Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has reserved its verdict on the definition of the Aravalli Hills and Ranges, a critical environmental issue impacting Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
About the Aravallis:
- Geology: The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, formed during the Proterozoic era.
- Spread: It stretches for about 692 km, from Gujarat to Delhi, passing through Rajasthan and Haryana.
- State-Wise Coverage: Around 80% of the range lies in Rajasthan, with the rest spread across Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat.
- Highest Peak: The tallest point is Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, with an elevation of 1,722 meters.
- Natural Barrier Function: Acts as a green wall, preventing the spread of the Thar Desert into eastern Rajasthan and the Gangetic plains.
- River Origins: Important rivers such as the Banas, Sahibi and Luni originate from the Aravallis.
- Minerals: Rich in minerals like copper, zinc, lead, and marble.
- Biodiversity: Home to 300+ bird species and key wildlife such as leopards, hyenas, jackals, wolves, civets, and Nilgai.
- Prehistoric Significance: Contains cave art and tools from the Lower Palaeolithic period.
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About the Aravalli Case: Quick Backgrounder
- Supreme Court Review: The Court is deciding on a uniform, legally enforceable definition of the Aravalli Hills and Ranges across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
- Case Origin: Stems from the long-running M.C. Mehta vs Union of India (2008) matter on illegal mining, encroachment, and ecological degradation in the Aravallis.
- Judgment: The Court held Aravalli lands to be forest areas under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, restricting non-forest activities.
- Existing Legal Protection: Notifications under the Punjab Land Preservation Act, 1900 were upheld for safeguarding ecologically sensitive land.
- Expert Committee (2024): SC directed MoEF&CC to set up a panel to develop a scientific definition for consistent protection across states.
Proposed Legal Definitions of Aravalli Hills and Ranges
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Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet approved the rationalisation of royalty rates for graphite, caesium, rubidium, and zirconium to strengthen India’s domestic mineral base and reduce import dependency.
About the New Royalty Rates:
- The Union Cabinet has approved revised ad valorem royalty rates (percentage of average sale price) for four key minerals- graphite, caesium, rubidium, and zirconium, under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.
- Graphite:
- 4% of ASP (average sale price) for graphite with <80% fixed carbon content.
- 2% of ASP for graphite with ≥80% fixed carbon content.
- Caesium and Rubidium: 2% of ASP based on metal content in the ore produced.
- Zirconium: 1% of ASP.
- Earlier, graphite alone was taxed on a per-tonne basis; now, all four follow a price-linked structure.
- The new rates aim to reduce import dependency, stimulate exploration, and encourage fair bidding in critical mineral block auctions.
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What is Royalty?
- Definition: It is a payment made by a mining company to the government, the sovereign owner of natural resources, for the right to extract and sell minerals.
- Legal Basis in India: The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) is the principal statute regulating mineral development, licensing, and royalty payments in India.
- Types of Royalty Systems:
- Unit-based (per tonne): Fixed payment per quantity extracted.
- Ad valorem: A fixed percentage of the sale value of the mineral (now used for most critical minerals).
- Profit-based: A share of net revenue or profits after deductions.
- Purpose: Ensures the state earns equitable returns from resource extraction while maintaining regulatory control and public ownership of mineral wealth.
Royalty Governance: Legal and Administrative Framework
- Authority:
- The Central Government, through the Ministry of Mines, determines and revises royalty rates.
- The Union Cabinet approves new rates; these are later notified by the Ministry.
- Legal Basis: The Second Schedule of the MMDR Act lists royalty rates for each mineral.
- Collection:
- Royalty is paid by leaseholders or miners to the state government under central law.
- Rates are periodically revised to align with market fluctuations and strategic priorities.
- Calculation Example: Royalty = IBM-published Sale Price × Royalty Rate (%) × Quantity Produced.
Default Royalty Rates in India:
- For minerals not listed separately in the Second Schedule, a default royalty rate of 12% of the average sale price (ASP) applies under the MMDR Act.
- However, for critical and strategic minerals, the government has rationalised rates downward (1–4%) to:
- Attract private investment in exploration.
- Ensure competitive auctions.
- Promote domestic production of minerals vital to EVs, semiconductors, and renewable energy.
- The shift from uniform high rates to graded, mineral-specific rates reflects a move toward a market-responsive and technology-driven resource policy.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member.
II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified.
III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only * (d) I, II and III |
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Why in the News?
A new German watch report, ‘Climate Risk Index 2026’, reveals worldwide extreme weather claimed over 8lakh lives between 1995-2024.
About the Climate Risk Index (CRI), 2026:
- Publisher: Released annually by Germanwatch to rank countries based on the real, observed human and economic impacts of extreme weather events.
- Focus: Measures actual climate impacts, not projections- making it a grounded vulnerability assessment.
- Data Sources: Uses EM-DAT disaster database along with World Bank and IMF datasets.
- Hazards Covered: Includes hydrological, meteorological, and climatological events.
- 6 Indicators under 3 metrics: Fatalities (absolute and per 100,000 population), number of people affected (absolute and relative), economic losses in US$ (absolute and relative).
- Objective: Highlights climate vulnerability, informs adaptation priorities, and supports global climate finance and policy debates.
India’s Position in CRI 2026:
- Long-term Rank: 9th most affected globally (1995–2024).
- Annual Rank 2024: 15th, showing continued high exposure.
- Event Frequency: Faced ~430 extreme weather events in three decades.
- Impact: Over 80,000 deaths, 1.3 billion people affected, and USD 170 billion in economic losses.
- Risk Profile: Classified as a “continuous threat” country due to repeated floods, cyclones, and heatwaves.
- Global Negotiations: Bolsters India’s demand for Loss & Damage finance under UNFCCC processes.
Global Findings: CRI 2026
- Coverage: Assesses trends for 1995–2024 plus a separate deep-dive for 2024.
- Overall Impact: More than 832,000 deaths and USD 4.5 trillion in losses from over 9,700 extreme events since 1995.
- Event Trends:
- Heatwaves and storms caused the highest deaths.
- Floods affected the most people.
- Storms led to the largest economic losses.
- Worst-affected (1995–2024): Dominica, Myanmar, Honduras.
- Worst-affected in 2024: St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Grenada, Chad.
- Pattern: Disproportionate burden on Global South, especially SIDS and low-income countries.
- Risk Types Identified:
- States hit by one major catastrophic event.
- States facing multiple recurring shocks without recovery time.
- Takeaway: Underscores urgent need for adaptation, resilience, and Loss & Damage mechanisms.
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Why in the News?
As Bihar Assembly Election 2025 concludes, media houses released the exit poll results after 6:30 pm, following Election Commission of India (ECI) restrictions.
What are Exit Polls?
- Overview: Exit polls are post-voting surveys conducted immediately after voters leave polling stations to find out how they voted and what influenced their choice.
- Objective: To give an early indication of election outcomes and study voter behaviour, issues, and demographics before official results.
- Origin in India: First conducted in 1957 by the Indian Institute of Public Opinion during the 2nd Lok Sabha elections.
- Methodology: Randomly selected voters are interviewed anonymously after casting their vote; responses are aggregated and analysed statistically to predict seat shares and trends.
How are Exit Polls conducted?
- Sampling: Based on random or stratified sampling to reflect gender, caste, religion, and regional representation.
- Questionnaires: Ask voters which party or candidate they chose and gather demographic or opinion data.
- Data Collection: Conducted by trained field agents under strict non-interference rules at polling stations.
- Data Analysis: Responses are weighted and adjusted for turnout and demographics before generating projections.
- Confidentiality: All answers remain anonymous to preserve voting secrecy.
Regulation of Exit Polls:
- Constitutional Basis: Governed by Article 324, empowering the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure free and fair elections.
- Statutory Law: Section 126A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 bans conducting or publishing exit polls from start of the first phase till 30 minutes after last phase ends.
- Penalties: Violation may lead to two years imprisonment, a fine, or both.
- Media Rules: Must disclose sample size, method, and margin of error when publishing results.
- Registration: Polling agencies must be registered with the ECI and follow official publication guidelines.
Recent Amendments and Practices:
- Monitoring: The ECI now closely monitors media and digital platforms to prevent early leaks of exit poll data.
- Digital Coverage: Restrictions apply to social media and online news during multi-phase elections.
- Publication Control: No state-wise or partial results can be released until polling ends nationwide.
- Transparency: Media houses must submit methodology and get ECI clearance before publishing exit poll results.
- Purpose: To prevent misinformation and voter influence during ongoing polling.
Back2Basics: Difference Between Exit Polls and Opinion Polls
- Timing: Exit polls are done after voting; opinion polls before voting.
- Purpose: Opinion polls measure intentions; exit polls reflect actual behaviour.
- Respondents: Opinion polls survey likely voters; exit polls survey actual voters.
- Influence: Opinion polls can affect undecided voters; exit polls occur after voting, posing no influence risk.
- Accuracy: Exit polls are generally more accurate as they are based on real votes.
- Regulation: Opinion polls are advisory-guided; exit polls are strictly regulated under Section 126A of the RPA, 1951.
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Why in the News?
A recently launched book claims that the Indian National Army (INA) was not founded by Subhas Chandra Bose or Captain Mohan Singh.
New Claims and the Caveats:
- Author’s Proposition:
- The INA was not originally founded by Subhas Chandra Bose, but by Japanese Army Intelligence in collaboration with Indian nationalists abroad before his arrival.
- A pre-war agreement between Major Fujiwara Iwaichi (Japan) and Giani Pritam Singh (Bangkok, 1941) laid the INA’s groundwork, India’s liberation in exchange for aid to Japan’s campaign.
- Captain Mohan Singh, not Bose, served as first commander, but his role was later overshadowed.
- Bose took over in 1943, providing global visibility, structure, and leadership to the existing army.
- Caution for students:
- INA’s history is already complex and contested; this new interpretation adds another layer but does not necessarily overturn all accepted facts (e.g., Bose’s later leadership as per our standard references, the INA’s role in Indian nationalist memory).
- Some aspects (e.g., precise agreements between Japanese intelligence and Indian nationalists) may remain debated or partially documented.
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About the Indian National Army (INA):
- Origins: Formed during World War II to fight British rule, the INA emerged from collaboration between Japanese intelligence and Indian nationalists before Subhas Chandra Bose took command.
- Initial Formation: Conceived in a 1938 Tokyo meeting between Rash Behari Bose; using Indian POWs in Southeast Asia to aid Japan’s war and India’s liberation.
- Early Leadership: Captain Mohan Singh of the 14 Punjab Regiment became its first commander, recruiting about 40,000 POWs with Japanese support. Internal disputes led to his removal, after which Rash Behari Bose sustained the movement via the Indian Independence League (Tokyo, 1942).
- Rise of Subhas Chandra Bose: Bose escaped British custody in 1941, travelled through Berlin and Japan, and reached Singapore in July 1943, where Rash Behari Bose handed him INA leadership.
- Reorganization Under Netaji: On August 25, 1943, Bose became Supreme Commander and established the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) on October 21, 1943, recognized by nine countries including Japan and Germany. Under the “Chalo Delhi” campaign, INA forces entered Manipur, raising their flag at Moirang, but progress halted after Japan’s 1945 defeat.
- Collapse and Trials: Following Japan’s surrender (August 15, 1945), the INA disbanded. Bose reportedly died in a plane crash (August 18, 1945). Captured INA officers were tried at the Red Fort (1945–46), the Sehgal–Dhillon–Khan trial became a symbol of unity, with Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, and Asaf Ali defending them.
Nationalist Uprisings and Impact:
- Symbol of Unity: The INA represented armed nationalism and secular unity, transcending caste, region, and religion; the slogan “Jai Hind” became a national salute.
- Mass Protests: The INA trials sparked nationwide agitation, uniting students, soldiers, and civilians in solidarity.
- Key Confrontations:
- Nov 21, 1945 – Calcutta police firing on INA protestors.
- Feb 11, 1946 – Demonstrations against Rashid Ali’s sentencing.
- Feb 18, 1946 – Royal Indian Navy (RIN) mutiny, with 20,000 sailors revolting in Bombay.
- Impact on British Rule: The INA’s defiance shattered British confidence in Indian troops’ loyalty. Even Clement Attlee (1956) admitted the INA and postwar unrest accelerated British withdrawal.
- Legacy: Unified militant and mass politics; inspired future Indian defense ethos; remains a symbol of courage and secular nationalism under Netaji’s leadership.
| [UPSC 2021] In the context of Colonial India, Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sehgal, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon are remembered as officers of the Indian National Army.
Options: (a) Leaders of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement
(b) Members of the Interim Government in 1946
(c) Members of the Drafting Committee in the Constituent Assembly
(d) Officers of the Indian National Army* |
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Why in the News?
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.
What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?
- About: Proposed by Peter Ward (palaeontologist) and Donald Brownlee (astronomer) in 2000, it suggests that simple life (like microbes) may be common, but complex life (like plants and animals) is extremely rare in the universe.
- Core Idea: Earth supports advanced life because of a unique mix of conditions such as a stable orbit, a protective magnetic field, active plate tectonics, and giant planets like Jupiter that shield it from asteroids.
- Meaning: The Earth is not an ordinary planet; it is a special case where everything aligned perfectly to allow complex life to evolve.
How does it differ from other Theories?
- Drake Equation / Mediocrity Principle: Say that life should be common since there are billions of stars; the Rare Earth Hypothesis says complex life is rare even if basic life is not.
- Fermi Paradox: Asks “Where is everybody?” The Rare Earth answer is that complex intelligent life is rare, so we don’t see others.
- Copernican Principle: Claims Earth is ordinary; the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues Earth is extraordinary and rare in its conditions.
Evidence supporting the Hypothesis:
- Exoplanet Studies (Kepler Mission): Thousands of Earth-sized planets found, but few have stable climates or protective atmospheres like Earth.
- M-dwarf Planets: Many orbit small stars and lose their atmospheres due to strong radiation.
- No Alien Signals: Breakthrough Listen and other searches found no technosignatures from intelligent civilizations.
- Earth’s Uniqueness: Plate tectonics and a carbon cycle help Earth keep a stable climate for billions of years; such conditions have not yet been found elsewhere.
Scientific Outlook and Future Research:
- Current View: Microbial life might exist on many planets, but stable, complex ecosystems like Earth’s are probably rare.
- Ongoing Studies:
- James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) searches for gases like oxygen, methane, and water on distant planets.
- Planetary models test if other worlds have tectonics or internal heat for climate balance.
- Technosignature surveys continue for traces of intelligent life.
- Future Missions: Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) and Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) will study exoplanet atmospheres more closely.
- Significance: The Rare Earth Hypothesis remains plausible but unproven, showing that life may be widespread, but Earth-like complexity could be one of the universe’s rarest achievements.
| [UPSC 2018] Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolution of organisms?
1. Continental drift
2. Glacial cycles
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Union Ministry of Power has inaugurated India’s largest and first MWh-scale Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB) of 3 MWh capacity at NETRA, NTPC’s R&D Centre in Greater Noida.
About the Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB):
- Overview: A rechargeable flow battery that stores energy in liquid electrolytes containing vanadium ions in different oxidation states.
- Core Principle: Uses the same element vanadium for both electrolytes, preventing cross-contamination and extending operational life.
- Working Mechanism: Energy is stored through oxidation and reduction reactions of vanadium ions, where electrons are exchanged between two electrolyte tanks.
- Cell Design: Electrolytes circulate through a cell stack separated by an ion-selective membrane that enables ion movement while stopping mixing.
- Scalability: Energy capacity depends on electrolyte volume, while power output depends on cell stack size, allowing flexible scaling.
- Application Focus: Ideal for stationary, grid-scale energy storage, renewable energy integration, and backup power systems.
Benefits over Conventional Batteries:
- Independent Scalability: Energy and power can be scaled separately, perfect for large utility storage and renewable grids.
- Extended Lifespan: Can endure thousands of cycles since vanadium electrolytes don’t degrade or mix.
- Full Discharge Safety: Can be fully discharged (100%) without damaging capacity, unlike lithium-ion batteries.
- High Safety Level: Uses non-flammable, water-based electrolytes, eliminating risk of fire or explosion.
- Eco-Friendly: Recyclable and non-toxic electrolytes reduce environmental impact and support circular use.
- Long-Duration Storage: Provides 6–10+ hours of continuous energy, ideal for stabilizing solar and wind supply.
- Low Maintenance: Fewer mechanical parts and no thermal runaway risk ensure long-term durability.
- Fast Response: Reacts quickly to grid fluctuations, improving power quality and reliability.
Limitations:
- High Initial Cost: Requires expensive vanadium electrolyte and specialized components, leading to higher upfront installation costs than lithium-ion systems.
- Low Energy Density: Stores less energy per unit volume, making it unsuitable for mobile or space-constrained applications like electric vehicles.
- Complex Infrastructure: Needs large storage tanks, pumps, and control systems, which increase operational complexity and land requirements.
| [UPSC 2025] In the context of electric vehicle batteries, consider the following elements:
I. Cobalt II. Graphite III. Lithium IV. Nickel
How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three* (d) All the four |
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Why in the News?
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), in collaboration with the United Nations, has introduced the Integrity Matters Checklist to help companies and investors align their climate disclosures with the UN’s net-zero integrity standards.
About the Integrity Matters Checklist:
- Overview: Created by the GRI in collaboration with the United Nations.
- Purpose: Helps companies and investors align their climate disclosures with the UN’s integrity standards for net-zero commitments.
- Origin: Based on the UN High-Level Expert Group (HLEG) recommendations outlined in the Integrity Matters Report, first released at COP27 (2022) and updated in 2025.
- Framework Integration: Aligns with the GRI 102: Climate Change 2025 Standard, providing a unified structure for sustainability and climate reporting.
- Key Focus Areas: Guides disclosure of climate targets, transition plans, greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction pathways, and just transition principles.
- Operational Aim: Strengthens corporate accountability and ensures commitments are science-based, transparent, and verifiable.
- Endorsements: Supported by the UN Global Compact and the UN Climate Change Secretariat, affirming its role in implementing credible climate governance.
Key Features:
- Science-Based Targets: Encourages reporting consistent with Paris Agreement-aligned decarbonisation pathways.
- Fossil Fuel Phase-Out: Calls for transparent reporting on divestment from fossil fuels and investment in renewables.
- Just Transition Integration: Embeds social inclusion, equity, and worker protection in corporate climate strategies.
- Investor-Ready Information: Produces comparable, decision-useful data for financial institutions and regulators.
- Full GRI Compatibility: Seamlessly integrates with existing GRI standards to avoid duplication in ESG reporting.
- Global Relevance: Applicable to all sectors and geographies, with focus on pre-COP30 adoption and accountability.
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Why in the News?
Scientists discovered a new type of magnetism called altermagnetism, confirmed in 2024, which combines features of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.
What is Altermagnetism?
- Overview: A new form of magnetism discovered in 2019 and proven experimentally in 2024; combines traits of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.
- Mechanism: Atoms have opposite (antiparallel) spins like in antiferromagnets, but their alignment follows mirror or rotational symmetry, not simple alternation.
- Magnetic Effect: Although it has no external magnetic field, the electrons show different energy levels for spin-up and spin-down states.
- Discovery: First observed in manganese telluride (MnTe) through photoemission and X-ray imaging techniques.
- Scientific Relevance: Introduces a magnetically neutral but electronically active material class useful for next-generation electronics.
Distinctive Properties:
- Zero External Magnetism: Produces no external field but shows strong internal spin asymmetry.
- Spin-Polarised Currents: Can carry magnetic-like electric currents without stray fields.
- Ultrafast Response: Works at terahertz (THz) frequencies, about 1000× faster than conventional magnetic devices.
- Stable Performance: Maintains stable magnetic order even under changing conditions.
- Crystal-Based Symmetry: Magnetism arises from atomic structure, not external alignment.
How does it differ from other Magnetisms?
- Ferromagnetism: All spins align in the same direction, creating a strong external magnetic field.
- Antiferromagnetism: Spins align in opposite directions, fully cancelling magnetism with equal spin energy.
- Altermagnetism: Spins align oppositely but mirror-linked, giving energy difference between spins, no net field, yet internal magnetic effects.
Applications:
- Spintronics: Enables compact, energy-efficient data storage and logic devices.
- Quantum Computing: Provides magnetically quiet materials for stable qubit performance.
- High-Speed Electronics: Supports ultrafast processors operating at terahertz levels.
- Advanced Sensors: Useful for precise, low-noise magnetic detection.
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Why in the News?
Scientists at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), in collaboration with NASA, have made the first spectroscopic observations of a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) in the visible wavelength range, using the Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) aboard Aditya-L1.
About Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC):
- Overview: The VELC is the primary scientific payload onboard Aditya-L1, India’s first solar observatory mission.
- Developer: Designed and built by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) at its CREST campus, Hosakote (Karnataka).
- Function: It is an internally occulted coronagraph capable of imaging, spectroscopy, and spectro-polarimetry of the solar corona, the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere.
- Objective: To study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), solar wind acceleration, coronal temperature, plasma velocity, and magnetic field dynamics close to the solar limb.
- Capabilities:
- Observes the corona as close as 1.05 solar radii from the Sun’s surface.
- Equipped with a spectrograph, polarimeter, and detectors for high-resolution data.
- Enables continuous 24-hour solar observation from Lagrange Point L1.
- Significance: Provides first-ever spectroscopic data of CMEs near the Sun, enhancing understanding of space weather and solar activity.
- Key Findings:
- Electron Density: ~370 million electrons per cubic centimetre within the CME, several times higher than the ambient solar corona (10–100 million/cm³).
- Energy: ~9.4 × 10²¹ joules- nearly 100 trillion times the energy released by the Hiroshima bomb.
- Mass: ~270 million tonnes- about 180 times the mass of the iceberg that sank the Titanic.
Back2Basics: Aditya-L1 Mission
- Overview: India’s first space-based solar mission, developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
- Launch & Position: Launched in 2023; placed at the Lagrange Point 1 (L1), approximately 1.5 million km from Earth, providing an uninterrupted view of the Sun.
- Purpose: To study the Sun’s outer atmosphere (corona), solar radiation, magnetic storms, and space weather phenomena.
- Key Objectives:
- Understand the dynamics of solar corona and solar wind.
- Study solar flares, CMEs, and their impact on Earth’s magnetosphere.
- Monitor space weather to protect satellites and communication systems.
- Scientific Payloads (7 instruments):
-
- VELC – Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (solar corona imaging).
- SUIT – Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope.
- SoLEXS – Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer.
- HEL1OS – High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer.
- ASPEX – Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment.
- PAPA – Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya.
- Magnetometer – Measures magnetic fields at L1.
- Significance:
- First Indian mission to continuously observe the Sun.
- Strengthens India’s position in global heliophysics research.
- Provides early warnings for geomagnetic storms affecting satellites and power grids.
| [UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth ?
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only* (d) 2, 5 and 6 only |
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Why in the News?
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has prohibited tourist entry to the Nata Mandap (Hall of Dance) at the Sun Temple, Konark, citing safety concerns.
About the Konark Sun Temple:
- It is located approximately 64 km from Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
- It was built in the 13th century (around 1250 CE) during the reign of King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
- It is dedicated to Surya, the Sun God.
- It is designed as a massive chariot drawn by 7 horses with 24 intricately carved wheels.
- It was constructed from Khondalite stone, known for its durability and intricate carvings.
- The structure originally included a sanctum (deul) and an assembly hall (jagamohan) that have largely collapsed.
Historical Significance:
- The Konark Wheel, featured on Indian currency (old ₹20 and new ₹10 notes), symbolizes Odisha’s rich cultural heritage and national identity.
- It reflects 13th-century advancements in timekeeping and astronomy through its sundial functionality.
- It embodies the cycle of life and serves as a testament to the worship of Surya, the Sun God.
- It is a key example of the Kalinga architectural style, highlighting the Eastern Ganga Dynasty’s achievements.
Architectural Significance:
- Design: Represents a chariot of the Sun God, drawn by 7 horses, with 24 intricately carved wheels.
- Wheel Details:
- Diameter: 9 feet 9 inches.
- Spokes: 8 wide and 8 thin, symbolising prahars (three-hour periods).
- Symbolism:
- 7 horses: 7 days of the week.
- 12 pairs of wheels: 12 months.
- 24 wheels: 24 hours in a day.
- Sundial Functionality: Two wheels act as sundials, showing time from sunrise to sunset using the axel’s shadow.
- Carvings: Features intricate designs of foliage, animals, and human figures, showcasing exceptional craftsmanship.
[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Chausath Yogini Temple situated near Morena, consider the following statements:
1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of the Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the region.
4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament building.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 4* (d) 2, 3, and 4 |
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Why in the News?
China has rejected President Trump’s claim of secret nuclear tests, reaffirming its commitment to the CTBT amid renewed U.S. calls for nuclear testing and revived Cold War–style tensions.
About Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO):
- Establishment: Formed in 1996 under the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) to build and operate a verification regime ensuring compliance with the global ban on nuclear explosions.
- Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
- Mandate: To monitor adherence to the CTBT through a global verification system capable of detecting any nuclear test anywhere in the world.
- Verification System: Operates the International Monitoring System (IMS) with 337 facilities, including seismic, hydroacoustic, infrasound, and radionuclide stations to detect underground, underwater, or atmospheric nuclear tests.
- Data Centre: The International Data Centre (IDC) analyses and distributes real-time data to member states, providing early warning of suspicious activities.
- Preparatory Commission: Functions until the CTBT formally enters into force, maintaining operational readiness and supporting states’ verification capabilities.
- Scientific Applications: The IMS also contributes to tsunami warning systems, atmospheric research, and disaster response, reinforcing the CTBTO’s global utility beyond disarmament.
Back2Basics: How are CTBT and NPT related?
- Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) are closely linked pillars of the global nuclear arms control regime:
-
- Shared Goal: Both aim to prevent nuclear proliferation and promote disarmament.
- Scope Difference: The NPT focuses on stopping the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting peaceful nuclear use; the CTBT bans all nuclear explosions for any purpose.
- Chronological Link: The NPT (1970) came first, creating the legal framework for non-proliferation; the CTBT (1996) built on it by prohibiting testing, reinforcing the NPT’s disarmament pillar.
- Verification and Compliance: The CTBT adds technical verification through the International Monitoring System, complementing NPT’s safeguards under the IAEA.
- Disarmament Pathway: Ratification of the CTBT is often viewed as a key step toward fulfilling Article VI of the NPT, which obliges nuclear powers to pursue disarmament.
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Status of the Treaty and Ratification Gap:
- Adoption: It was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1996 and opened for signature on September 24, 1996.
- Membership: As of 2025, 187 states have signed and 178 have ratified the treaty.
- Enforcement: It will become legally binding only after 44 specific “Annex 2” states, those with nuclear technology at the time ratify it.
- Pending Ratifications: Eight critical states have not ratified the treaty- China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and the United States (signatories but unratified), and India, Pakistan, and North Korea (non-signatories).
- Recent Setback: In 2023, Russia revoked its ratification, though it continues to observe a testing moratorium, weakening the treaty’s political momentum.
- Global Compliance: Despite legal limbo, a de facto moratorium on nuclear testing has largely held since the 1990s; only North Korea has violated it with tests since 2006.
- Significance: The CTBT remains a cornerstone of the global non-proliferation regime, its verification network providing both deterrence and transparency even without formal legal enforcement.
| [UPSC 2015] Consider the following countries:
1. China 2. France 3. India 4. Israel 5. Pakistan
Which among the above are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)?
(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The Winter Session of Parliament will be held from December 1 to 19, 2025.
About Parliamentary Sessions:
- Parliamentary Sessions are formal periods when the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha meet to legislate, deliberate, and hold the government accountable.
- Each session has several sittings for debates, questions, and lawmaking. Under Article 85(1), the President must summon both Houses so that not more than six months elapse between two sessions.
- Types of Sessions:
-
- Budget Session (Feb–Mar): Begins with the President’s Address; includes Union Budget presentation and debate.
- Monsoon Session (Jul–Aug): Focuses on legislative work and national issues.
- Winter Session (Nov–Dec): Reviews policies, finalises pending legislation.
- Special Session: Called for urgent or commemorative matters (e.g., emergencies or milestones).
Key Terms Related to Sessions:
- Summoning (Art. 85(1)): President summons Parliament on Cabinet Committee advice; at least two sessions yearly, with ≤ six-month gap.
- Adjournment: Temporary suspension of a sitting; business resumes when House reassembles.
- Adjournment Sine Die: Ends a sitting without fixing a date for the next meeting; followed by presidential prorogation.
- Prorogation (Art. 85(2)(a)): Formal end of a session by the President; pending bills do not lapse.
- Dissolution (Art. 85(2)(b)): Ends the Lok Sabha’s tenure; triggers new elections; pending bills in Lok Sabha lapse.
- Recess: Period between the prorogation of one session and the start of the next.
- Lame Duck Session: Last session of an outgoing Lok Sabha before the new one forms.
- Quorum (Art. 100): Minimum attendance for business—55 in Lok Sabha, 25 in Rajya Sabha.
- Voting (Art. 100):
- Voice Vote: Members respond “Aye”/“No.”
- Division Vote: Contested results recorded electronically.
- Casting Vote: Presiding officer’s tie-breaking vote.
| [UPSC 2024] With reference to the Parliament of India, consider the following statements:
1. Prorogation of a House by the President of India does not require the advice of the Council of Ministers.
2. Prorogation of a House is generally done after the House is adjourned sine die, but there is no bar to the President of India proroguing the House which is in session.
3. Dissolution of the Lok Sabha is done by the President of India who, save in exceptional circumstances, does so on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3* (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
At the Leaders’ Summit in Belem, Brazil, preceding the COP30, India has announced its decision to join the Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) as an Observer.
About Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF):
- What is it: A global blended-finance mechanism rewarding Tropical Forest Countries (TFCs) for conserving intact forests through annual conservation-linked payments.
- Payment Design: Provides $4 per hectare annually for protected forest area, with deductions for deforestation or ecosystem degradation verified via satellite data.
- Institutional Setup: Managed by a TFFF Secretariat (policy and oversight) and a Tropical Forest Investment Fund (TFIF) (financial operations and investment management).
- Investment Model: The TFIF channels sponsor contributions into sovereign, corporate, green, and blue bonds, explicitly excluding fossil fuel industries.
- Community Allocation: 20% of total payments earmarked for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs) to support sustainable livelihoods and rights-based forest governance.
- Monitoring Mechanism: Conservation outcomes tracked via satellite and third-party verification systems ensuring full transparency and performance-based accountability.
- Financial Sustainability: Operates as a budget-neutral model, where investment returns fund long-term conservation payments rather than temporary grants.
- Initial Pledges: Founding commitments include Brazil ($1 bn), Indonesia ($1 bn), Norway ($3 bn over 10 years), Colombia ($250 mn), Netherlands ($5 mn), Portugal (€1 mn); France, China, and UAE have expressed political support.
Relation to REDD+ Framework:
- REDD+ Genesis: Launched in 2008 under the UNFCCC, REDD+ stands for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Plus, providing result-based payments for verified emission reductions.
- Core Difference: While REDD+ rewards verified carbon reductions, TFFF offers annual standing forest payments, maintaining steady conservation incentives.
- Approach: REDD+ focuses on carbon metrics and offset markets, whereas TFFF bypasses carbon dependency, offering investment-backed, non-offset finance.
- Objectives Alignment: Both aim to promote sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, and enhanced carbon stock in developing nations.
- Institutional Partners: REDD+ is jointly administered by FAO, UNDP, UNEP, and implemented in 65+ countries; TFFF aligns with these frameworks through transparency and inclusivity principles.
- Added Value: TFFF strengthens long-term financial resilience of conservation efforts by combining public and private investments with community-centric benefit-sharing.
India’s Role and Climate Record:
- Emission Reduction Record: From 2005–2020, India cut emission intensity by 36%, achieving 50% non-fossil installed power capacity ahead of 2030 goals.
- Carbon Sink Achievement: Between 2005–2021, India added 2.29 billion tonnes CO₂ equivalent through expanded forest and tree cover.
- NDC Commitments: India’s updated Nationally Determined Contribution (to 2035) targets deeper emission cuts and enhanced carbon sink creation.
- Strategic Importance: Strengthens South–South cooperation and India’s advocacy for equitable climate responsibility within global negotiations.
| [UPSC 2025] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?
(a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB)*
(b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)
(c) The New Development Bank (NDB)
(d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) |
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Why in the News?
The sacred Piprahwa relics of Lord Buddha have reached Thimphu, Bhutan, as a goodwill gift from India for the Global Peace Prayer Festival (GPPF).
About the Piprahwa Relics:
- Discovery: Unearthed in 1898 by William Claxton Peppe, a British engineer, at Piprahwa (Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh), near the Nepal border.
- Historical Significance: Identified as ancient Kapilavastu, capital of the Shakya republic, where Prince Siddhartha (Buddha) lived before renunciation.
- Findings at the Site: A buried stupa yielded a large stone coffer containing:
- Bone fragments believed to be Buddha’s relics
- Caskets made of soapstone and crystal
- A sandstone coffer
- Over 1,800 ornaments: pearls, rubies, sapphires, gold sheets
- Legal Custody:
- The British Crown claimed the relics under the Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878.
- Most artifacts were transferred to the Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Stupas with Buddha’s Relics:
- After the Buddha’s death (Mahaparinirvana), his cremated relics were divided among 8 kingdoms and a Brahmin named Drona, who coordinated their distribution.
- Each recipient built a Stupa to enshrine their share of the relics, creating important pilgrimage sites and early centers of Buddhist worship.
- The 9 stupas were in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar, and Pippalivana.
- Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) redistributed the relics from these stupas into thousands of new stupas across his empire.
- The stupa at Ramagrama is unique because it is believed to remain untouched and still holds the original relics.
- A typical early Buddhist stupa included a hemispherical mound (anda), a square railing (harmika), a central pillar (yashti) with umbrellas (chatra), and a path for circumambulation (pradakshinapatha).
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:
1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None |
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Why in the News?
A recent report by the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) revealed that over half of registered unrecognised political parties (RUPPs) linked to Bihar have failed to comply with mandatory financial disclosure norms for FY 2023–24.
Key Findings of ADR Report:
- Non-Compliance: Over 59% of registered unrecognised political parties (RUPPs) linked to Bihar failed to file either their audit reports or donation statements for FY 2023–24, violating Election Commission of India (ECI) norms.
- Scope: Of 275 RUPPs reviewed, 184 were from Bihar and 91 from other states. Only 67 parties (24.36%) disclosed both audit and contribution reports.
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Political Funding in India:
- Overview: Political funding refers to financial resources raised by political parties or candidates to sustain organisational operations and election campaigns.
- Purpose: Ensures participation in democratic processes, electoral competitiveness, and mass outreach.
- Sources of Funding:
- Individuals: Citizens contribute voluntarily; deductions under Section 80GGB (Income Tax Act).
- Corporates: Donations governed by Section 182 (Companies Act, 2013).
- State Support: Indirect subsidies (media access, tax exemption) allowed; direct funding prohibited.
- Electoral Trusts (2013): Channel corporate contributions transparently.
- Electoral Bonds (2018): Introduced donor anonymity; struck down by Supreme Court (2024) for violating transparency and citizens’ right to information.
Legal Framework for Political Funding:
- Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RPA): Governs election conduct, contributions, and maintenance of accounts.
- Income Tax Act, 1961:
- Section 13A: Exempts tax only for parties maintaining audited accounts and disclosing donations.
- Section 80GGB/GGC: Offers tax benefits to individual and corporate donors.
- Companies Act, 2013:
- Section 182: Limits corporate donations to 7.5% of average net profits of the last three years.
- Mandates annual disclosure of political contributions.
- Election Commission Guidelines: Mandate submission of audited accounts and contribution reports above ₹20,000.
Mechanisms Governing Political Funding Disclosure:
- Disclosure Requirements:
- Under Section 29C (RPA, 1951): Political parties must disclose donations above ₹20,000 to the ECI annually.
- Under Sections 77–78 (RPA, 1951): Candidates must submit true election expenditure accounts within 90 days (Lok Sabha) or 75 days (Assembly).
- Violations invite disqualification up to three years (Section 10A).
- Transparency Gaps:
- Over 60% of party income from “unknown sources”, mainly due to inadequate enforcement and loopholes.
- Frequent delays, incomplete disclosures, and absence of independent audits persist.
- Judicial Oversight:
- Supreme Court judgments (e.g., PUCL v. Union, 2003) and 2024 ruling on Electoral Bonds strengthened citizens’ right to know funding sources.
- Reform Recommendations:
- Bring political parties under the Right to Information (RTI) Act.
- Lower disclosure threshold from ₹20,000 to ₹2,000.
- Establish National Election Fund for equitable, state-audited funding.
- Ensure real-time digital reporting and independent third-party audits.
| [UPSC 2021] Which one of the following effects of the creation of black money in India has been the main cause of worry to the Government of India?
Options: (a) Diversion of resources to the purchase of real estate and investment in luxury housing
(b) Investment in unproductive activities and purchase of precious stones, jewelry, gold, etc.
(c) Large donations to political parties and the growth of regionalism
(d) Loss of revenue to the State Exchequer due to tax evasion* |
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Why in the News?
In 2025, Bangladesh became the first South Asian nation to join the UN Water Convention (Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes).
About UN Water Convention:
- Overview: Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, adopted in Helsinki (1992) and enforced in 1996 under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).
- Globalisation: Originally regional (Europe, Central Asia); opened to all UN Member States in 2016 after a 2013 amendment, becoming a global treaty for transboundary water governance.
- Objective: Promotes sustainable management of shared water resources and conflict prevention through cooperative mechanisms.
- Key Goals: Implements SDG-6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG-16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) via equitable water sharing and joint management.
- Obligations for Parties:
- Prevent and reduce transboundary pollution and unsustainable extraction.
- Use shared waters equitably and reasonably.
- Coordinate national and transboundary water management policies.
- Establish joint bodies or commissions for shared basins.
- Institutional Mechanism: Managed by the UNECE Secretariat, which organises meetings, facilitates implementation, and promotes basin-level cooperation among signatories.
- Legal Character: Functions as a framework convention, complementing rather than replacing bilateral treaties (e.g., Indus Waters Treaty, Ganga Treaty).
- Significance: Serves as a legal and institutional mechanism for Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), regional peacebuilding, and climate-resilient governance.
- Related Instruments: Inspired the UN Watercourses Convention (1997); both operate in complementary scopes within international water law.
Why did Bangladesh join (2025):
- First in South Asia: Became the first South Asian nation to ratify the Convention amid escalating water stress and climate vulnerability.
- Hydrological Dependence: Over 90% of river inflows come from outside Bangladesh, mainly India and China, making Dhaka highly vulnerable to upstream interventions.
- Upstream Projects: Concerns over China’s Motuo Hydropower Project (Yarlung Tsangpo/Brahmaputra) and India’s unresolved Teesta water-sharing dispute drove the decision.
- Environmental Risks: 60% of population exposed to floods; half live in drought-prone areas, heightening need for cooperative governance.
- Legal Context: Bangladesh’s 2019 High Court ruling granting rivers legal personhood reinforced its institutional focus on water rights.
- Strategic Motivation: Seeks global legal recourse, access to data-sharing mechanisms, and international funding for climate adaptation and water security.
Implications for India:
- Shift from Bilateralism: India prefers bilateral river treaties (e.g., Indus, Ganga). Bangladesh’s multilateral engagement introduces scope for third-party mediation, contrary to India’s stance.
- Ganga Treaty Renewal (2026): Bangladesh may invoke “equitable utilisation” to seek a higher share of Ganga waters under Convention norms.
- Teesta River Pressure: The stalled Teesta agreement could face renewed international pressure, citing fairness and sustainability principles.
- Regional Domino Effect: Likely to motivate Nepal and Bhutan to join, potentially transforming South Asia’s hydro-diplomatic architecture.
- Strategic Concerns: Bangladesh’s simultaneous trilateral cooperation with China and Pakistan raises apprehensions of a Beijing-influenced hydro-bloc.
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has ordered all States and Union Territories to remove stray dogs from public areas and relocate them to shelters after sterilisation and vaccination under the Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
About Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program:
- Purpose: Humane, scientifically proven method to control stray dog populations and reduce rabies.
- Legal Basis: First under Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2001 (under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960); updated as Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
- Development: Created with support from the World Health Organization (WHO).
- Core Method: “Catch–sterilise–vaccinate–release” model; prohibits relocation or culling.
- Implementation: Managed by municipalities, municipal corporations, and panchayats.
- Authorisation: Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct programs.
- Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023:
- Implemented to comply with Supreme Court guidelines in Writ Petition No. 691 of 2009.
- Assigns responsibility to local bodies (municipalities, corporations, panchayats) to conduct ABC programs for sterilisation and immunisation of stray dogs.
- Prohibits relocation of stray dogs as a means of population control; instead, they must be sterilised and returned to the same area.
- Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct ABC programs.
Key Features:
- Sterilisation Target: Minimum 70% of stray dogs in an area within one reproductive cycle (~6 months).
- Focus: Female sterilisation at a 70:30 female-to-male ratio.
- Rabies Control: Mandatory rabies vaccination (ABC–ARV) for every sterilised dog.
- Infrastructure: Kennels, veterinary facilities, vehicles, and hygienic shelters required.
- Recordkeeping: Detailed records for catching, surgery, vaccination, and release.
- Monitoring: State and local committees ensure compliance and handle complaints.
- Legal Protection: Mass relocation or killing prohibited under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960.
| [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
1. Every individual in the population is equally susceptible host for Swine Flu.
2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu
3.To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Comptroller and Auditor General of India approved two new Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IA&AD) cadres, the Central Revenue Audit and Central Expenditure Audit, effective from 1 January 2026.
About the New Cadres:
- Objective: Designed to build deeper professional expertise in auditing Central receipts and expenditures, streamline manpower management, and reduce dependence on regional deployments.
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- Central Revenue Audit (CRA): Focuses on auditing Central Government revenues, including direct taxes, indirect taxes, customs, excise, and non-tax receipts. It ensures compliance, accuracy, and transparency in revenue administration.
- Central Expenditure Audit (CEA): Concentrates on auditing Central Government expenditures, assessing legality, efficiency, and prudence in public spending across ministries and departments.
- Impact: The reform consolidates around 4,000 audit professionals (out of a total CAG strength of ~42,000), improving manpower flexibility, domain expertise, and data-driven audit capabilities.
- Significance: Marks a major shift toward centralised auditing, ensuring a uniform approach to the examination of national finances and reinforcing accountability in public administration.
About the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India:
- Overview: Established under Article 148, the CAG heads the Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IA&AD) and acts as guardian of public finance.
- Legal Framework: Functions under the CAG (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971, amended in 1976, 1984, and 1987.
- Appointment & Tenure:
- Appointed by the President under warrant and seal.
- Tenure – Six years or until age 65, whichever earlier.
- Removal – Same as a Supreme Court judge, requiring special majority in Parliament.
- Independence Safeguards:
- Salary and expenses charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
- No reappointment to government posts after retirement.
- No minister can defend the CAG in Parliament.
- Duties & Powers:
- Audits Consolidated Funds of the Union, States, and UTs.
- Examines PSUs, autonomous bodies, and grant-in-aid institutions.
- Submits reports to the President, later examined by the Public Accounts Committee (PAC).
- Role & Importance: Serves as the watchdog of public finance, conducting regulatory and propriety audits to ensure legality and efficiency in expenditure.
- International Role: Currently the External Auditor for IAEA (2022–2027) and FAO (2020–2025), enhancing India’s global audit leadership.
| [UPSC 2012] In India, other than ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and for intended purpose, what is the importance of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)?
1. CAG exercises exchequer control on behalf of the Parliament when the President of India declares national emergency/financial emergency
2. CAG reports on the execution of projects or programmes by the ministries are discussed by the Public Accounts Committee.
3. Information from CAG reports can be used by investigating agencies to press charges against those who have violated the law while managing public finances.
4. While dealing with the audit and accounting of government companies, CAG has certain judicial powers for prosecuting those who violate the law.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
An inquiry has been ordered into a Pune land deal over alleged irregularities and undervaluation of 40 acres of a Watandari land.
What is the Watan / Watandari System?
- Overview: A hereditary land tenure and revenue-rights system once prevalent in Maharashtra and the Deccan, granting Watan lands to individuals or families for performing state or village services.
- Historical Origin: Evolved under the Rashtrakutas, Deccan Sultanates, and Mughals to institutionalise local governance through hereditary offices.
- Purpose: Created to compensate local officials and functionaries (like village heads, accountants, or priests) through land revenue rights rather than direct salaries.
- Administrative Role: Integrated local elite families into the state’s fiscal system, ensuring continuity of governance and tax collection.
- Socio-Economic Character: Reflected the fusion of land, caste, and service, forming a semi-feudal agrarian order at the village level.
Key Features of the Watan System:
- Hereditary Tenure: Watan rights and duties passed from one generation to another, often within the same lineage.
- Service-Based Grant: Land given as compensation for hereditary duties– administrative, military, or religious, performed for the state.
- Watandars: Holders included Patils, Kulkarnis, Deshmukhs, Josis, and Purohits, each tied to specific village roles.
- Non-Transferability: Watan lands were non-saleable and non-alienable, as tenure depended on continued public service.
- Revenue Rights: Watandars retained a share of village revenue in lieu of fixed payment, ensuring local autonomy.
- Caste-Linked Hierarchy: Reinforced hereditary privilege and caste dominance within village administration.
- Decline and Inefficiency: Over time, hereditary claims caused disputes, mismanagement, and reduced accountability.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to revenue collection by Cornwallis, consider the following statements:
1. Under the Ryotwari Settlement of revenue collection, the peasants were exempted from revenue payment in case of bad harvests or natural calamities.
2. Under the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, if the Zamindar failed to pay his revenues to the state on or before the fixed date, he would be removed from his Zamindari.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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