.
- It has the power to approve or reject projects affecting protected areas.
|
| Major Contributions |
- Framed key wildlife policies including National Wildlife Action Plan.
- Approved eco-sensitive zones (ESZs) around national parks and sanctuaries.
- Strengthened Project Tiger, Project Elephant, and species-specific conservation programs.
|
PYQ:
[2017] Consider the following statements:
1. Animal Welfare Board of India is established under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body.
3. National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by the Prime Minister.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Viticulture in India
Why in the News?
Despite concerns over high tariff rates that India applies on European wine, going up to 150%, Italy sees the Indian market, along with China, as a big window of opportunity for its signature wines.
About India’s Wine Market
- Wine accounts for only 2% of India’s alcohol market, while whiskey and beer dominate with 98%.
- India’s per capita wine consumption is just 9 ml—1/8000th of France’s.
- The domestic wine market is expanding at 20-30% annually, fueled by urban demand.
- Mumbai, Goa, Bengaluru, and Delhi-NCR account for 70% of total wine consumption.
- Goa leads in per capita wine consumption, driven by tourism and relaxed liquor policies.
- India has 110+ wineries, with Maharashtra and Karnataka leading in production.
- Sula Vineyards, India’s largest and most popular winery, produces over 1 million cases annually.
- Events like the Nashik Wine Festival and Bengaluru Wine Festival attract tourists and wine enthusiasts.
- Vineyard tourism is boosting the rural economy in Nashik and Nandi Hills of Karnataka.
Viticulture in India
- India’s wine industry revival in the 1980s and 1990s led to increased vineyard expansion, making viticulture a key agricultural activity.
- Nashik, Maharashtra, is known as the “Wine Capital of India”, producing over 80% of the country’s wine.
- The semi-sandy soil, dry winters, and proximity to major cities like Mumbai and Pune make it ideal for viticulture.
- The region has over 6,000–7,000 acres of vineyards dedicated to winemaking.
- Key Wine Regions in India:
- Nashik, Maharashtra – India’s largest wine-producing region, with optimal conditions for vineyards.
- Nandi Hills, Karnataka – A cooler climate and high altitude favor premium wine production.
- Himachal Pradesh & Tamil Nadu – Emerging high-altitude viticulture hubs.
- Types of Grapes Used in Indian Wines:
- Red Wine Grapes: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Shiraz, Pinot Noir.
- White Wine Grapes: Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc.
- Indian Varieties: Anab-e-Shahi, Bangalore Blue, Thompson Seedless.
PYQ:
[2002] Consider the following plants:
1. Bougainvillea 2. Carnations 3. Cocoa 4. Grapes
Which of these plants are propagated by stem cuttings?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
[2006] Consider the following statements:
1. Caffeine, a constituent of tea and coffee, is a diuretic.
2. Citric acid is used in soft drinks.
3. Ascorbic acid is essential for the formation of bones and teeth.
4. Citric acid is a good substitution for ascorbic acid in our nutrition.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2, only (b) 1, 2 and 3, only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4″ |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bharat 6G Alliance
Why in the News?
Prime Minister has released India’s 6G vision “Bharat 6G Vision” document which envisaged India to be a frontline contributor in design, development and deployment of 6G technology by 2030.
What is the Bharat 6G Alliance (B6GA)?
- The B6GA is a collaborative platform established to drive India’s leadership in 6G technology.
- It is an alliance of public and private enterprises, academic institutions, research organizations, and standardization bodies.
- Objectives of B6GA:
- Foster Global Collaboration: Partner with international 6G alliances to share knowledge and best practices.
- Develop India-Centric 6G Use Cases: Identify key industry applications suited to India’s socio-economic landscape.
- Drive High-Impact Research & Development: Facilitate cutting-edge research in terahertz communications, AI-driven networks, and quantum-enabled security.
- Standardization & Spectrum Identification: Influence global 6G standards through active participation in International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and World Radiocommunication Conferences (WRC-27).
Operationalization of 6G Technology:
The Bharat 6G Project is structured into 2 key phases:
- Phase 1 (2023-2025): Focus on:
- Exploratory research on futuristic telecom technologies.
- Proof-of-concept testing in research labs.
- Risky and innovative pathways in wireless communication.
- Phase 2 (2025-2030): Focus on:
- Intellectual property (IP) creation for India-led 6G innovations.
- Deployment of testbeds leading to large-scale commercialization.
- International Telecom Union (ITU) is evaluating new spectrum bands for 6G:
- 4400-4800 MHz, 7125-8400 MHz, and 14.8-15.35 GHz.
- Final decision to be taken at World Radiocommunication Conference 2027 (WRC-27).
- Currently, 600 MHz to 26 GHz spectrum bands are allocated for IMT (2G-6G) services in India.
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference / differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?
1. LTE ‘is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.
2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice-only technology.
3. VoLTE requires IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) network for voice calls.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MAHASAGAR Initiative
Why in the News?
PM Modi has unveiled ‘MAHASAGAR’ (Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth Across Regions) during his March 2025 visit to Mauritius, outlining India’s expanded vision for security and development across the Global South.
What is MAHASAGAR?
- Mahasagar is India’s expanded strategic vision aimed at enhancing security, trade, and development cooperation across the Global South.
- It builds on India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) policy, which focused on the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
- Three Core Pillars:
- Trade for Development: Enhancing economic ties through technology-sharing and trade facilitation.
- Capacity Building for Sustainable Growth: Supporting nations with infrastructure, education, and economic partnerships.
- Mutual Security for a Shared Future: Strengthening regional security, maritime cooperation, and defense ties.
- It seeks to address China’s expanding presence in the Indo-Pacific and Indian Ocean by promoting India-led cooperation models.
- It aims to position India as a champion of the Global South, amplifying their voice in global policymaking (e.g., G20, IORA, BRICS).
How Mahasagar builds on SAGAR (2015)?
- India’s SAGAR policy (2015) was a regional framework focused on maritime security and economic cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
- Mahasagar broadens this vision to global engagement with the Global South.
|
SAGAR (2015) |
Mahasagar (2025) |
| Geographic Scope |
Indian Ocean Region (IOR) |
Global South, Indo-Pacific, Africa, Latin America |
| Focus Areas |
Maritime security, economic ties, blue economy, regional stability |
Trade-driven development, technology-sharing, capacity building, global security |
| Strategic Partnerships |
Mauritius, Seychelles, Maldives, Sri Lanka, IOR countries |
Expands to Africa, ASEAN, Latin America, Pacific Island Nations |
| Security & Defense Cooperation |
Anti-piracy, maritime domain awareness, EEZ protection |
Joint naval exercises, cyber security, defense partnerships |
| Economic & Developmental Focus |
Blue economy, infrastructure, trade corridors in IOR |
Technology transfer, concessional loans, trade in local currencies |
| Diplomatic Strategy |
Regional cooperation through IORA, BIMSTEC |
Voice of the Global South in G20, BRICS, UN initiatives |
PYQ:
[2017] Consider the following in respect of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS):
1. Inaugural IONS was held in India in 2015 under the chairmanship of the Indian Navy.
2. IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase maritime co-operation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PM SHRI Scheme
Why in the News?
Union Education Minister comment accusing the Tamil Nadu government of being “dishonest” in implementing the PM SHRI scheme caused disruption in the Lok Sabha.
What is the PM-SHRI Scheme?
| About |
- Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched in 2022 to upgrade 14,500 schools as model institutions for NEP 2020 implementation.
- Objective: To create inclusive, nurturing schools with modern infrastructure, holistic education, and competency-based learning.
|
| Implementation |
From 2022-23 to 2026-27. After this, states/UTs will maintain the benchmarks achieved.
Funding Pattern:
- 60:40 (Centre: State/UTs with legislature, except J&K).
- 90:10 for Northeastern & Himalayan States, J&K.
- 100% Central funding for UTs without legislature. States must sign an MoU with the Centre to participate.
|
| Key Features |
- Holistic learning: Focus on communication, collaboration, critical thinking. Experiential, inquiry-driven, learner-centred pedagogy.
- Modern facilities: Smart classrooms, Computer Labs, Integrated Science Labs, Vocational Labs, Atal Tinkering Labs.
- Green initiatives: Water conservation, waste recycling, energy efficiency.
- Competency-based assessments linked to real-life applications.
|
| Eligible Schools |
Schools managed by Central/State/UT Governments & local bodies. Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs) & Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs) (non-project, with permanent buildings).
School Quality Assessment Framework (SQAF) ensures performance evaluation & institutional excellence. |
| Selection Process |
Challenge Mode (3-stage process):
- Stage-1: Signing MoU with the Centre.
- Stage-2: Identifying eligible schools using UDISE+ data.
- Stage-3: Schools compete to meet selection criteria, verified by States/UTs/KVS/JNV.
Final selection by Expert Committee headed by the Education Secretary. |
PYQ:
[2017] What is the purpose of ‘Vidyanjali Yojana’?
1. To enable the famous foreign campuses in India.
2. To increase the quality of education provided in government schools by taking help from the private sector and the community.
3. To encourage voluntary monetary contributions from private individuals and organizations so as to improve the infrastructure facilities for primary and secondary schools.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: RNA interference (RNAi)
Why in the News?
Scientists at Tropic, a UK-based biotech company, disabled the PPO gene in bananas slowing down the browning process while allowing normal ripening.
About the Genetically Engineered Bananas
- Genetically engineered bananas are modified using biotechnology to extend shelf life, resist browning, and enhance durability.
- These bananas stay yellow for 12 hours after peeling and are less prone to bruising.
- The modification prevents enzymatic browning, making bananas look fresh for longer without altering their ripening process.
- The modification targets polyphenol oxidase (PPO), the enzyme responsible for browning.
- By disabling PPO activity, oxidation of pigments is slowed, delaying the formation of brown spots.
Gene-Silencing Method Used:
- RNA interference (RNAi) is used to silence the PPO gene, reducing its activity without affecting overall banana development.
- RNAi introduces small RNA molecules that block PPO gene expression, preventing the synthesis of the browning enzyme.
- This method is precise and does not introduce foreign DNA, making it different from traditional genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
- Gene-editing techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are also being explored for future crop modifications.
PYQ:
[2019] ‘RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?
1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.
2. It can be used in developing therapies for-the treatment of cancer.
3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.
4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 4 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Collisionless Shock Waves
Why in the News?
A recent study published by Johns Hopkins University (USA) and Northumbria University (UK) reveals how Collisionless Shock Waves act as cosmic accelerators, helping subatomic particles gain ultra-high energy and travel vast distances in space.
What are Collisionless Shock Waves?
- Collisionless shock waves are disturbances in plasma (ionized gas) where energy transfer occurs without direct particle collisions, relying instead on electromagnetic forces.
- They are found in supernova remnants, black hole disks, pulsars, magnetars, and planetary magnetospheres.
- They act as natural cosmic accelerators, boosting electrons and other charged particles to ultra-high speeds.
Key Findings from the Study
- NASA’s MMS, THEMIS, and ARTEMIS missions observed an electron acceleration event near Earth’s bow shock on December 17, 2017.
- Electrons in Earth’s foreshock region gained 500 keV of energy, reaching 86% of the speed of light, a huge increase from their usual 1 keV.
- Diffusive shock acceleration (known for producing high-energy cosmic rays) requires electrons to already be moving at 50% of light speed before further acceleration can occur.
- The study identifies how electrons receive this initial boost, a long-standing astrophysical mystery.
- Scientists have long assumed that supernova explosions are the primary source of cosmic rays.
- The recent study suggests that planetary magnetospheres interacting with stellar winds could also contribute to high-energy cosmic rays.
How Shock Waves accelerate Particles without Collisions?
- Unlike in solids, liquids, or gases, where energy is transferred via molecular collisions, plasma particles interact through electromagnetic fields.
- This allows shock waves to accelerate electrons without direct contact.
- Multi-Stage Acceleration Process:
- Plasma waves interact with electrons, imparting initial energy.
- Magnetic turbulence in the shock front causes electrons to spiral, further increasing their speed.
- Repeated interactions with plasma waves push electrons to relativistic speeds.
- Role of Earth’s Bow Shock & Foreshock:
-
- When the solar wind collides with Earth’s magnetosphere, it forms a shock wave.
- The foreshock region ahead of this wave is highly turbulent, enabling efficient electron acceleration.
PYQ:
[2009] In the year 2008, which one of the following conducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light?
(a) European Space Agency
(b) European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)
(c) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
(d) National Academy of Sciences, USA |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India's Arms Imports, Make in India
Why in the News?
India remained the second-largest arms importer, despite a 9.3% decline in imports between 2015-19 and 2020-24 a/c to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Report.
About SIPRI
- The SIPRI is an independent organization established in 1966, based in Stockholm, Sweden, conducting research on conflict, arms control, and disarmament.
- SIPRI provides comprehensive data on global arms imports, exports, and military expenditures, tracking defense trends and geopolitical conflicts worldwide.
- It analyzes ongoing wars, nuclear proliferation, cybersecurity threats, and environmental security, offering policy recommendations for international peace and stability.
- SIPRI publishes flagship reports such as the SIPRI Yearbook, Arms Transfers Database, and Military Expenditure Database, which are widely used by governments, researchers, and policymakers.
|
India’s Arms Imports: Trends and Shifts
- India remained the world’s second-largest arms importer, despite a 9.3% decline in imports from 2015-19 to 2020-24.
- Russia accounted for 36% of India’s arms imports in 2020-24, significantly LOWER than 55% in 2015-19 and 72% in 2010-14.
- India has reduced dependence on Russia and increased arms deals with France, the U.S., and Israel.
- India became France’s largest arms importer (28%), with 36 Rafale fighter jets and six Scorpene submarines already contracted.
- India is finalizing agreements for 26 Rafale-M jets and three additional Scorpene submarines.
Global Arms Trade Highlights
- Ukraine – The Largest Importer: Due to the ongoing war, Ukraine’s arms imports surged nearly 100 times in 2020-24 compared to 2015-19.
- The U.S. accounted for 45% of Ukraine’s imports, followed by Germany (12%) and Poland (11%).
- U.S. dominance in exports: The U.S. expanded its global arms market share to 43%, reinforcing its position as the top exporter.
- Russia’s decline: Russian arms exports fell by 64%, dropping to 7.8% of global exports, behind France (9.6%).
- European rearmament: European arms imports surged by 155% in response to rising security threats from Russia.
- Pakistan’s growing imports: Pakistan’s arms imports grew by 61%, with China supplying 81% of its weapons, up from 74% in 2015-19.
- China’s self-reliance: For the first time since 1990-94, China dropped out of the top 10 arms importers, reflecting its expanding domestic defense industry.
- Italy’s rise in arms exports: Italy climbed from 10th to 6th place, with a 4.8% share of global arms exports.
PYQ:
[2020] What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Preventive Detention
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court recently ruled against the Preventive Detention of a couple in Nagaland, emphasizing that constitutional safeguards must be strictly followed, and preventive detention cannot override fundamental rights.
Court’s Key Observations: Preventive Detention as a ‘Draconian Measure’
- Violation of Rights: The court ruled that depriving individuals of liberty without trial requires strict adherence to legal safeguards.
- Lack of Justification: Authorities failed to prove that the detainees posed a credible future threat, rendering the detention unjustified.
- Language Barrier: Detention orders were in English, a language the detainees did not understand, violating their right to be informed in an accessible manner.
|
What is Preventive Detention?
- Preventive detention is the detention of an individual without trial to prevent them from engaging in activities that may threaten national security, public order, or foreign relations.
- Unlike punitive detention, it aims to prevent future crimes rather than punish past offenses.
- Under Article 22 of the Constitution, preventive detention is allowed but with safeguards:
- Time Limit: Maximum three months, extendable only if an Advisory Board (comprising High Court judges) approves.
- Rights of the Detainee: Must be informed of reasons for detention (unless against public interest) and given the right to challenge it.
- Judicial Review: Courts can strike down unjustified detentions.
- Major Preventive Detention Laws:
-
- Public Safety Act (PSA), 1978: Used in J&K; detention up to two years.
- National Security Act (NSA), 1980: Up to one year for threats to national security.
- Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (PITNDPS Act), 1988: For drug trafficking cases.
- Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act (COFEPOSA), 1974: For economic offenses & smuggling.
Supreme Court’s Landmark Rulings
- Ameena Begum Case (2023): Preventive detention is an exception, not a routine measure.
- Ankul Chandra Pradhan Case (1997): It aims to prevent threats, not punish individuals.
- Harikisan vs Maharashtra (1962): Detention orders must be in a language the detainee understands.
- Gold Smuggling Case (2024): Authorities must consider bail conditions before imposing detention.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to India, consider the following statements:
- Judicial custody means an accused is in the custody of the concerned magistrate and such an accused is locked up in a police station, not in jail.
- During judicial custody, the police officer in charge of the case is not allowed to interrogate the suspect without the approval of the court.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise KHANJAR-XII
Why in the News?
The 12th edition of the India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Special Forces Exercise KHANJAR-XII is set to be held in Kyrgyzstan.
About Exercise KHANJAR-XII
- KHANJAR-XII is the 12th edition of the India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Special Forces Exercise, aimed at enhancing counter-terrorism and special operations capabilities.
- It is a bilateral military exercise held annually since 2011, alternately hosted by India and Kyrgyzstan.
- The 2025 edition is being conducted in Kyrgyzstan.
- Participants:
- Indian Contingent: Parachute Regiment (Special Forces).
- Kyrgyzstan Contingent: Kyrgyz Scorpion Brigade.
- The primary objective is to strengthen military cooperation, improve joint operational capabilities, and enhance interoperability between the two nations’ Special Forces.
Key Features:
- Counter-Terrorism Focus: Training in urban and high-altitude warfare to counter modern security threats.
- Special Forces Interoperability: Strengthening coordination in joint military operations.
- Mountain Warfare & Survival Skills: Enhancing operational effectiveness in challenging terrains.
- Military Technology Exchange: Sharing expertise on weapons systems, surveillance, and intelligence gathering.
- Reinforcing India’s Central Asia Outreach: Strengthening India’s engagement with Central Asian nations under its Connect Central Asia policy.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) Indicator
Why in the News?
The United Nations Statistical Commission has introduced a new global indicator on Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) to monitor progress towards Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2: Zero Hunger.
About Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) Indicator
- The MDD indicator measures whether individuals consume a variety of foods within a 24-hour period to assess dietary quality.
- It tracks progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) and helps identify micronutrient deficiencies in populations.
- It was adopted by the United Nations Statistical Commission at its 56th session (March 4-7, 2025, New York) and developed by Switzerland, FAO, UNICEF, and WHO.
- The indicator records whether an individual has consumed at least 5 out of 10 food groups in the last 24 hours.
- It is measured for children (6-23 months old) and women of reproductive age (15-49 years) to ensure adequate nutrition.
- 10 Food Groups: It monitors intake from grains, white roots and tubers, pulses, nuts and seeds, milk products, meat, poultry and fish, eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables, and other vegetables and fruits.
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- It addresses hidden hunger, malnutrition, and non-communicable diseases by promoting nutrient-rich diets.
- The indicator strengthens long-term diet monitoring and ensures dietary diversity remains a global priority beyond 2030.
SDG 2: Zero Hunger – The Larger Goal
- Adopted in 2015, SDG 2 aims to eliminate hunger and promote sustainable agriculture.
- Recognizes interconnections between food security, rural development, and nutrition.
- Hunger remains a global crisis:
- 757 million people faced hunger in 2023 (nearly 10% of the world population).
- One in nine people worldwide sleeps hungry each night.
- 20 million people are at immediate risk of famine in South Sudan, Somalia, Yemen, and Nigeria.
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PYQ:
[2016] Which of the following is/are the indicator/indicators used by IFPRI to compute the Global Hunger Index Report?
- Undernourishment
- Child stunting
- Child mortality
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Spice Organisation (WSO)
Why in the News?
Despite being the largest producer and exporter of spices in the world, India’s share in the global seasoning market remains only 0.7%, compared to China’s 12% and the USA’s 11%, according to the World Spice Organisation (WSO).
About the World Spice Organisation (WSO)
- WSO was established in 2011 in Kochi, Kerala, India’s spice capital.
- It is registered as a Not-for-Profit organization under the Travancore Cochin Literary, Scientific, and Charitable Societies Act, 1956.
- It works towards food safety, sustainability, and market development for the spice industry.
- It engages with farmers, processors, industry leaders, academia, and global spice associations.
- It works with organizations like Spices Board India, Rainforest Alliance, GIZ (Germany), and IDH (Netherlands).
- Partners with global spice trade bodies like:
- American Spice Trade Association (ASTA)
- European Spice Association (ESA)
- International Pepper Community (IPC)
- Participates in national and international food safety regulations, including:
- FSSAI (India’s food safety authority)
- BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards)
- ISO (International Standards Organization)
- Codex Alimentarius (Global food safety standards)
- It serves as the technical partner for the All India Spices Exporters Forum (AISEF).
Present Scenario of Spices
- India currently exports 1.5 million tonnes of spices worth $4.5 billion, accounting for one-fourth of the $20 billion global spice market. However, only 48% of these exports are value-added products, with the rest being whole spices.
- 85% of India’s spices are consumed domestically, leaving limited surplus for exports.
- Countries like Vietnam, Indonesia, Brazil, and China are emerging as strong competitors in the spice trade.
- Production:
- Major producing states: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
- During 2022-23, the export of spices from India stood at US$ 3.73 billion, up from US$ 3.46 billion in 2021-22.
- India produces about 75 of the 109 varieties listed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
- Major Produced and Exported Spices by India:
- Pepper, cardamom, chili, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, celery, fennel, fenugreek, garlic, nutmeg & mace, curry powder, spice oils, and oleoresins.
- Out of these spices, chili, cumin, turmeric, ginger, and coriander make up about 76% of the total production.
- Chilli is the leading export earner, generating $1.1 billion annually.
- Ginger exports have a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 27%.
- Export:
- In 2023-24, India’s spice exports totalled $4.25 billion, accounting for a 12% share of the global spice exports (till February 2024 data).
- India exported spices and spice products to 159 destinations worldwide as of 2023-24. The top destinations were China, the USA, Bangladesh, the UAE, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the UK, and Sri Lanka. These countries accounted for more than 70% of total exports.
|
PYQ:
[2019] Among the agricultural commodities imported by India, which one of the following accounts for the highest imports in terms of value in the last five years?
(a) Spices
(b) Fresh fruits
(c) Pulses
(d) Vegetable oils |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 'Brahmastra' Missile
Why in the News?
Indian scientists have achieved a breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology, developing a modern-day ‘Brahmastra’ with an astonishing speed of 12,144 km per hour (Mach 10).
About Brahmastra (Long Range Anti-Ship Missile – LRAShM):
- Brahmastra is a state-of-the-art hypersonic glide missile developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
- It is designed to neutralize enemy warships and strategic naval targets with extreme speed and precision.
- With a speed of Mach 10 (12,144 km/h) and a range of 1,500 km, Brahmastra is one of the fastest and most lethal weapons in India’s defense arsenal.
- The missile’s hypersonic glide vehicle technology allows it to evade enemy radar and missile defense systems, ensuring high-precision strikes on naval targets.
Features of Brahmastra:
- It can be launched from both land and naval platforms, enhancing India’s maritime strike capabilities.
- Due to its hypersonic speed, Brahmastra can destroy an enemy warship within 7 to 8 minutes of launch.
- The missile is built with advanced heat-resistant materials, preventing it from disintegrating under extreme temperatures during flight.
- Unlike conventional missiles, Brahmastra retains its structural integrity even at hypersonic speeds, ensuring precise impact.
- It uses scramjet propulsion and glide vehicle technology for sustained hypersonic flight.
- It can adjust its trajectory mid-flight, making it highly maneuverable and difficult to intercept.
- Its stealth and radar-evading capabilities ensure low detection probability, reducing the risk of interception.
PYQ:
[2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.
2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.
3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)
Why in the News?
Researchers have found that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is slowing due to melting ice sheets. By 2050, it may weaken by 20%, affecting global climate, ocean circulation, and marine ecosystems.
What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)?
- The ACC is the strongest and largest ocean current on Earth.
- It flows continuously from west to east around Antarctica, acting as a boundary between the Southern Ocean and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
- It flows from west to east, driven by the westerly winds and the Coriolis effect, creating a loop that completely encircles Antarctica.
- The ACC interacts with several regional currents, such as the Brazil Current, East Australian Current, and Agulhas Current.
- It is influenced by both westerly winds and polar easterlies, which affect its strength and flow patterns.
-
- It is five times stronger than the Gulf Stream and transports 130 million cubic meters of water per second.
- It plays a crucial role in global heat and nutrient distribution, influencing climate patterns worldwide.
- It prevents warmer northern waters from reaching Antarctica, helping to preserve the region’s ice sheets.
- The ACC drives the global conveyor belt, regulating deep ocean currents and heat flow.
- Its upwelling of nutrient-rich waters sustains Antarctic marine life, including krill, whales, and penguins.
Why does Antarctic Ice Melt affect ACC?
- Freshwater Dilution: Melting ice lowers salinity, weakening ocean density gradients that drive the ACC.
- Slower Heat Exchange: Reduced current strength disrupts global heat distribution, leading to stronger storms and rising sea levels.
Key Findings of the New Research
A study by the University of Melbourne and NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, published in Environmental Research Letters, reveals:
- ACC could slow by 20% by 2050 due to melting ice sheets.
- Disrupted global climate as a weaker ACC reduces heat distribution, carbon absorption, and weather stability.
- Antarctic ecosystem at risk, with invasive species threatening penguins, krill, and whales.
- Supercomputer simulations confirm that deep ocean circulation is slowing, worsening climate instability.
- Reducing carbon emissions is crucial to prevent further ice melting and ACC weakening.
PYQ:
[2012] Consider the following factors:
1. Rotation of the Earth
2. Air pressure and wind
3. Density of ocean water
4. Revolution of the Earth
Which of the above factors influence the ocean currents?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has acknowledged a serious issue regarding the lack of disabled-friendly infrastructure in prisons, following a petition citing the trauma and inhumane conditions faced by Professor G. Saibaba and Stan Swamy.
A bench comprising Justices Vikram Nath and Sandeep Mehta noted that even the Persons with Disabilities Act (2016) lacks a legal framework to safeguard the rights of disabled prisoners.
Challenges Faced by Disabled Prisoners:
- Inaccessible Infrastructure: Most prisons lack ramps, handrails, wheelchair-accessible cells, and essential assistive devices.
- Denial of Medical Care: Many disabled prisoners do not receive necessary medical treatment, physiotherapy, or even basic aids like hearing devices or walking supports.
- Psychological Distress: Isolation, lack of facilities, and mistreatment lead to anxiety, depression, and deteriorating mental health among disabled prisoners.
- Data Deficiency: No official records track the number or condition of disabled prisoners, making policy implementation difficult.
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (in Prisons)
- Article 14 guarantees equality before the law, ensuring that prisoners are not discriminated against based on disability.
- Article 21 upholds the right to life and dignity, including humane treatment for prisoners.
- Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 mandates accessible public spaces, medical care, and assistive devices for persons with disabilities, but implementation in prisons remains inadequate.
- Model Prison Manual, 2016 recommends disability-friendly infrastructure such as ramps and medical care provisions, yet many states have not adopted these reforms.
- Supreme Court Judgments:
-
- In Upendra Baxi vs. State of U.P. (1983), the Supreme Court reaffirmed that prisoners are entitled to humane treatment.
- In Rama Murthy vs. State of Karnataka (1996), the Court highlighted the urgent need for prison reform, including facilities for disabled inmates.
- The Stan Swamy Case (2021) brought attention to the denial of essential assistive tools such as straws and sippers for Parkinson’s patients.
Past Committees on Prison Reform:
- Mulla Committee (1983):
- Recommended improved prison infrastructure, special provisions for disabled inmates, and measures to reduce overcrowding.
- Suggested protection against abuse and better training for prison staff.
- Krishna Iyer Committee (1987): Focused on the welfare of women prisoners, recommending separate facilities, healthcare, and special provisions for pregnant inmates.
- Justice A.N. Mulla Committee (1993): Emphasized the need for humane treatment and rehabilitation, along with stricter measures against custodial torture.
- Justice Krishna Iyer Report (2000): Called for legal aid for undertrial prisoners and mandatory inspections to monitor prison conditions.
- Model Prison Manual (2016):
- Provided guidelines for standardized prison reforms, including healthcare, accessibility, and rehabilitation programs.
- Despite being issued by the Ministry of Home Affairs, many states have failed to adopt its recommendations.
PYQ:
[2016] Does the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 ensure effective mechanism for empowerment and inclusion of the intended beneficiaries in the society? Discuss. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ‘AI Kosha’ Platform
Why in the News?
The Union Government has launched AI Kosha, a platform dedicated to non-personal datasets, marking a major step in India’s AI research and development efforts.
What is AI Kosha?
- AI Kosha is a government-backed platform for non-personal datasets to support Artificial Intelligence (AI) R&D in India.
- It serves as a centralized repository of structured datasets aimed at training AI models, particularly for Indian languages.
- The platform is a key part of the IndiaAI Datasets Platform, one of the seven pillars of the ₹10,370 crore IndiaAI Mission, which aims to democratize AI access and innovation.
- At launch, it hosts 316 datasets, with a significant portion focused on language translation tools for Indian languages.
- The government has commissioned 14,000 GPUs for AI research, up from 10,000 earlier this year.
- More computing power will be added quarterly to support advanced AI research and training.
Key Features of AI Kosha:
- AI Kosha aims to support India’s first foundational AI model, similar to China’s DeepSeek.
- Works alongside the Open Governance Data Platform (data.gov.in), which already hosts 12,000 datasets from various government agencies.
- Focuses on Indian languages, ensuring regional language AI development.
- Includes health records, satellite imagery, Census 2011 data, meteorological and pollution data.
- Supports AI development with access to high-performance computing (HPC) resources.
- Equipped with secure API access, data encryption, and real-time filtering for data protection.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ongole Cows
Why in the News?
India’s indigenous cattle breed from Ongole is experiencing a sharp decline domestically, even as it has become one of the most prized and expensive cattle breeds in Brazil.
About Ongole Cows
- Ongole cattle, also known as Ongolu Gitta, are a native Indian breed originating from Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh.
- This Bos indicus breed is historically renowned for its strength, resilience, and disease resistance.
- It has been widely used for draught power, milk production, and breeding programs.
- The breed has gained global prominence, especially in Brazil, where it forms the foundation of several superior cattle breeds used for beef production.
- Though declining in India, they thrive in Brazil, where they form 80% of the cattle population and are used extensively for beef production.
- LAM Farm, Guntur, is using IVF and embryo transfer for preservation.
Distinct Features of Ongole Cattle:
- Heat & Disease Resistance: Naturally adapted to high temperatures and immune to foot-and-mouth and mad cow disease.
- Strength & Draught Power: Historically used for ploughing, transport, and bull races.
- A2 Milk Production: Produces high-quality A2 milk, fetching ₹150+ per litre in premium markets.
- Global Demand & Genetic Superiority: Exported to Brazil, USA, Argentina, and Australia. Used to develop breeds like Brahmana (USA) and Santa Gertrudis (USA).
- Efficient Feed Conversion: Survives on minimal fodder, ideal for drought-prone regions.
- High Fertility & Longevity: Strong reproductive lifespan, producing robust calves.
- Cultural & Historical Importance: Revered in Indian scriptures and associated with prosperity.
PYQ:
[2011] What is/are unique about ‘Kharai camel’, a breed found in India?
1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in seawater.
2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.
3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Successful PHTA Test of ISRO's Semi-Cryogenic Engine
Why in the News?
ISRO successfully conducted a hot test on the semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000), a key step towards finalizing the cryogenic stage for future launch vehicles. This Power Head Test Article (PHTA) is the first hardware test for semi-cryogenic engines.
About the SE2000 Engine
- The SE2000 engine is a semi-cryogenic rocket engine developed by ISRO to enhance propulsion for future heavy-lift launch vehicles.
- It is designed to power the booster stages of rockets, increasing payload capacity and efficiency.
- The engine operates on a Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Refined Kerosene (RP-1) combination, unlike traditional cryogenic engines that use LOX and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2).
- Key features of the SE2000 engine:
- Thrust capability: 2000 kN (kilonewtons), making it one of ISRO’s most powerful engines.
- Higher density impulse: Provides better efficiency than LOX-LH2 combinations.
- Cost-effective: Kerosene is cheaper and easier to handle than liquid hydrogen.
- Storage advantages: Kerosene can be stored at ambient temperatures, unlike liquid hydrogen, which requires -253°C for storage.
- The engine is expected to enhance the performance of LVM3 and will be used in ISRO’s Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV).
- Applications of the SE2000 engine:
- Heavy-lift launch missions with increased payload capacity.
- Future space exploration programs, including human spaceflight missions like Gaganyaan.
- Reusable launch vehicles, contributing to cost-effective and sustainable space travel.
What is the PHTA Test?
- The PHTA test is a crucial hardware test conducted as part of the SE2000 semi-cryogenic engine development process.
- It is designed to validate key engine subsystems before full-scale integration and testing.
- Purpose of the PHTA test:
- Ensure subsystems perform as expected under operational conditions.
- Evaluate pressure, temperature, thrust efficiency, and fuel combustion.
- Identify potential technical issues before moving to full engine testing.
- A previous attempt in July 2023 was aborted due to technical issues at ISRO’s Mahendragiri facility.
Back2Basics: Semi-Cryogenic vs. Cryogenic Engines
- A semi-cryogenic engine uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene as propellants, making it easier to handle and store than the cryogenic engine, which uses liquid hydrogen (LH2).
- Semi-cryogenic engines are less efficient but more cost-effective and practical for Earth-orbit missions.
- Cryogenic engines offer higher performance due to the higher specific impulse of liquid hydrogen but are more complex to store and manage.
- Semi-cryogenic engines strike a balance between cost, efficiency, and simplicity.
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PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch l vehicle with the first and third stages l using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 3 only |
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