Understanding the absorbency of diapers through the Quantum physics of water absorption and contrasting materials that do or do not absorb water.
Absorption in Diapers: How it works?
Absorption depends on Microscopic forces and Material properties. Water molecules are attracted to materials like cotton due to their structure.
Cotton, a network of polymers with ions, absorbs water effectively by attracting water molecules.
For large fluid absorption like in diapers, Super-Absorbent Polymers (SAP)are crucial.
What areSuper-Absorbent Polymers (SAP)?
SAPs are synthetic materials with the ability to absorb and retain large amounts of liquid relative to their own mass.
They are commonly used in products like diapers, sanitary napkins, and other absorbent hygiene products.
SAPs are typically cross-linked polymers, meaning their molecules are bonded in a way that creates a network capable of absorbing water molecules.
Examples:
Sodium Polyacrylate: This is one of the most common types of SAP used in diapers. It forms a gel-like substance when it absorbs liquid.
Polyacrylamide: Another type of SAP used in various applications, including agriculture and wastewater treatment, due to its high water-absorbing capacity.
Quantum Physics Insight of SAP
Quantum physics plays a fundamental role in understanding the behaviour of super-absorbent polymers (SAPs), particularly in how they interact with water molecules at the atomic level:
Electron Sharing: SAPs contain ions like sodium, which have a strong affinity for water molecules. This attraction is based on the principles of quantum physics, where atoms like sodium and oxygen prefer to share electrons to achieve stability. This shared electron arrangement allows water molecules to bond with the ions in SAPs, facilitating the absorption process.
Quantum Mechanical Properties: At the quantum level, electrons behave as waves and can exist in shared states between atoms. This phenomenon allows for the formation of stable bonds between water molecules and SAP ions, enhancing the SAP’s ability to absorb large amounts of liquid.
Energy States: Quantum physics explains how SAPs manage energy states during absorption. As water enters the SAP, energy is released due to changes in the electron configurations and bonding energies of the ions involved. This process is crucial for maintaining the gel-like structure of the SAP and preventing leakage.
PYQ:
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cheetah Reintroduction in India, Gandhi Sagar WLS
Why in the News?
Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary will become the second home for cheetahs in India, after Kuno National Park. The final decision on importing cheetahs from Namibia and South Africa will be made after the monsoon season to avoid infection risks.
Cheetah Reintroduction in India:
In India, cheetahs disappeared in the early 1950s due to hunting and the loss of their habitat.
The ‘Action Plan for Reintroduction of Cheetah in India /Project Cheetah (2022)’ aims to bring cheetahs from African countries to various national parks.
It is spearheaded by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
Recently, cheetahs from Namibia were reintroduced in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh.
About Cheetah:
The cheetah is a fast-running big cat native to Africa and central Iran, capable of speeds up to 80 to 128 km/h.
They live in various habitats like savannahs, arid mountains, and hilly deserts.
Cheetahs live in three main groups: females with cubs, male coalitions, and solitary males.
They hunt during the day, preferring dawn and dusk.
The global cheetah population was 6,500 mature individuals, according to the most recent IUCN assessment in 2021.
They are listed as VULNERABLE by the IUCN.
The Asiatic Cheetah is one of the five subspecies of cheetah, critically endangered and found only in Iran.
About Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary
Located in western Madhya Pradesh, Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary covers an area of 368.62 sq km.
It spans the Mandsaur (187.12 sq km) and Neemuch (181.5 sq km) districts, bordering Rajasthan.
Situated on a flat rocky plateau characterized by shallow topsoil and exposed sheetrock.
It is divided by the Chambal River, with the Gandhi Sagar dam and reservoir within its boundaries.
Flora and Fauna:
Flora: The sanctuary features a savannah ecosystem with open grasslands interspersed with dry deciduous trees. Riverine valleys within the sanctuary support evergreen vegetation.
Fauna: The sanctuary is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including species like leopards, sloth bears, striped hyenas, grey wolves, golden jackals, jungle cats, Indian foxes, and marsh crocodiles.
Habitat Suitability for Cheetahs
Officials cite Gandhi Sagar as having an ideal habitat parallel to Maasai Mara (a National Park) in Kenya, suitable for cheetahs.
Plans include expanding the cheetah habitat to around 2,000 sq km, contingent upon cooperation with Rajasthan’s Bhainsrodgarh sanctuary.
PYQ:
[2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2012] Consider the following: (2012)
Black-necked crane
Cheetah
Flying squirrel
Snow leopard
Which of the above are naturally found in India?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Flapping Frequency
Why in the news?
Researchers at Roskilde University in Denmark discovered a formula that correlates the flapping frequency of winged and swimming animals to their mass and wing/fins size.
The formula applies universally across a diverse range of species, from insects to birds, bats, penguins, whales, and even robotic ornithopters.
Formula for Flapping Frequency
The formula was derived from Newton’s second law (F= mass x acceleration) applied to animals flapping wings to stay airborne.
Factors considered in the derivation included air density, wing size, and the forces generated by wing movements.
Research Methodology
The researchers derived the formula theoretically from Newton’s second law, relating the force needed to stay airborne or submerged to the wing/fins’ motion, air/water dynamics, and animal mass.
They incorporated empirical observations into a constant C to account for specific shape and flight kinematics variations.
Application and Validity
The formula’s validity was tested across various animals:
176 insect data points (e.g., bees, moths, dragonflies)
212 bird data points (from hummingbirds to swans)
25 bat data points
Formula Extension to Swimming Animals
The formula also predicts the frequency of fin/fluke movements in swimming animals.
Adjustments are made for water density and buoyancy effects, excluding fish with swim bladders.
Limitations and Modifications
The formula applies well in conditions with high Reynolds numbers (Re), where fluid flow is streamlined.
At low Re values, where viscosity dominates, modifications are needed.
The equation holds as long as animal density variations do not exceed a factor of ten.
Insights and Future Research
Insights from the formula include understanding flight efficiency and potential evolutionary pathways for winged animals.
Future research aims to explore further insights hidden within the C constant, potentially revealing deeper principles governing animal flight and swimming dynamics.
PYQ:
[2024] The organisms “Cicada, Froghopper and Pond skater are:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Tarang Shakti-2024, Red Flag Exercise
Why in the News?
The Indian Air Force’s first multinational air exercise, Tarang Shakti-2024, will be held in August.
It is inspired by the Red Flag exercise hosted by the US.
Tarang Shakti-2024
Originally planned for late 2023, the exercise was postponed.
The exercise will be conducted in two distinct phases:
Phase One: Scheduled in southern India during the first two weeks of August.
Phase Two: To be held in the western sector from late August to mid-September.
Some countries will partake in both phases, facilitating comprehensive training scenarios, while others will engage in specific phases based on operational objectives.
Confirmed Participants:
Australia, France, Germany, Japan, Spain, UAE, UK, USA, among others.
Red Flag Exercise
Hosted by USAF: The recently concluded Red Flag exercise at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, involved diverse international participation.
IAF Deployment: Deployed eight Rafale fighters, supported by IL-78 mid-air refuellers and C-17 Globemaster aircraft.
Combat Simulations: Included scenarios for air combat, with Red and Blue Forces simulating defensive and offensive roles respectively.
Significance of the Exercise
The exercise provides a platform to showcase advanced military technologies and capabilities, including fighter jets, transport aircraft, and aerial refuelling systems.
This enables participants to demonstrate their equipment’seffectiveness and interoperability in multinational settings.
It would enhance regional stability and promote collective security in the Indo-Pacific region.
It reinforces India’s role as a key partner in global security initiatives and strengthens diplomatic relations with participating countries.
PYQ:
[2024] Which of the following statements about the Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023 is/ are correct?
This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Electromagnetism, Faraday and his contributions
PC: The Hindu
Why in the News?
Recently Scientists have designed a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner that costs a fraction of existing machines, setting the stage for improving access to this widely used diagnostic tool. So we need to know about the Electromagnet.
What is an Electromagnet?
Invented in 1824 by William Sturgeon, electromagnets revolutionised technology.
Sturgeon was an English physicist and inventor who discovered that wrapping a coil of wire around a piece of iron and passing an electric current through the wire produced a magnetic field.
Electromagnets are used in Loudspeakers for sound reproduction, Motors for mechanical movement., and MRI machines for medical imaging, etc
How Electromagnets Work?
Electric current flowing through a wire generates a magnetic field around the wire.
Coiling the wire enhances this magnetic field by concentrating it within the coil’s core.
This configuration creates an electromagnet, where the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the current flowing through the coil.
The magnetic fluxdensity so generated is measured in ‘Tesla’.
Enhancing Magnetic Strength with a Core
Coiling the wire around a magnetic material (core), such as iron or steel:
Amplifies the magnetic field produced by the electric current.
Ferromagnetic materials like iron align their internal magnetic domains with the external magnetic field generated by the coil.
This alignment significantly increases the overall magnetic strength of the electromagnet compared to a non-magnetic core.
Persistence of Magnetization
It refers to the property of a material to retain a certain amount of magnetization even after the removal of an external magnetic field.
Certain core materials exhibit retained magnetization even after the current ceases.
This residual magnetism is useful in applications requiring sustained magnetic fields, such as:
Superconducting electromagnets used in MRI machines, are capable of producing magnetic fields up to 30 Tesla.
Research electromagnets like those used in particle physics, which require stable and powerful magnetic fields.
Who was Michael Faraday (1791-1867)?
Michael Faraday was a pioneering English scientist and physicist who made substantial contributions to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
Faraday is best known for his experiments and discoveries in electromagnetism, which laid the groundwork for the principles of electromagnetic induction and the laws of electrolysis.
Key achievements of Michael Faraday include:
Electromagnetic Induction: He discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831, showing that a changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a nearby conductor.
Electrochemistry: Faraday formulated the laws of electrolysis, which describe the quantitative relationship between the amount of material produced or consumed during electrolysis and the amount of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction: These laws describe the fundamental principles of generating electricity using magnetic fields, forming the basis for the development of electric generators and transformers.
Faraday Cage: He invented the Faraday cage, a device used to block electromagnetic fields.
PYQ:
[2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?
They use living organisms as catalysts to generate electricity from certain substrates.
They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.
They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Right to Report, POSH Act ,2013
Why in the News?
Madras HC upheld the ‘Right to Report’ serious incidents of sexual harassment a time, rejecting the 3-month deadline under the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act (POSH), 2013.
Long-term emotional and psychological damage on victims underscored the need for a broader application of the law.
Right to Report under POSH Act, 2013
Case Background: The decision came while addressing a police officer’s petition to quash an enquiry report for alleged sexual assault against a female colleague.
Madras HC Reasoning: Serious allegations leading to “grave mental trauma” and “stress” constitute a “continuing offence” under POSH, allowing victims to report and investigate at any time.
Notable Observations: the Madras HC distinguished between isolated incidents and serious allegations like assault or molestation.
Isolated Incidents: Must adhere to strict deadlines under POSH.
Serious Allegations: Treated as continuous misconduct until addressed, allowing flexibility in reporting timelines due to fear of victimisation.
What is the POSH Act?
The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act was passed in 2013.
It defined sexual harassment, laid down the procedures for a complaint and inquiry, and the action to be taken.
It broadened the Vishakha Guidelines, which were already in place.
The POSH Act broadened these guidelines:
It mandated that every employer must constitute an Internal Complaints Committee (ICC) at each office or branch with 10 or more employees.
It lays down procedures and defines various aspects of sexual harassment, including the aggrieved victim, who could be a woman “of any age whether employed or not”, who “alleges to have been subjected to any act of sexual harassment”.
This meant that the rights of all women working or visiting any workplace, in any capacity, were protected under the Act.
Definition of Sexual Harassment
Under the 2013 law, sexual harassment includes “any one or more” of the following “unwelcome acts or behaviour” committed directly or by implication:
Physical contact and advances
A demand or request for sexual favours
Sexually coloured remarks
Showing pornography
Any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature.
The Ministry of Women & Child Development has published a Handbook on Sexual Harassment of Women at the Workplace with more detailed instances of behaviour that constitutes sexual harassment at the workplace. These include, broadly:
Sexually suggestive remarks or innuendos; serious or repeated offensive remarks; inappropriate questions or remarks about a person’s sex life
Display of sexist or offensive pictures, posters, MMS, SMS, WhatsApp, or emails
Intimidation, threats, blackmail around sexual favours; also, threats, intimidation or retaliation against an employee who speaks up about these
Unwelcome social invitations with sexual overtones, commonly seen as flirting
Unwelcome sexual advances.
Unwelcome behaviour
The Handbook says “unwelcome behaviour” is experienced when the victim feels bad or powerless; it causes anger/sadness or negative self-esteem.
It adds unwelcome behaviour is one which is “illegal, demeaning, invading, one-sided and power based”.
Circumstances amounting to SHW
The Act mentions five circumstances that amount to sexual harassment implied or explicit:
The promise of preferential treatment in her employment
The threat of detrimental treatment
Threat about her present or future employment status
Interference with her work or creating an offensive or hostile work environment
Humiliating treatment likely to affect her health or safety
Procedure for complaint
Description
Filing a complaint
The aggrieved victim has the option to file a complaint with the ICC, but it is not compulsory for the ICC to act.
Assistance in filing a complaint
Any member of the ICC must provide reasonable assistance to the victim in filing a written complaint.
Filing a complaint on behalf of the victim
If the victim is unable to file a complaint due to incapacity, death, or other reasons, her legal heir may file it on her behalf.
The time limit for filing a complaint
The complaint must be made within 3 months from the date of the incident
Extension of time limit
ICC has the authority
Monetary settlement and conciliation
Yes. It is possible.
Forwarding complaint or initiating an inquiry
Must be completed within 90 days.
Confidentiality of information
The act ensures the confidentiality of the woman’s identity, respondent’s identity, inquiry details, recommendations, and actions taken
Requirements imposed on employers
Description
Internal Complaints Committee (ICC)
Employers with more than 10 employees must establish an ICC to address sexual harassment complaints.
Composition of ICC
The ICC must include women employees, another employee, and a third-party member familiar with sexual harassment issues.
Local Committee (LC) for smaller organizations
Organizations with fewer than 10 employees must create an LC to receive complaints from the informal sector.
Complaint filing process
Women can file written complaints to either the ICC or LC within three to six months of the incident.
Resolution methods
The Act provides two resolution methods: conciliation between the parties involved or conducting an inquiry by the committee.
Annual audit report
Employers must file an annual audit report on sexual harassment complaints and take responsibility for conducting workshops, awareness programs, and orientation for ICC members.
Non-compliance penalties
Non-compliance with the Act can result in penalties, including fines.
PYQ:
[2019] What are the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space?
[2014] We are witnessing increasing instances of sexual violence against women in the country. Despite existing legal provisions against it, the number of such incidences is on the rise. Suggest some innovative measures to tackle this menace.
[2010] Two of the schemes launched by the Government of India for Women’s development are Swadhar and Swayam Siddha. As regards the difference between them, consider the following statements:
Swayam Siddha is meant for those in difficult circumstances such as women survivors of natural disasters or terrorism, women prisoners released from jails, mentally challenged women etc.,whereas Swadhar is meant for holistic empowerment of women through Self Help Groups.
Swayam Siddha is implemented through Local Self Government bodies or reputed Voluntary Organizations whereas Swadhar is implemented through the ICDS units set up in the states.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bavikonda Buddhist Complex
Why in the News?
Ten years after the division of Telangana from united Andhra Pradesh, the distribution of antiquities, manuscripts, and cultural objects remains contentious.
The custody of objects like Buddha Relics from Bavikonda are part of this dispute.
About Bavikonda Buddhist Complex
Bavikonda, a significant ancient Buddhist site dating from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, is located along the Eastern Coastline of Andhra Pradesh near Visakhapatnam on the way to Bheemunipatnam.
It is located an ancient trade route linking Andhradesa with North India via Kalinga, along with its proximity to ancient ports.
The discovery of Roman silver coins further supports this historical context.
The site also features Buddhapada slabs intricately carved with Ashtamangala symbols, found on the platforms surrounding the Mahachaitya.
About Buddha Relics from Bavikonda
The relics were discovered in 1993 during archaeological excavations conducted by the Andhra Pradesh Department of Archaeology and Museums (DAM).
These discoveries have significantly contributed to our understanding of the spread of Buddhism in the region during the post-Ashoka period along the Krishna River basin.
Nature of Relics:
The site at Bavikonda yielded several earthen vessels containing gold objects and precious beads.
These relics are believed to include corporeal remains (related to skull) of the Buddha, along with silver and gold caskets.
These were found alongside an earthen urn or receptacle (Samudgaka) containing ashy deposits and burnt charcoal.
Noted Buddhavanam Sites in Andhra Region
Thotlakonda: Located near Visakhapatnam, Thotlakonda is another prominent Buddhist site dating back to the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. It consists of monastic complexes, stupas, chaityas, viharas, and a university. Excavations have revealed relics and artifacts indicating it was a major center for Buddhist learning and trade.
Salihundam: Situated near Srikakulam, Salihundam dates from the 2nd century BC to the 12th century AD. It features remnants of stupas, votive stupas, monastic complexes, and sculptures. The site is noted for its architectural and sculptural heritage, reflecting a blend of Buddhist and Hindu influences over centuries.
Pavurallakonda: Close to Bheemunipatnam, Pavurallakonda is a Buddhist hilltop monastery dating back to the 3rd century BC to the 2nd century AD. It includes viharas, chaityas, and relic caskets. The site offers panoramic views of the coastline, adding to its spiritual ambiance.
Ghantasala: Located near Krishna district, Ghantasala served as an ancient Buddhist site from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. It contains stupas, viharas, and relics that indicate its significance as a trading hub and center for Buddhist teachings.
Nagarjunakonda: Situated in the Guntur district, Nagarjunakonda is an island on the Krishna River that flourished from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. It boasts numerous Buddhist monasteries, stupas, chaityas, and sculptures. The site is renowned for its architectural grandeur and extensive archaeological findings.
PYQ:
[2015] Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of Buddha?
Avanti
Gandhara
Kosala
Magadha
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Central Information Commission (CIC), Powers and Functions
Why in the News?
The Central Information Commission (CIC) upheld Rashtrapati Bhavan’s response to an RTI query regarding the number of times former President Kovind returned decisions by the Prime Minister/Union Council of Ministers for reconsideration.
The President’s Secretariat stated that no information was available on record regarding such returns.
Back2Basics: Right to Information (RTI)
The RTI Act of 2005 grants Indian citizens the right to access government-held information, with exceptions.
Its goal is to enhance transparency and accountability in public authorities.
This Act replaced the earlier Freedom of Information Act of 2002.
RTI aligns with Freedom of Speech and Expression (Article 19) in India’s Constitution.
About Central Information Commission (CIC)
Details
Establishment
Set up under the Section 12 of the Right to Information Act, 2005.
Function
Oversees implementation of RTI Act in Central Government and Union Territories.
Resolves complaints and decides appeals related to the Act.
Headquarters
New Delhi
Composition
Chief Information Commissioner (CIC)
Up to 10 Information Commissioners (IC), (appointed by President on recommendation of PM-led Committee consisting Leader of Opposition and Cabinet Ministers.)
Qualifications
CIC and IC must be persons of eminence in public life with wide knowledge and experience in: Law, Science and Technology, Social Service, Management, Journalism, Mass Media, Administration, and Governance.
NON-ELIGIBLITY: Members of Parliament or Legislature of any State or Union Territory, hold any office of profit, be connected with any political party, or carry on any business or profession.
Tenure
CIC and IC hold office for such term as prescribed by Central Government or until they attain age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
NO Reappointment.
IC can be appointed as Chief Information Commissioner, but total tenure including term as IC should not exceed 5 years.
Removal
President can remove CIC or IC on grounds like insolvency, conviction for moral turpitude, engaging in another office of profit, etc.
Removal for misbehaviour requires Supreme Court enquiry and recommendation.
Salary & Conditions
Salary, allowances, and service conditions determined by Central Government, cannot be varied to their disadvantage during service (After RTI Amendment Act,2019)
How RTI amendment, 2019 has changed CIC?
Before the 2019 amendment to the RTI Act, ICs at the CIC held a 5-year fixed term and were considered equal in status to the Chief Election Commissioner and Supreme Court judges.
The 2019 amendments granted the Centre the power to alter these terms at its discretion.
Functions
Receives and inquires into complaints related to RTI Act violations, including non-appointment of Public Information Officer, refusal or delay in information, unreasonable fees, incomplete or false information.
Submits annual report on Act’s implementation to Central Government, presented to Parliament.
Powers
Can suo-moto order inquiries, summon persons, enforce oaths, access and inspect documents, receive evidence on affidavit, requisition public records, summon witnesses, and enforce compliance of decisions.
Can direct public authorities on information access, officer appointments, record management, training, and impose penalties or compensation for non-compliance.
PYQ:
[2018] The Right to Information Act is not all about citizens’ empowerment alone, it essentially redefines the concept of accountability. Discuss. (150 words)
[2019] There is a view that the Officials Secrets Act is an obstacle to the implementation of RTI Act. Do you agree with the view? Discuss.
[2020] “Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have a profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss.
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Death Penalty, Pardoning Power
Why in the News?
The President of India has rejected a Mercy Petition to pardon a Pakistani terrorist.
The accused was one among the Lashkar-e-Tayyeba terrorists who attacked the Red Fort in 2000, killing two soldiers and a civilian guard.
What is the process of Mercy Petition?
Step 1: The convict facing a death sentence can file a mercy petition within 7 days of the Supreme Court dismissing their appeal.
Step 2: The convict or their relative submits a written petition to the President or governor, citing grounds such as sole breadwinner, physical/mental health, perceived harshness of the law, or judicial errors.
Step 3: The petition is forwarded to the Ministry of Home Affairs for assessment and recommendations, including consultation with the relevant State government.
Step 4: Based on Home Ministry recommendations and the Council of Ministers’ advice, the President can accept or reject the mercy pleawithout a specified time limit.
Step 5: While governors cannot pardon death sentences, they can commute, remit, or reprieve sentences under their state’s executive powers for offences against state laws.
Judiciary on Mercy Petitions:
Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab (1980): The Supreme Court, upheld the death penalty but set the stringent criteria. It emphasized that the death penalty should be awarded only in the “rarest of rare” cases when all mitigating circumstances are considered.
In Maru Ram v. Union of India (1981), the Supreme Court ruled that the power to grant pardons under Article 72 of the Constitution must be exercised based on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
In Kehar Singh vs Union of India (1989) case, the court asserted that presidential pardon is an act of grace, not a right that can be claimed. The exercise of this power is purely administrative and not subject to judicial review.
In the Dhananjoy Chatterjee vs State of West Bengal (1994) case, the Supreme Court clarified that the pardoning powers under Articles 72 and 161 of the Constitution can only be exercised by the Central and State Governments, respectively, and not autonomously by the President or Governor.
In Epuru Sudhakar & Anr. v. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2006), the Supreme Court ruled that the clemency powers of the President and Governor under Article 72 and Article 161 are subject to judicial review.
In Shatrugan Chauhan v. State of U.P. (2014), the appex court has also commuted the death sentence in cases of inordinate delay in deciding mercy petitions. The court commuted the sentence of one Gurmeet Singh after he spent 27 years in custody (and 21 years on death row).
In Mohd. Afzal Guru vs State of Delhi (2014)case, the court-mandated a minimum 14-day gap between the rejection of a mercy petition and the execution of a death penalty, ensuring adequate time for legal recourse.
Report of the 262nd Law Commission (2015): Recommended abolishing the death penalty for all crimes except terrorism-related offenses and waging war.
In April 2023, the Supreme Court upheld the Mumbai High Court’s decision to commute the death sentence of a woman and her sister due to significant delays in deciding their mercy petitions.
About Presidents’ Pardoning Powers under Article 72
According to Article 72, the President of India has the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offense: In cases where the punishment or sentence is by a Court Martial;
According to Article 161, the Governor of a State has the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to matters under the executive power of the State.
In the recent Supreme Court Ruling of 2021, the apex court held that the Governor of a state can pardon prisoners, including those on death row, even before they have served a minimum of 14 years of their prison sentence.
Did you know?
Pardon means completely absolving the person of the crime and letting him go free. The pardoned criminal will be like a normal citizen.
Commutation means changing the type of punishment given to the guilty into a less harsh one, for example, a death penalty commuted to a life sentence.
Reprieve means a delay allowed in the execution of a sentence, usually a death sentence, for a guilty person to allow him some time to apply for a Presidential Pardon or some other legal remedy to prove his innocence or successful rehabilitation.
Respite means reducing the quantum or degree of the punishment to a criminal in view of some special circumstances, like pregnancy, mental condition etc.
Remission means changing the time period of the punishment without changing its nature, for example reducing twenty years of rigorous imprisonment to ten years.
Cases as specified by Art. 72
In all cases where the punishment or sentence:
is by a court-martial.
is for an offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the Union extends.
is a sentence of death.
Nature of the Pardoning Power
The pardoning power of the president is not absolute.
At a procedural level, the apex court in Epuru Sudhakar & Anr. v. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2006) has held that the President’s power must be exercised based on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers and can be challenged on multiple grounds including that relevant material was not considered, the power was exercised based on political considerations, or there was no application of mind.
This has not been discussed by the Constitution but is the practical truth. Further, the constitution does not provide for any mechanismto question the legality of decisions of presidents or governors exercising mercy jurisdiction.
PYQ:
[2014] Instances of President’s delay in commuting death sentences have come under public debate as denial of justice. Should there be a time specified for the President to accept/reject such petitions? Analyse.
Ashwatthama, a 38-year-old elephant, died of electrocution near Karnataka’s Nagarahole Tiger Reserve.
The High Court of Karnataka suo motu initiated a PIL petition to inquire about this incident attributed to a lack of care and diligence by concerned authorities.
Nagarahole Tiger Reserve
Located in the Western Ghats in Karnataka; Spans over 643 square kilometers.
Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1955 and a tiger reserve in 1999.
Part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) and a Project Tiger, Project Elephant reserve.
Managed by the Karnataka Forest Department with efforts focused on conservation, ecotourism, and community engagement.
The reserve is crisscrossed by several rivers such as the Kabini River, Lakshmana Tirtha River, and Moyar River.
Flora and Fauna: Known for its diverse ecosystem, including tropical and moist deciduous forests, home to a variety of wildlife such as tigers, leopards, elephants, gaur, and several species of deer and birds.
Protective Measures:Project Elephant
It was launched in the year 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the following objectives:
To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
To address issues of man-animal conflict
The welfare of captive elephants
It covers 23 states across India.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides financial and technical support to major elephant range states in the country through the project.
It contributed to the increase in the wild elephant population from around 25,000 in 1992 to about 30,000 in 2021.
Status of Elephant Conservation in India
Details
Population Estimate
India hosts the largest population of wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), with around 29,964 individuals,
Approximately 60% of the global population (2017 census).
Leading States
Karnataka holds the highest number of elephants, followed by Assam and Kerala.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: Endangered.
CMS: Appendix I.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I,
CITES: Appendix I.
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:
The leader of an elephant group is a female.
The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mount Canlaon, Cold Lava Mudflows
Why in the News?
After Mount Canlaon erupted in the Philippines, cold lava started flowing through streets and rivers.
It was followed by ashfall, and dangers like floods and mudflows downstream.
What is Cold Lava?
Cold lava, also known as “lahar,” is a mixture of water and rock fragments that flows rapidly down the slopes of a volcano, often triggered by heavy rainfall or volcanic eruptions.
The mixture forms a concrete-like substance that destroys everything in its path.
This can also include smooth, glassy textures or rough and jagged textures.
Another example of cold Lava in the world
Mount Merapi, Indonesia (2023): An eruption of Mount Merapi resulted in the deaths of at least 23 climbers and spewed ash up to 3,000 meters into the air, covering towns and villages
How harmful is Cold Lava?
Rain can carry cold lava down the slopes of a volcano during an eruption and into the path of nearby towns or villages.
According to the United States Geological Survey, cold lava has the power to crush and bury things in its path.
It also moves quickly like wet concrete and is considered more destructive than hot lava.
About Mount Canlaon
Mount Canlaon, located in the Philippines, is an active stratovolcano known for its frequent eruptions and volcanic activity.
It is situated on the island of Negros in the Visayas region of the Philippines.
It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, known for its high volcanic activity.
It poses hazards such as ash fall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (mudflows) that can endanger nearby communities and agriculture.
PYQ:
[2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Joshimath, Kosiyakutoli, Adi Shankaracharya
Why in the News?
The Centre approved the Uttarakhand government’s proposal to rename Joshimath tehsil to Jyotirmath and Kosiyakutoli tehsil to Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham.
This decision aims to enhance the religious and cultural significance of these areas, boosting their status as major destinations for religious tourism.
About Jyotirmath
Jyotirmath, also known as Jyotir Peeth, is one of the four cardinal mathas established by Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century to promote Advaita Vedanta philosophy.
Adi Shankaracharya performed penance under the Amar Kalpavriksha tree here, symbolising his attainment of divine knowledge (Jyoti).
Evolution to Joshimath:
Name Transition: Originally known as Jyotirmath, the town gradually adopted the name Joshimath over time, influenced by regional languages and dialects.
Cultural Evolution: The shift from Jyotirmath to Joshimath reflects a cultural and linguistic evolution rather than a specific historical event.
About Adi Shankaracharya (c 788 CE-820 CE)
Details
Philosopher and Theologian
Prominent advocate of ancient Hinduism, known as Sankara (Jagatguru).
Birthplace
Kaladi in Ernakulam, Kerala, soon to be declared a national monument.
Guru
Govinda Bhagavatpada, from whom he learned extensively.
Philosophies
Advocated Advaita Vedanta and established Dashanami Sampradaya.
Advaita Vedanta
Non-dualistic philosophy asserts the identity of Atman (self) and Brahman (ultimate reality).
Maya (creative energy) of Brahman creates the world.
Liberation through understanding Brahman and overcoming Avidya (ignorance).
Key Disciples
Padmapada, Totakacharya, Hasta Malaka, and Sureshwara – played crucial roles in spreading his teachings.
Contributions
Introduced the Shanmata system and restored the Dashanami structure.
Established four Mathas (monastic institutions) across India.
Authored commentaries on major Hindu scriptures and composed hymns.
Mathas Established
Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetam (Karnataka), Jyotir Matha (Uttarakhand),
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kavli Prize
Why in the News?
The winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize were announced, recognising achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.
About Kavli Prize
The Kavli Prize celebrates outstanding achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.
It is established in honour of Norwegian-American businessman and philanthropist Fred Kavli (1927-2013).
Awarded biennially, the prize recognizes researchers whose work pushes the boundaries of human knowledge and enhances our understanding of the universe, the brain, and nanoscale phenomena.
About Fred Kavli
Fred Kavli, born in Erejsford, Norway, immigrated to California in 1956 and quickly made a mark in the engineering field.
His entrepreneurial journey began in 1958 with the founding of Kavlico, a pioneering company known for its precision pressure sensors used across diverse industries, from aviation to consumer electronics.
The Kavli Foundation:
In 2000, after selling Kavlico for $340 million, Fred Kavli established the Kavli Foundation.
This philanthropic organisation supports fundamental research aimed at improving global quality of life.
The foundation operates 20 institutes worldwide dedicated to astrophysics, neuroscience, nanoscience, and theoretical physics.
Prize Structure and Prestige:
Comparison with Nobel Prize: The Kavli Prize mirrors the Nobel Prize in its prestige and international recognition but differs by not limiting awards to achievements within the preceding year, allowing broader scope and longevity in selection criteria.
Award Ceremony: Each Kavli Prize includes a $1 million cash award per field, a scroll, and a 7 cm diameter medal. The ceremony, held at the Oslo Concert Hall and attended by global scientific leaders, features a red-carpet event, emphasizing its significance in the scientific community.
Selection Process:
Committees: Three international committees nominate and review candidates, providing a unanimous recommendation to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
Nominees: Nominees come from prestigious institutions worldwide, ensuring a diverse and comprehensive evaluation process.
Winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize:
Field
Winners
Contributions
Astrophysics
David Charbonneau (Harvard University), Sara Seager (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Pioneering methods for detecting atomic species in planetary atmospheres and measuring their thermal infrared emission, are crucial for identifying molecular fingerprints in atmospheres of exoplanets.
Nanoscience
Robert Langer (MIT), Armand Paul Alivisatos (University of Chicago), Chad Mirkin (Northwestern University)
Langer: Nano-engineering for controlled drug delivery systems.
Alivisatos: Development of semiconductor quantum dots for bio-imaging.
Mirkin: Concept of spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) for applications in gene regulation and immunotherapy.
Mapping brain functions related to facial recognition using neuroimaging and neuronal recording techniques, identifying brain centers and neural architectures involved in face processing.
PYQ:
[2021] The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?
[2018] Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics.
[2008] Nobel Prize-winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (2008)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Longitude Prize, AMR
Why in the News?
Sysmex Astrego, a Sweden-based diagnostic company, won the £10 million Longitude Prize for developing a high-tech UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) test called the PA-100 AST System.
What is Antimicrobial Resistance?
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change so that medicines no longer work against them.
This makes infections harder to treat and can lead to more severe illness and even death.
AMR can occur naturally through genetic changes or when one type of microorganism picks up resistance from another.
It can also occur randomly due to mutations or when resistant genes spread between different organisms.
The main reasons for AMR are antibiotics incorrectly or too often, not having access to clean water and good hygiene, not doing enough to prevent infections, and people not knowing how to use antibiotics properly.
Global Impact of AMR
Global Threat: Antibiotic-resistant infections caused nearly 1.3 million deaths in 2019, with projections to exceed cancer-related deaths by 2050.
Economic Impact: The global economy faces potential losses of up to 4 trillion by 2030 and 100 trillion by 2050 due to the AMR crisis.
About the Longitude Prize
The Longitude Prize, valued at £8 million (₹85 crore), was recently awarded for its profound implications in combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
The prize launched in 2014, aims to revolutionize infection management globally.
Historical Context:
Origins: Established in 1714 to solve the maritime longitude problem, demonstrating the critical need for accurate navigation.
Modern Application: The 21st-century Longitude Prize addresses pressing global challenges like AMR, incentivizing innovative solutions.
Goal of the Prize:
Aims to replace current lab-based diagnostic methods with rapid tests that guide targeted antibiotic therapies, combating AMR effectively.
About PA-100 AST System
Technology Breakthrough: Developed by Sysmex Astrego, this system uses a phenotypic test that identifies UTI bacteria and performs antibiotic susceptibility testing in under 45 minutes.
Operation: A single-use cartridge processes less than half a milliliter of urine, using microfluidic traps and phase-contrast imaging in a shoe box-sized reader instrument.
Clinical Impact: Provides rapid “sensitive” or “resistant” results for antibiotics, aiding doctors in immediate, accurate treatment decisions at the point of care.
Current Challenges in UTI Diagnosis
Limited Accuracy: Current options include urine dipstick tests for quick results but limited accuracy (50-60%) and lab cultures with 2-3 day turnaround times.
Impact on Treatment: Delayed diagnosis often leads to empirical antibiotic use, contributing to antibiotic resistance worldwide.
Significance for India
Healthcare Burden: In India, millions seek treatment for UTIs annually, impacting lives and healthcare systems significantly.
Potential: Rapid, accurate point-of-care tests could revolutionize UTI management globally, saving lives and reducing healthcare costs.
PYQ:
[2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without a Doctor’s prescription be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.
[2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?
Genetic predisposition of some people
Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
Using antibiotics in livestock farming
Multiple chronic diseases in some people
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mars Craters, IAU
Why in the News?
Scientists from Ahmedabad-based Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) have identified three new craters on Mars, situated in the Tharsis volcanic region around 21.0 S, 209 W.
Back2Basics: International Astronomical Union (IAU)
The IAU was founded on July 28, 1919, during the Constitutive Assembly held in Brussels, Belgium.
Its creation was prompted by the need for international collaboration in astronomy, especially after the devastation caused by World War I.
It aims to promote and safeguard astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation.
IAU is now headquartered in Paris, France.
Major Activities and Initiatives
General Assembly: The IAU holds a general assembly every three years in varying parts of the world at which professional astronomers meet to discuss research, new cooperative ventures, and similar matters of professional interest.
Astronomical Nomenclature: IAU standardises the nomenclature of celestial bodies, features, and phenomena. It maintains several working groups dedicated to naming conventions for stars, planets, asteroids, and other objects.
Research and Collaboration: It promotes international cooperation in astronomical research and supports initiatives such as observational campaigns, data sharing, and joint projects.
Education and Outreach: It is actively involved in promoting astronomy education and public outreach efforts worldwide. It supports educational programs, workshops, and resources for students, teachers, and the general public.
Membership
IAU membership spans 92 countries. Out of those countries, 85 are National Members.
India is represented by the Astronomical Society of India (ASI).
Its members are professional astronomers from all over the world, at the D. level and beyond, who are active in professional research, education, and outreach in astronomy.
Crater Names and Significance
Lal Crater: Named after Prof. Devendra Lal, former director of PRL, this 65 km wide crater is positioned at -20.98° and 209.34°.
Mursan Crater: Named after a town in Uttar Pradesh, India, this ~10 km wide crater is situated on the eastern side of the Lal crater’s rim.
Hilsa Crater: Named after a town in Bihar, India, this ~10 km wide crater is positioned on the western side of the Lal crater’s rim.
Scientific Importance of Lal Crater
Lava Coverage: The entire Lal crater area, located in the Tharsis volcanic region on Mars, is covered with lava.
Evidence of Water: Geophysical evidence, including a 45-meter thick sedimentary deposit, suggests the presence of water in the subsurface of the Lal crater. This finding supports the theory that Mars once had water flowing on its surface.
Infilling Process: Mursan and Hilsa craters, positioned on either side of the Lal crater, offer insights into the infilling process of the Lal crater. Their presence indicates that infilling occurred episodically over time.
India’s 2nd Quest for Mars
The ISRO is expected to launch Mangalyaan-2, or Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (MOM 2), in 2025.
The mission will last one year and is aimed at studying the Red Planet.
The successor to Mangalyaan-1, or Mars Orbiter Mission 1 (MOM 1), Mangalyaan-2 will consist of only one orbiter and will be launched atop a GSLV Mark III rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
Other missions to Mars
ExoMars rover (2022): European Space Agency’s mission to explore Mars.
Tianwen-1 (2021): China’s Mars Mission aims to explore and study the Martian surface.
UAE’s Hope Mars Mission (2021): UAE’s first interplanetary mission focused on studying the Martian atmosphere.
NASA’s Mars Insight (2018): A lander designed to study the interior of Mars.
NASA’s Curiosity (2012) and Perseverance (2020): Rovers exploring the Martian surface.
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (2005), Mars Odyssey (2001), and MAVEN (2013): Orbiters studying Mars from space.
Mars 2 and Mars 3 (1971): Soviet Union’s missions to Mars, which included orbiter and lander components.
PYQ:
[2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO
is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission.
made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit Mars in its very first attempt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nitrous Oxide pollution
Why in the News?
India ranks as the world’s second-largest contributor (after China) to nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas (GHG), accounting for approximately 11% of global man-made emissions in 2020 as per data published in the journal Earth System Science Data.
The top five country emitters by volume of anthropogenic N2O emissions in 2020 were China (16.7%), India (10.9%), the United States (5.7%), Brazil (5.3%), and Russia (4.6%).
AboutNitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide (N2O), a colourless and odourless gas, is a potent greenhouse gas, 300 times more powerful than CO2. Despite its small atmospheric fraction, it ranks third in concentration after CO2 and methane (CH4). It’s a crucial target for environmental research and efforts to mitigate climate change impacts.
Sources of Emission:
Natural Sources: N2O is naturally produced in processes such as microbial nitrogen cycling in soil and water bodies, volcanic activity, and biomass burning.
Anthropogenic Activities: Human activities significantly contribute to N2O emissions, with the primary sources being:
Agricultural practices, including the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers and animal manure.
Industrial processes such as combustion of fossil fuels and wastewater treatment.
Combustion of biomass and waste.
Use of nitrous oxide in medical and dental procedures (as a sedative) and in food packaging.
Impact on Climate Change:
Greenhouse Gas: N2O is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) much higher than that of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Ozone Depletion: In addition to its role in climate change, N2O also contributes to ozone depletion in the stratosphere, further exacerbating environmental concerns.
Environmental and Health Effects:
Environmental Pollution: N2O emissions can lead to pollution of soil, water bodies, and air, affecting ecosystems and human health.
Health Risks: While N2O is relatively non-toxic at ambient levels, prolonged exposure or high concentrations can pose health risks, including respiratory issues and neurological effects.
Global Nitrous Oxide Emissions
Atmospheric Concentration: The concentration of atmospheric N2O reached 336 parts per billion in 2022, about 25% above pre-industrial levels.
Next to Carbon Emissions: In comparison, the concentration of carbon dioxide was 417 parts per million in 2022.
Persistent Lifespan: Once emitted, N2O stays in the atmosphere for longer than the average human lifespan (117 years), making its climate and ozone impacts long-lived.
Contribution to Climate Change: These emissions are responsible for 6.4% of the effective radiative forcing of greenhouse gases and have added about 0.1°C to current global warming.
Impact of Nitrogen Fertilizers: N2O emissions from human activities have increased by 40% in the past four decades, with agricultural production using nitrogen fertilizers and animal manure contributing 74% of total anthropogenic N2O emissions in the last decade.
Call for Action and Future Outlook
Scientists warn that anthropogenic N2O emissions must decline by at least 20% relative to 2019 levels by 2050 to align with net-zero emission pathways consistent with the Paris Agreement.
Nitrogen fertilizers, which are heavily subsidized in India, contribute significantly to N2O emissions. Urgent reforms are needed to promote alternative production systems and mitigate emissions.
India’s Policy Initiatives to Curb Nitrogen Pollution
Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) (2010): This policy encourages the adoption of controlled-release fertilizers to enhance nutrient management efficiency.
Soil Health Cards (2015): Provided to farmers, these cards offer insights into soil nutrient levels and tailored fertilizer recommendations, promoting balanced nutrient application.
Bharat Stage (BS VI) Emission Standards (2016): These stringent regulations for vehicles and industries aim to reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, thereby mitigating air and water pollution.
Nano Urea (2021): Marketed by the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Nano Urea is a patented fertilizer approved for commercial use, designed to curb excessive and indiscriminate conventional urea use while boosting crop yields.
PYQ:
[2016] Why does the Government of India promote the use of ‘Neem-coated Urea’ in agriculture?
(a) Release of Neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation by the soil microorganisms
(b) Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in the soil
(c) Nitrous oxide, which is a greenhouse gas, is not at all released into the atmosphere by crop fields
(d) It is a combination of a weedicide and a fertilizer for particular crops
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: N332-GT5, eOD-GT8, HIV-AIDS
Why in the News?
Researchers at the Duke Human Vaccine Institute have successfully induced broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) against HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) through vaccination for the first time.
About HIV/AIDS:
Emergence: The first cases of AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) were reported in the early 1980s, primarily among gay men in the United States.
Discovery of HIV: In 1983-1984, scientists identified HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) as the cause of AIDS.
Global Spread: HIV/AIDS quickly became a global pandemic, affecting millions of people worldwide.
Causes:
HIV is transmitted through contact with certain body fluids of an infected person, including blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.
Common modes of HIV transmission include unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing needles or syringes, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
Symptoms:
Acute HIV Infection: Many people experience flu-like symptoms, such as fever, headache, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes, within 2-4 weeks after infection.
Asymptomatic Stage: After the initial symptoms subside, HIV often enters a latent stage where individuals may not experience any symptoms for years.
Progression to AIDS: Without treatment, HIV gradually weakens the immune system, leading to the development of opportunistic infections and cancers. This advanced stage is known as AIDS and is characterized by severe immune deficiency.
Vaccines Development:
Challenges: Developing an HIV vaccine has been challenging due to the virus’s ability to mutate rapidly and evade the immune system.
Vaccine Candidates: Numerous vaccine candidates have been tested over the years, but none have yet been successful in providing robust protection against HIV infection.
Hope for the Future: Despite setbacks, advances in vaccine development, such as the identification of promising candidates like N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8, offer hope for eventually achieving an effective HIV vaccine.
How B cells and mRNA play distinct roles in the context of HIV infection?
1. B cells (B lymphocytes):
B cells are a type of white blood cell crucial for the immune response.
In HIV infection, B cells participate in the adaptive immune response by producing antibodies specific to HIV antigens.
These antibodies can neutralize HIV particles, tag infected cells for destruction by other immune cells, and contribute to the immune memory against HIV.
2. mRNA (messenger RNA):
mRNA is a molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
In the context of HIV, mRNA is involved in the replication process of the virus.
HIV uses its RNA genome to produce viral mRNA, which directs the synthesis of viral proteins necessary for the assembly of new virus particles.
Understanding HIV mRNA is crucial for developing antiviral therapies that target viral replication, such as mRNA-based vaccines or mRNA inhibitors.
N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8: The New Vaccines in Making
N332-GT5: This vaccine candidate targets a specific region on the surface of the HIV virus known as the N332 glycan site. By engaging B-cells that have the potential to produce bNAbs against this site, N332-GT5 aims to stimulate the immune system to generate a protective response against a wide range of HIV strains.
eOD-GT8: Similarly, eOD-GT8 is designed to target another region on the HIV virus, known as the eOD protein. By leveraging nanoparticles as carriers, eOD-GT8 aims to enhance the immune system’s ability to recognize and neutralize HIV, ultimately leading to the production of bNAbs.
What are Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies (bNAbs)?
In the 1990s, scientists discovered that some HIV-infected individuals produced bNAbs, which neutralize many viral strains.
bNAbs target viral protein areas crucial for infectivity, making them less likely to change.
Despite their effectiveness, bNAbs take years to develop, by which time HIV has often evolved to escape them.
Developing bNAb-Based Vaccines
The goal is to make the immune system produce bNAbs quickly in response to a vaccine.
Germline targeting involves three steps:
Identify and engage B-cells capable of producing bNAbs.
Use a booster to guide these cells to produce stronger bNAbs.
Refine bNAbs to neutralize a wide range of HIV strains.
PYQ:
[2013] Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through tattooing?
1. Chikungunya
2. Hepatitis B
3. HIV-AIDS
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Specific criteria qualify a State for special category status
Mains level: Special category status benefits to States like Bihar
Why in the News?
Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar has renewed the State’s persistent call for special category status from the Centre, which would boost the State’s share of tax revenues from the Central government.
How does the ‘Special Category’ Status benefit the states like Bihar?
Increased Central Funds: States with special category status receive a higher share of central funds for government schemes, typically 90% from the Centre, compared to 60%-80% for other states.
Tax-Related Concessions: These states enjoy various tax concessions that can attract investments and boost economic development.
Financial Aid for Development: The additional funds can be used to address developmental gaps, improve infrastructure, and support welfare programs.
Criteria for Special Category status:
Geographic Disadvantages: States with challenging terrains such as hilly or difficult terrain.
Low Population Density or High Tribal Population: States with a considerable proportion of tribal population or low population density.
Economic and Social Backwardness: States that are economically and socially disadvantaged.
Strategic Location: States that share international borders or have strategic significance.
Why has Bihar’s demand been a long-standing issue?
Economic Backwardness: Bihar has one of the lowest per capita incomes in India and lags behind in several human development indicators.
Fiscal Challenges: The bifurcation of the state leading to the formation of Jharkhand, frequent natural disasters, and insufficient water resources for irrigation have adversely affected Bihar’s fiscal situation.
Political Reiteration: Successive Bihar governments have continuously demanded special status to help the state’s development.
What are the political implications of granting ‘Special Status’ to Bihar?
Increased Bargaining Power: Granting special status could enhance Bihar’s political leverage with the central government, especially in coalition politics.
Precedent for Other States: Granting special status to Bihar could lead to similar demands from other states, potentially creating financial burdens for the Centre.
Electoral Promises and Alliances: Political parties may use the promise of special status as an electoral tool to gain or maintain power, as seen with the Congress party’s manifesto promise in 2024.
Centre-State Relations: The decision could impact the dynamics of center-state financial relations and influence the federal structure of revenue distribution in India.
Conclusion: The Central government should establish a transparent and well-defined framework for granting special category status, taking into account various economic, geographic, and social parameters. This framework should be periodically reviewed to ensure it remains relevant and fair to all states.
Mains PYQ:
Q To what extent is Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, bearing marginal note “Temporary provision with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir”, temporary? Discuss the future prospects of this provision in the context of Indian polity. (UPSC IAS/2016)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India’s ministerial portfolio system and its features
Why in the News?
President Droupadi Murmu administered oaths to the Central Council of Ministers (CoM) of the new NDA government, comprising a larger team compared to the previous term.
The Council includes 30 cabinet ministers, five Ministers of State (Independent Charge), and 36 Ministers of State, with the Prime Minister leading the team.
About Central Council of Ministers
The Central CoM is a crucial part of India’s governance system.
Members: It consists of the Prime Minister (Head), Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers.
History:
Portfolio System: The system of the CoM finds its roots in the Indian Councils Act of 1861, introduced by Lord Canning going parallel with the British Parliamentary System.
Constitutional Provisions
Articles 74 to 78 in Part V of the Indian Constitution broadly deal with the Central Council of Ministers.
Union Executive: The Union Executive encompasses the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister, Union Council of Ministers, and Attorney General of India, collectively responsible for the country’s administration.
Role of the Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the head of the Central Council of Ministers, exercising executive authority and decision-making powers on key policy issues and unallocated portfolios.
Responsibilities: Prime Minister Modi oversees critical ministries such as Personnel, Public Grievances, Pensions, Department of Atomic Energy, and Department of Space, while also leading government bodies like the Cabinet Secretariat and NITI Aayog.
Functions and Duties of CoM
1. Policy Formulation and Implementation:
Formulating Policies: The Council of Ministers, particularly the Cabinet, is tasked with formulating policies crucial for the nation’s development and welfare.
Policy Coordination: It ensures coordination among various government departments and agencies for effective policy implementation.
2. Executive Functions:
Real Executive Authority: The Council of Ministers acts as the real executive authority, exercising executive powers on behalf of the President.
Administration: It oversees the day-to-day administration of the country, ensuring the smooth functioning of government affairs.
Emergency Powers: During emergencies, the Council of Ministers advises the President on the exercise of emergency powers and crisis management.
3. Legislative Functions:
Bills and Legislation: Ministers actively participate in the legislative process by introducing bills, piloting them through Parliament, and ensuring their passage.
Policy Advocacy: They advocate for government policies and bills in Parliament, engaging in debates and discussions to garner support.
Budgetary Process: The Council of Ministers prepares and presents the annual budget, guiding fiscal policies and financial allocations.
4. Financial Management:
Budget Preparation: It plays a significant role in preparing the national budget, and outlining revenue and expenditure plans for the fiscal year.
Financial Administration: The Council oversees financial administration, ensuring compliance with budgetary provisions and efficient resource utilization.
Taxation and Fiscal Policy: Ministers propose taxation measures and formulate fiscal policies to promote economic growth and stability.
Who are the Cabinet Ministers?
The Cabinet Ministers are senior members of the Central Council of Ministers who head key government departments or ministries.
Typically, Cabinet Ministers are appointed by the Prime Minister and are part of the Cabinet, which is the core decision-making body in the government.
Each Cabinet Minister typically manages a specific portfolio aligned with the government’s priorities and responsibilities.
Examples: Minister of Finance, Minister of Home Affairs, Minister of Defence, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Health, Minister of Education, and others.
The term ‘Cabinet’ was inserted in Art. 352 of the Constitution by the 44th Amendment Act 1978.
It did not find a place in the original text of the Constitution.
Difference between Ministers of State (Independent Charge) and Ministers of State:
Ministers of State (Independent Charge)
Ministers of State
Authority
Have independent portfolios
Assist Cabinet Ministers
Reporting Structure
Directly report to PM/President
Report to and assist Cabinet Ministers
Accountability
Fully responsible for their departments
Assist Cabinet Ministers in tasks
Protocol Status
Equivalent to Cabinet Ministers in status
Lower protocol status
Attendance in Cabinet Meetings
May attend if their portfolios are discussed
Not regular attendees
PYQ:
[2013] Consider the following statements:
The Council of Ministers in the Centre shall be collectively responsible to the Parliament.
The Union Ministers shall hold the office at the pleasure of the President of India.
The Prime Minister shall communicate to the President about the proposals for legislation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2007] Assertion (A): The Council of Ministers in the Union of India is collectively responsible both to the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
Reason (R): The Members of both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha are eligible to be the Ministers of the Union Government.
Choose the correct Code:
(a) Both A are R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quantum Theory and related Researches, National Quantum Mission (NQM)
Why in the News?
The United Nations has designated 2025 as the ‘International Year of Quantum Science and Technology’ to increase public awareness about the significance of quantum science and its applications.
This initiative, led by Mexico and supported by nearly 60 countries, aims to promote activities at all levels to highlight the importance of quantum science and technology worldwide.
International Year of Quantum S&T
Growing Relevance: Quantum science and technologies, especially quantum computing, have gained prominence in public discourse due to their potential transformative impact on various fields.
Anniversary of Heisenberg’s Work: The proclamation coincides with the upcoming centenary of Werner Heisenberg’s groundbreaking paper on quantum mechanics, published in 1925.
Support from International Bodies: The proclamation has received endorsements from various international organisations, including the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
What does one mean by Quantum?
“Quantum” refers to the smallest discrete unit of any physical quantity involved in an interaction according to quantum theory.
In classical physics, many properties, such as energy and momentum, are thought to be continuous and infinitely divisible.
However, in quantum mechanics, certain properties, like energy levels and the behaviour of particles, are quantised, meaning they can only exist in specific discrete amounts or levels.
What is Quantum Theory?
Quantum theory is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.
Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that energy, momentum, and angular momentum.
Development in Quantum Theory So Far
Planck’s assumption: In 1900, Planck made the assumption that energy was made of individual units or quanta.
Albert Einstein’s theory: In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that not just the energy, but the radiation itself was quantized in the same manner.
Louis de Broglie theory: In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that there is no fundamental difference in the makeup and behaviour of energy and matter; on the atomic and subatomic level either may behave as if made of either particles or waves. This theory became known as the principle of wave-particle duality: elementary particles of both energy and matter behave, depending on the conditions, like either particles or waves (wave-particle duality).
Heisenberg proposed: In 1927, Werner Heisenberg proposed that precise, simultaneous measurement of two complementary values – such as the position and momentum of a subatomic particle – is impossible. Contrary to the principles of classical physics, their simultaneous measurement is inescapably flawed; the more precisely one value is measured, the more flawed will be the measurement of the other value. This theory became known as the uncertainty principle, which prompted Albert Einstein’s famous comment, “God does not play dice.”
What is Entanglement?
Entanglement was another of several weird properties exhibited by these tiny particles.
Two particles, having ‘interacted’ with each other at some stage, were found to have got ‘entangled’ in a way that the behaviour of one produced an instantaneous reaction in the other even if the two were no longer connected in any way and were separated by very large distances.
The entanglement property opened up new technological possibilities first time that it was possible to ‘teleport’ the quantum states of a particle to another location without the particle moving anywhere and without a medium.
What is Superposition?
It’s a phenomenon where, a particle exists simultaneously at multiple locations, known as superposition.
The chance of finding the particle at any given place was dictated by probabilistic calculations, and once it was found, or observed, at one location, it ceased to exist at all other places.
What is Quantum Computing?
Quantum computing is a new and super powerful way of doing computer stuff.
Instead of using regular computer bits that are either 0 or 1, quantum computers use special bits called qubits that can be both 0 and 1 at the same time, thanks to a thing called “quantum superposition.”
This allows them to do lots of calculations all at once, making them really fast at solving certain types of problems.
Back2Basics: National Quantum Mission (NQM)
Details
Mission Duration
2023-2031
Implementing Authority
Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the Ministry of Science & Technology
India’s Position
Seventh country to have a dedicated quantum mission after the US, Austria, Finland, France, Canada, and China
Focus Areas
Intermediate-scale quantum computers with 50-100 physical qubits in 5 years and 50-1000 physical qubits in 8 years
