From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Agnibaan SOrTeD, PS4 Engine
Why in the News?
Agnikul Cosmos Private Limited, a space start-up from Chennai, made history by launching the world’s first rocket with a single-piece 3D-printed engine, named Agnibaan Sub Orbital Technology Demonstrator (SOrTeD), from Sriharikota.
About3D Printed PS4 Engine
The PS4 engine, which forms the uppermost stage of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), comprises two Earth-storable liquid engines.
It uses a bipropellant combination of nitrogen tetroxide as the oxidizer and monomethyl hydrazine as the fuel, both developed by ISRO’s Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
This same engine is employed in the Reaction Control System (RCS) of the first stage (PS1) of PSLV.
ISRO redesigned the PS4 engine for production using 3D printing technology.
The technology helped ISRO bring down the number of parts in the engine from 14 to a single piece.
ISRO was able to eliminate 19 weld joints and saved 97% of raw material.
It also reduced the overall production time by 60%.
What is Agnibaan SOrTeD (Suborbital Tech Demonstrator)?
Agnibaan SOrTeD is a single-stage launch vehicle powered by Agnikul’s patented Agnilet semi-cryogenic engine.
In contrast to traditional sounding rockets, Agnibaan SOrTeD’s vertical take-off and precise trajectory enable orchestrated manoeuvres during flight.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Health Assembly (WHA)
Why in the News?
India hosted a side event on Digital Health during the 77th World Health Assembly.The event saw participation from Quad countries (Australia, Japan, and the United States of America) and delegates from over 100 countries.
Key Highlights of the 7th WHA:
Transformative Role: India highlighted digital health’s role in ensuring equitable and accessible healthcare services, contributing to Universal Health Coverage and SDG 3.
India’s Advancements: WHA noted India’s success in implementing digital public infrastructure at scale, including Aadhaar for digital identities, Unified Payments Interface (UPI) for financial transactions, and Co-WIN for health service delivery during the pandemic.
Transition to UWIN: Co-WIN is being transformed into UWIN for the National Immunization Programme, facilitating immunization records for millions of newborns and mothers, as well as Anganwadi and school health records.
Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM): India highlighted efforts under ABDM to create a robust national digital health ecosystem, with over 618 million Unique Health IDs (ABHA IDs) generated, 268,000 registered health facilities, and 350,000 healthcare professionals enlisted.
National Health Claims Exchange (NHCX): GoI is launching NHCX as part of ABDM to transform the insurance payments ecosystem, enabling real-time settlements with auto adjudication of claims through public-private partnerships leveraging digital public infrastructure.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Development of Science and Technology in India;
Why in the News?
As per Nature Index” India’s scientific prowess is rising but lacks essential research infrastructure. Initiatives like I-STEM aim to bridge this gap by democratizing access to advanced facilities.
The Indian Science Ecosystem:
Growth in Research: India ranks third globally in research output and eleventh in research quality according to the “Nature Index”.
Infrastructure Shortfalls: Despite an increase in the number of universities from 760 in 2014 to 1,113 in 2021, many lack essential resources such as advanced labs, instrumental access, and research literature.
Why is the Open Access Crucial for Self-Reliance in Science?
Open Access (OA) ensures that scientific knowledge is freely available to all, regardless of geographical or financial barriers.
It promotes inclusivity and allows researchers from diverse backgrounds to access the latest research findings, fostering collaboration and innovation.
Initiatives to Address Gaps:
I-STEM: Catalogues all publicly funded research facilities nationwide and makes them available to researchers based on need.
One Nation, One Subscription (ONOS): Proposes a centralized model of subscription to scientific journals to make them universally available to all publicly funded institutions, addressing the high cost of accessing commercial journals.
What is the Optimal Solution?
The optimal solution lies in prioritizing Open Access (OA) initiatives. With a global shift towards OA and increasing mandates from major funding bodies, India should leverage this trend to reduce dependency on costly subscriptions and ensure widespread access to scientific literature.
Major funding bodies and countries are pushing for OA, with the U.S. mandating immediate open accessibility of publicly funded research by 2025.
Challenges with ONOS: The high cost and oligopolistic academic publishing market make negotiation difficult. OA reduces the necessity of a costly unified subscription. ONOS does not ensure long-term access or global accessibility of Indian research.
The Green Open Access: Green Open Access allows authors to deposit a version of their work in a university repository, making it freely accessible globally. Ensures long-term preservation and accessibility of research funded by taxpayer money.
Limitations:
Indian funding agencies have mandated green OA, but it has not been enforced effectively.
Recent issues should catalyze a stronger push for green OA.
Conclusion: India should enhance its journal system, avoiding payment burdens on authors or readers. Utilise digital technology capabilities to create and share low-cost, high-quality scientific publishing infrastructure for the global south.
Mains PYQ:
Q India’s Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) which has a database containing formatted information on more than 2 million medicinal formulations is proving a powerful weapon in the country’s fight against erroneous patents. Discuss the pro and cons of making the database available publicly available under open-source licensing. (UPSC IAS/2015)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Golden Rice, Food Fortification, GM Crops
Why in the News?
The Court of Appeals in the Philippines revoked biosafety permits for GM Golden Rice and BT eggplant, citing safety violations and ordering a halt until issues are resolved.
Golden Rice and Bt Eggplant in the Philippines
What is Golden Rice?
Golden Rice is a variety of rice (Oryza sativa) developed through genetic engineering to produce beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the edible parts of the rice.
This modification aims to address vitamin A deficiency, particularly in areas where it’s prevalent.
The Philippines approved its commercial production in 2021.
The Philippines became the first country to officially issue a biosafety permit for commercially propagating golden rice in July 2021.
Bt Eggplant: Developed by the University of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB), Bt eggplant is engineered to resist pests, aiming to enhance farmer productivity and reduce environmental impact.
Development of Golden Rice:
Research for golden rice began as a Rockefeller Foundationinitiative in 1982.
Peter Bramley discovered in the 1990s that a single phytoene desaturase gene (bacterial CrtI) could be used to produce lycopene from phytoene in genetically modified tomato.
Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg published the scientific details of golden rice in 2000 after an eight-year project.
Genetics:
Golden rice incorporates Psy and CrtI genes from daffodils and a soil bacterium into the rice genome to enhance beta-carotene production in the endosperm.
Field Trials and Approvals:
The first field trials of golden rice cultivars were conducted by Louisiana State University Agricultural Center in 2004.
Additional trials were conducted in the Philippines, Taiwan, and Bangladesh.
In 2018, Canada and the United States approved golden rice as safe for consumption.
In 2019, the Philippines approved golden rice for use as human food, animal feed, or for processing.
In the context of India
Currently, there is no cultivation or commercialization of Golden Rice in India. Growing and selling GM brinjal remains banned in India.
Recently, the Supreme Court has also intervened on the issue of stubble burning and paddy cultivation in India esp, Punjab and Haryana states.
India has approved commercial cultivation of only one GM crop, Bt cotton. No GM food crop has ever been approved for commercial cultivation in the country.
We can have some lessons from the Philippines.
Controversyover its Use
Legal challenges emerged in the Philippines in 2023 and 2024, leading to a halt in commercial propagation.
Critics have raised concerns about its safety, environmental impact, and efficacy compared to other interventions like supplements and dietary diversification.
Greenpeace opposes the use of genetically modified organisms in agriculture and opposes the cultivation of golden rice.
Vandana Shiva, an Indian anti-GMO activist, has argued against golden rice, citing potential issues with loss of biodiversity and availability of diverse and nutritionally adequate food.
Golden Rice 2:
In 2005, researchers at Syngenta developed Golden Rice 2, which contains the phytoene synthase (psy) gene from maisecombined with the crtl gene from the original golden rice.
Golden Rice 2 produces significantly higher levels of carotenoids, particularly beta-carotene, compared to the original golden rice.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to the Genetically Modified mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the following statements:
GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest resistance to a wide variety of pests.
GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridisation.
GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2021] What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of the society?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PRAVAAH, Retail Direct Mobile App, G-Secs, EmTech Repository
Why in the News?
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) recently introduced three significant initiatives: the PRAVAAH portal, the RBI Retail Direct mobile application, and the FinTech Repository.
These initiatives aim to streamline regulatory processes, empower retail investors, and provide insights into the fintech sector.
1. PRAVAAH Portal:
The PRAVAAH portal (Platform for Regulatory Application, VAlidation, and AutHorisation) serves as a centralised web-based platform for individuals and entities to seek regulatory approvals from the RBI.
Offering features like online application submission and status tracking, the portal covers 60 different application forms across various regulatory departments, ensuring efficiency and transparency in the authorisation process.
2. RBI Retail Direct Mobile App:
The RBI Retail Direct Mobile App provides retail investors with convenient accessto government securities (G-Secs) trading directly from their smartphones.
Accessible on both Android and iOS platforms, the app simplifies transactions in both primary and secondary markets, empowering retail investors to participate more actively in the securities market.
3. FinTech Repository:
The FinTech Repository aims to provide comprehensive data on Indian fintech firms, facilitating better regulatory understanding and policy formulation in the rapidly evolving fintech landscape.
Other initiatives launched:
EmTech Repository: It focuses on RBI-regulated entities’ adoption of emerging technologies like AI, ML, Cloud Computing, and Quantum, providing valuable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders.
Reserve Bank Innovation Hub (RBIH): Both repositories are managed by the RBIH, underscoring the central bank’s commitment to fostering innovation and collaboration in the financial sector.
PYQ:
[2013] In the context of the Indian economy, ‘Open Market Operations’ refers to:
(a) borrowing by scheduled banks from the RBI
(b) lending by commercial banks to industry and trade
(c) purchase and sale of government securities by the RBI
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vivekananda Rock, Kanyakumari
Why in the News?
Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced his plan to visit and meditate at the Vivekananda Rock Memorial in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu marking the culmination of the Lok Sabha election campaign.
About Vivekananda Rock:
Vivekananda Rock Memorial is located in Kanyakumari’s Vavathurai beach, Tamil Nadu.
It is situated on a rock island at the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, where the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean meet.
The memorial consists of two main structures: the Vivekananda Mandapam and the Shripada Mandapam.
Historic Significance of Kanyakumari:
Swami Vivekananda is said to have meditated on this rock for two days in December 1892, as he journeyed across India after his return from the West.
Eknath Ranade, the founder of the Vivekananda Rock Memorial Committee, proposed the idea of constructing a memorial on the rock.
The foundation stone for the memorial was laid on September 1, 1964, by then-President of India, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.
The memorial was inaugurated on September 2, 1970, by then-President of India, V. V. Giri.
About Swami Vivekananda
Details
Birth and Death
Narendranath Datta (1862-1902)
Message
Spread Ramakrishna’s message, reconciled it with contemporary Indian society, preached neo-Hinduism
Spiritual Foundation
Based on the spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, teachings of Upanishads and Gita, examples of Buddha and Jesus
Philosophical Beliefs
Subscribed to Vedanta, believed in fundamental oneness of God, advocated for blending of Hinduism and Islam
Advocacy for Social Action
Emphasised social action, criticised religion’s approval of oppression of the poor, called for secular and spiritual knowledge for upliftment
Balance between Spiritualism and Materialism
Advocated for a healthy balance between spiritualism and materialism, called for a blend of Western materialism and Eastern spiritualism for global happiness
Establishment of Ramakrishna Mission
Founded Ramakrishna Mission in 1897, used it for humanitarian relief and social work, stands for religious and social reform, advocated service as worship, not a proselytizing body
Philosophy of Ramakrishna Mission
Believes in using technology and modern science for mankind’s service, recognizes the utility of image worship, emphasizes Vedanta philosophy as a unifying force for all religions, open to all men regardless of caste or creed
Physical Establishment
Acquired land at Belur in 1898, shifted Ramakrishna Math there.
PYQ:
What does each of the following quotations mean to you?
[2021] Every work has got to pass through hundreds of difficulties before succeeding. Those that persevere will see the light, sooner or later.- Swami Vivekananda.
[2020] Condemn none: if you can stretch out a helping hand, do so. If not, fold your hands, bless your brothers, and let them go their own way. – Swami Vivekananda. (2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sharavathi River, Sand Mining Regulations
Why in the News?
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has directed the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and the mines and geology department to stop any unlawful/illegal sand mining in the Sharavathi River coastal zone.
About National Green Tribunal (NGT)
Description
Establishment
Formed in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act as a statutory body.
Objective
To deal with cases related to environmental issues and ensure speedy implementation of decisions.
Responsible for giving many prominent decisions aimed at environmental protection, including addressing air pollution in Delhi and canceling coal block clearances.
Composition
Headquartered in Delhi, chaired by a retired Supreme Court judge
Included Judicial Members and Expert Panel.
Powers
Empowered to decide on questions related to various environmental laws and hear civil cases concerning environmental issues:
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
Exceptions
Prohibited to hear any issues which are covered under:
The Indian Forest Act, 1927,
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and
Any other laws made by States which are related to protection of trees, forests, etc.
Places
Principal bench in Delhi;
Additional benches in Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, and Chennai.
Governing Principles
Governed by principles of natural justice, not bound by Indian Evidence Act.
Applies principles of sustainable development, precautionary, and polluter pays.
Review and Challenge
NGT orders can be reviewed as per Rule 22 of NGT Rules.
Can be challenged before the Supreme Court within 90 days.
Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction over all civil cases involving a substantial question relating to environment.
Powers vested are the same as in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.
Decisions are binding.
Disposal of Cases
Disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same.
About Sharavathi River
It originates and flows entirely within Karnataka.
It is among the few westward-flowing rivers in the country and a significant part of its basin lies in the Western Ghats.
Origin: The river originates at Ambutheertha in the Thirthahalli taluk.
Legend: According to ancient legend, the god Rama shot an arrow (Ambu) into the ground to quench his wife Sita’s thirst. The water that poured out was named “Thirtha,” hence the river’s name “Sharavati,” with “Shara” meaning arrow.
Geography and Length:
The river stretches about 128 km (80 mi) and joins the Arabian Sea at Honnavar in Uttara Kannada district.
Jog Falls, formed by the Sharavati River, is located approximately 25 km from Siddapura.
Tributaries and Basin:
Major tributaries: Nandihole, Haridravathi, Mavinahole, Hilkunji, Yennehole, Hurlihole, and Nagodihole.
River basin: divided between Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts.
Pre-Cambrian rocks, including the Dharwar system and peninsular gneiss, dominate the basin.
Soils and Agriculture:
Soils in the basin are predominantly lateritic and tend to be acidic, ranging from clay loamy to loamy.
Four soil orders are found: ultisols, alfisols, inceptisols, and entisols.
Dams:
The Linganamakki Dam, constructed in 1964, spans the Sharavati River, with a catchment area of nearly 1,991.71 km2.
The Gerusoppa Dam, completed in 2002, primarily serves for electricity generation.
Flora and Fauna:
The Sharavati Valley Wildlife Sanctuary declared in 1972, protects diverse ecosystems and endangered species.
The river basin is rich in biodiversity, home to rare species of flora and fauna.
Regulation of Sand Mining in India:
Mines and Minerals Act, 1957
Definition of Sand as a Minor Mineral
Sand is categorized as a minor mineral under section 3(e) of the MMDR Act.
State Governments’ Role
Section 15 empowers state governments to regulate mineral concessions for minor minerals, leading to the formulation of state-specific concession rules.
Control of Illegal Mining
Section 23C places the jurisdiction over controlling illegal mining under the purview of state governments.
Released by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, aims to promote scientific and environmentally friendly sand mining practices.
Recommendations
Emphasizes sustainable sand extraction, monitoring, and district-wise mapping of sand availability.
Sand Mining Framework, 2018
Issued by
Released by the Ministry of Mines, provides states with guidance for policy formulation and combating illegal sand mining.
Recommended Measures
Suggests geo-fencing, GPS-enabled transportation tracking, price control, involvement of women’s self-help groups, and exploration of alternative sand sources.
PYQ:
[2018] Which of the following is/are the possible consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds?
Decreased salinity in the river
Pollution of groundwater
Lowering of the water-table
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2019] With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements :
Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
State governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A gene called SASS6 (Spindle Assembly Abnormal Protein 6) and its variants have been found to play a key role in a developmental process that causes “Microcephaly”.
What is Microcephaly?
Microcephaly is a condition where a baby’s head is much smaller than normal.
It is associated with a smaller brain, poor motor skills, poor speech, abnormal facial features, and intellectual disabilities.
Developmental Roots:
The condition is believed to start during the peak phase of brain development in the embryo. Cells that are supposed to become neurons fail to divide normally.
Diagnosis:
Microcephaly can be diagnosed before birth using foetal ultrasound and MRI.
Role of SASS6 gene
Since 2014, the SASS6 gene and its variants have been linked to microcephaly.
A recent study in China:(On March 19, 2024)
The study of a consanguine couple revealed microcephaly and fetal growth issues. Confirming the SASS6 gene’s role in microcephaly, findings suggest embryo survival requires at least one functional gene copy.
The University of Cologne Study (February 2024):
Researchers removed all functional SASS6 genes from mouse embryo-derived cells.
Even without the genes, cells could make abnormal but passable centrioles (structures needed for cell division).
When these cells were prompted to become neurons, the centrioles disappeared, preventing the cells from becoming neurons.
Consanguinity and Genetic Risk of Microcephaly
Expert Insight:
Researchers explained that over 70% of congenital microcephaly cases come from consanguineous marriages.
Such marriages increase the risk of inheriting mutated genes from both parents.
Genetic Causes:
Mutations in 30 genes cause microcephaly.
10 of these genes create proteins needed for centrioles, which are crucial for cell division.
Ile62Thr Mutation
2004 Discovery: The SASS6 gene was discovered in the roundworm C. elegans, showing its conserved function across animals.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PREFIRE Mission, Cubesats, Heat Budget of Earth
Why in the News?
NASA launched the ” PREFIRE mission”, deploying twin CubeSats to study heat emissions in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, aiming to enhance climate research.
What are CubeSats?
CubeSats are essentially miniature satellites whose basic design is a 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm (which makes up for “one unit” or “1U”) cube — just a little bigger than a Rubik’s cube.
weight not more than 1.33 kg.
These satellites were first developed in 1999 by California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo (Cal Poly) and Stanford University as educational tools.
However, owing to their low cost and less mass in comparison to traditional satellites, they began to be put in orbit for technology demonstrations, scientific research, and commercial purposes.
About PREFIRE Mission
Jointly developed by NASA and the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
It aims to investigate and comprehend the intricate dynamics of heat emissions from Earth’s Polar Regions, specifically focusing on the Arctic and Antarctica.
Components:
CubeSats: PREFIRE employs shoebox-sized CubeSats, each measuring around 6U (6 units), equipped with advanced instrumentation to facilitate data collection.
They measure around 90 cm in height and nearly 120 cm in width when the solar panels, which will power the satellite, are deployed.
The two satellites will be placed in a near-polar orbit (a type of low Earth orbit) at an altitude of about 525 kilometres.
Thermal Infrared Spectrometers (TIRS): Each CubeSat is outfitted with a Thermal Infrared Spectrometer, meticulously engineered to measure far-infrared radiation emitted by the Polar Regions.
Mission Objectives:
Investigate heat radiated from Earth’s Polar Regions into space and its impact on climate.
Employ thermal infrared spectrometers to measure far-infrared energy emitted by Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
Improve understanding of the greenhouse effect at the poles and its implications for climate change.
Enhance climate and ice models to predict changes in sea level, weather, snow, and ice cover in a warming world.
Why study heat budget of the Poles?
A large amount of the heat radiated from the Arctic and Antarctica is emitted as far-infrared radiation wavelengths of 3 μm to 1,000 μm within the infrared range of electromagnetic radiation.
However, there is currently no way to measure this type of energy.
As a result, there is a gap in knowledge about the planet’s energy budget.
Significance of PREFIRE
PREFIRE’s observations will enhance predictions of climate and environmental changes, aiding in mitigating the effects of global warming.
Data collected will contribute to updating climate models and improving understanding of Earth’s atmospheric dynamics.
PYQ:
[2017] What is the purpose of ‘evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA)’ project?
(a) To detect neutrinos
(b) To detect gravitational waves
(c) To detect the effectiveness of missile defence system
(d) To study the effect of solar flares on our communication systems
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: FIPIC and its member countries; Act East Policy
Why in the News?
India as a member of FIPIC, has pledged $1 million for relief efforts in flood-hit “Papua New Guinea” showcasing solidarity with the affected nation.
What is the Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC)?
The Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) is a multilateral platform established by India to enhance cooperation with the Pacific Island countries.
FIPIC was established by India in 2014 during the first FIPIC Summit held in Suva, Fiji.
The initiative was announced by PM Narendra Modi as part of India’s broader “Act East” policy to strengthen engagement with the Pacific Island countries.
Overview
Purpose: To enhance India’s engagement with Pacific Island nations and support their development priorities through cooperative projects and initiatives.
Members: Includes India and 14 Pacific Islands nations (Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu).
Summits
First Summit – Suva, Fiji (November 2014)
Context: Initiated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi following the re-establishment of democracy in Fiji.
Significance: The summit highlighted the geopolitical interest of major powers in the Pacific, with Chinese leader Xi Jinping visiting Fiji shortly after Modi.
Second Summit – Jaipur, India (August 2015)
Follow-up: As a continuation of the first summit, Modi invited the leaders of the 14 Pacific Islands to Jaipur.
Discussions: Covered cooperation in areas such as the blue economy, oil and natural gas, IT, healthcare, fishing, and marine research. Modi also assured to address their climate change concerns at the 2015 UN Climate Change Conference (COP 21) in Paris.
Third Summit – Papua New Guinea (May 2023)
Current Status: Most recent summit, emphasizing ongoing cooperation and collaboration between India and the Pacific Island nations.
Back2Basics: India’s Act East Policy
Details
Launched in
November 2014, by PM Modi
Objective
To promote economic cooperation, cultural ties, and develop a strategic relationship with countries in the Indo-Pacific region;
Enhancing India’s influence and economic development, especially in the North Eastern Region (NER).
Scope
Extends beyond ASEAN to include East Asian countries.
Intensive and continuous engagement in connectivity, trade, culture, defense, and people-to-people contact at bilateral, regional, and multilateral levels.
Key Dimensions (4C’s)
Culture
Commerce
Connectivity
Capacity building
Security Focus
Enhanced security cooperation, particularly in the context of Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.
Promoting freedom of navigation and securing India’s role in the region.
Historical Context (Look East Policy)
Look East Policy initiated in 1992 by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao.
Focused on strengthening economic integration and cultural ties primarily with ASEAN countries.
Aimed to bolster India’s role as a regional power and counter China’s strategic influence.
Evolution from Look East Policy
Act East Policy is an upgrade and expansion of the Look East Policy, incorporating more comprehensive engagement strategies, including security cooperation and broader geographical focus.
Significant Engagements
India’s active participation in regional forums like the East Asia Summit (EAS), ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), and informal groupings such as the Quad.
Strategic partnerships and dialogues at various international platforms.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Campi Flegrei Super Volcano, Mt. Vesuvius, Volcanic eruptions in news.
Why in the News?
A 4.4 magnitude earthquake struck Italy’s Campi Flegrei super volcano, with Pozzuoli as the epicentre. Felt as far as Naples, it’s the strongest tremor in 40 years
Bradyseism Concerns near Campi Flegrei:
Campi Flegrei is prone to bradyseism, where ground elevation changes due to subsurface pressure.
The area, located 50 kilometres from Mt. Vesuvius, is undergoing a new cycle of bradyseism, according to volcanologists.
Over 500,000 people reside in the red zone adjacent to Campi Flegrei, prompting the Italian Civil Protection Agency to update evacuation plans.
AboutCampi Flegrei Volcano
Campi Flegrei, also known as the Phlegraean Fields, is a large volcanic area located in the western suburbs of Naples, Italy.
It is one of the most active volcanic systems in the world and has been active for at least 50,000 years.
Its Volcanic System:
Location: Campi Flegrei is situated within the Campanian volcanic arc in southern Italy, extending from the city of Naples to the Gulf of Pozzuoli.
Geological Formation: The volcanic system of Campi Flegrei is characterized by a large caldera, which is a collapsed volcanic crater, surrounded by numerous volcanic vents, craters, and lava domes. The caldera has a diameter of about 13 kilometers (8 miles).
Volcanic Activity: Campi Flegrei is considered a supervolcano due to its size and potential for large eruptions. It has experienced numerous periods of volcanic activity throughout its history, including explosive eruptions, lava flows, and phreatic (steam-driven) eruptions.
Terrain Features: The landscape of Campi Flegrei is characterized by volcanic features such as craters, fumaroles (steam vents), mud pots, and hot springs.
PYQ:
[2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in ‘2021’ and their impact on regional environment.
[2018] Consider the following statements:
The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Zero Debris Charter; Kessler syndrome.
Why in the News?
The Zero Debris Charter was signed by twelve nations and the European Space Agency (ESA) at the ESA/EU Space Council.
Zero Debris Charter
The Zero Debris Charter was unveiled at the ESA Space Summit in Seville, Spain, in November 2023.
The Charter was facilitated by ESA’s “Protection of Space Assets” Accelerator and developed through extensive collaboration among various space actors.
Objectives:
To achieve debris neutrality in space by 2030.
Long-term sustainability of human activities in Earth orbit.
Members:
The signatory countries are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
The ESA signed as an International Organization.
Community Support and Leadership
Over 100 organizations are expected to sign the Charter in the coming months.
This includes national space agencies, satellite manufacturers, space startups, and astronomical societies.
Space Debris Challenges
ESA estimates over one million pieces of space debris larger than 1 cm in Earth orbit.
These debris pieces pose significant risks to satellites and astronauts.
Threats posed by Space Debris
Space debris also leads to two major risks:
It creates unusable regions of the orbit due to excessive debris, and
Leads to the ‘Kessler syndrome’ – the creation of more debris due to cascading collisions resulting from one collision.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Hydrogen; the National Green Hydrogen Mission
Why in the news?
GAIL (India) Ltd has commissioned its first green hydrogen plant at Vijaipur in Madhya Pradesh, marking a significant step for the nation’s largest natural gas transmission and distribution firm into new and alternate energy sources.
About Vijaipur Green Hydrogen Plant
The plant aligns with the National Green Hydrogen Mission‘s objective of achieving 5 million tons of annual green hydrogen production capacity by 2030.
The plant features a 10-megawattproton exchange membrane electrolyser imported from Canada.
It will produce approximately 4.3 tonnes of green hydrogen per day with a purity of about 99.999% by volume.
The production process utilises electricity from renewable sources, such as solar energy, to split water and produce green hydrogen.
Major Objective: Hydrogen Blending
GAIL is currently conducting experimental blending of hydrogen with natural gas.
Current regulations permit blending up to 5% hydrogen with natural gas, with ongoing studies to explore higher blending ratios.
What is Green Hydrogen?
Green hydrogen is produced through electrolysis, where electricity derived from renewable sources, such as solar or wind power, is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
Since it relies on renewable energy, green hydrogen production has no direct emissions of CO2 or other greenhouse gases.
What is the Green Hydrogen Standard?
Definition of Green Hydrogen: It has defined green hydrogen as having a well-to-gate emission – including water treatment, electrolysis, gas purification, drying and compression of hydrogen – of not more than 2 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of hydrogen produced.
Nodal Agency: The Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power, will be the nodal authority for green hydrogen production projects.
Back2Basics: National Green Hydrogen Mission, 2023
Details
Ministry
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
Purpose
To incentivise the commercial production of green hydrogen and make India a net exporter of the fuel.
Key Activities
Facilitates demand creation, production, utilisation, and export of green hydrogen.
Sub-Schemes
Strategic Interventions for the Green Hydrogen Transition Programme (SIGHT): To fund the domestic manufacturing of electrolysers and the production of green hydrogen.
Green Hydrogen Hubs: Identify and develop states and regions capable of supporting large-scale production and/or utilisation of hydrogen as Green Hydrogen Hubs.
Green Hydrogen Hubs Details
Identifies and develops regions capable of large-scale hydrogen production and utilisation as Green Hydrogen Hubs.
Objectives
Develop 5 MMT per annum of green hydrogen production by 2030.
Add 125 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030.
Entail over Rs 8 lakh crore investments and generate six lakh jobs.
Reduce fossil fuel imports by over Rs 1 lakh crore and abate 50 MT of greenhouse gases annually.
Significance of Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen is an important source of energy since it has zero carbon content and is a non-polluting source of energy in contrast to hydrocarbons that have net carbon content in the range of 75–85 per cent.
Hydrogen energy is expected to reduce carbon emissions that are set to jump by 1.5 billion tons in 2021.
It has the highest energy content by weight and lowest energy content by volume.
As per the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Hydrogen shall make up 6 per cent of total energy consumption by 2050.
Hydrogen energy is currently at a nascent stage of development but has considerable potential for aiding the process of energy transition from hydrocarbons to renewable.
Types of Hydrogen
Hydrogen extraction methods are classified into three types based on their processes: Grey, Blue, and Green etc.
Green Hydrogen: Discussed above.
Grey Hydrogen: This type of hydrogen is obtained through coal or lignite gasification (black or brown), or by steam methane reformation (SMR) of natural gas or methane (grey). These processes are typically carbon-intensive.
Blue Hydrogen: It is derived from natural gas or coal gasification, coupled with carbon capture storage (CCS) or carbon capture use (CCU) technologies to mitigate carbon emissions.
Turquoise hydrogen: It refers to hydrogen produced from methane pyrolysis, while yellow hydrogen is produced from biomass.
PYQ:
[2023] Consider the following heavy industries:
Fertilizer plants
Oil refineries
Steel plants
Green hydrogen is expected to play a significant role in decarbonizing how many of the above industries?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None
[2023] With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements:
It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.
It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.
It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CCRAS and its functioning
Why in the news?
The Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) is hosting “PRAGATI-2024” at the India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, to promote collaboration and research opportunities between CCRAS and the Ayurveda drug industry.
About Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS)
The CCRAS is an autonomous body of the Ministry of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy), Government of India.
It was established in 1978 to formulate, coordinate, develop, and promote research on scientific lines in the Ayurveda and Sowa-Rigpa system of medicine.
Primary Objectives:
Research: To undertake research to scientifically establish the efficacy of Ayurvedic practices.
Development: To develop and promote Ayurveda science through research and education.
Integration: To integrate traditional Ayurvedic methods with modern medicine for more comprehensive healthcare.
Functions of CCRAS
Research Studies: Conducting various types of research studies like drug research, fundamental research, clinical research, literary research, and medicinal plant research.
Publication: Publishing scientific journals, research papers, and other documentation to disseminate knowledge.
Medicinal Plant Development: Focusing on the cultivation and conservation of medicinal plants used in Ayurveda.
Public Health Initiatives: Implementing public health programs and providing training to practitioners.
Achievements of CCRAS:
Development of Ayurvedic Formulations: CCRAS has developed several notable Ayurvedic formulations and technologies, which have been patented and commercialised.
National Ayurveda Morbidity Codes: CCRAS has developed morbidity codes and standard terminologies to standardise the practice of Ayurveda.
AYUSH Research Portal: A comprehensive database of research on Ayurveda, which includes information on drugs, case studies, and clinical trials.
Notable Projects:
Golden Triangle Partnership: A collaborative project with CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research) and ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) for enhancing the scientific validation of Ayurveda.
Tribal Health Care Research Program: Aimed at documenting ethno-medical knowledge and validating it for scientific purposes.
PYQ:
[2019] How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cost Inflation Index (CII); Long Term Capital Gains
Why in the News?
The Income Tax Department has notified the cost inflation index (CII) for the current fiscal to calculate long-term capital gains arising from the sale of immovable property, securities and jewellery.
The CII is used by a taxpayer to compute gains arising out of the sale of capital assets after adjusting for inflation.
CII Values:
For FY 2024-25, the CII is set at 363.
Previous years’ CII values were 348 for FY 2023-24 and 331 for FY 2022-23.
What isCost Inflation Index (CII)?
CII is a measure used by the Income Tax Department of India to account for inflation when calculating the capital gains on the sale of long-term capital assets.
It helps to adjust the purchase price of assets to reflect the effect of inflation.
CII adjusts the cost of acquisition of assets to the price level inflation at the time of sale.
This ensures that taxpayers pay taxeson the real gains rather than on the inflationary component of the price rise.
It is defined under Section 48 of the Income-tax Act, 1961.
The index is revised annually to keep up with inflation, with the base year being periodically reset (currently the base year is 2001-02 in India).
Application of CII
CII is used to compute the indexed cost of acquisition of a capital asset that has been held for more than36 months (considered as long-term capital assets).
Different holding periods apply for certain types of assets like immovable property and listed securities.
Tax Calculation:
The formula used is:
This formula helps determine the adjusted cost basis from which any sale proceeds are subtracted to calculate capital gains.
Back2Basics: Long Term Capital Gains
In India, long-term capital gains (LTCG) refer to the profit earned from the sale of a capital asset held for a specific period, qualifying it as “long-term” based on the duration of holding.
The tax implications and treatment of these gains are distinct from those of short-term capital gains.
Definition of Long-Term Capital Assets
Equity or Preference Shares, Listed Securities, Units of UTI, etc.: These are considered long-term if held for more than 12 months before sale.
Immovable Property (e.g., Land, Building): Considered long-term if held for more than 24 months.
Other Assets (e.g., Jewellery, Debt-oriented Mutual Funds, etc.): These need to be held for more than 36 months to be considered long-term.
Taxation of Long-Term Capital Gains
Equity Investments:
LTCG from the sale of listed shares or equity-oriented mutual funds over ₹1 lakh is taxed at 10% without the benefit of indexation, provided the securities transaction tax (STT) was paid at the time of sale.
Non-Equity Investments:
LTCG from assets like debt mutual funds, real estate, gold, etc., is taxed at 20% with the benefit of indexation.
Indexation Benefit:
For non-equity assets, the Cost Inflation Index (CII) is used to adjust the purchase price of the asset to reflect inflation. This reduces the taxable gain by increasing the acquisition cost.
Calculation of Long-Term Capital Gains
The general formula for calculating LTCG is:
Where:
Full Value of Consideration is the sale price of the asset.
Indexed Cost of Acquisition is the purchase price adjusted by the CII.
Indexed Cost of Improvement refers to the cost of any improvements made to the asset, adjusted by the CII.
Cost of Transfer includes expenses directly related to the sale or transfer of the asset.
Exemptions and Deductions
Section 54: Exemption on LTCG from the sale of a residential property if the proceeds are reinvested in another residential property in India.
Section 54EC: Exemption by investing LTCG in bonds issued by NHAI or REC within 6 months of the asset sale, subject to a cap of ₹50 lakhs.
PYQ:
[2015] Which reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct?
(a) Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
(b) The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
(c) Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
(d) Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fatty Acids and their health implications
Why in the News?
Fish oil supplements, highly regarded for their high omega-3 fatty acid content, have long been associated with heart health benefits.
A recent study has caused controversy by raising the possibility that these supplements may be as harmful as previously thought.
What are Fatty Acids?
Fatty acids are crucial lipids (fats and oils) essential for various biological functions (Fatty Acid + Glycerol = Fats). They are carboxylic acids with a long aliphatic chain, either saturated or unsaturated.
Basic Structure: Consists of a hydrocarbon chain with a terminal carboxyl group (-COOH). The length and degree of saturation of the hydrocarbon chain can vary.
Roles in the Body: Serve as energy sources, components of cell membranes, and precursors for bioactive lipids.
Types of Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are classified based on the presence and number of double bonds in their hydrocarbon chain:
Saturated Fatty Acids (SFA)
Structure: Contain no double bonds between carbon atoms; the hydrocarbon chain is saturated with hydrogen atoms.
Formation: Produced by the industrial process of hydrogenation of unsaturated fats, or naturally in the guts of some animals.
Properties: Similar to saturated fats, solid at room temperature.
Health Impact: Associated with negative cardiovascular effects.
Sources: Margarine, partially hydrogenated oils, and some baked goods.
What are Omega-3 Fatty Acids?
Omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3s) are polyunsaturated fats that perform important functions in the human body.
There are three main types of omega-3 fatty acids:
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid). EPA is a “marine omega-3” because it’s found in fish.
DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). DHA is also a marine omega-3 found in fish.
ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). ALA is the form of omega-3 found in plants.
When we get ALA from food, the human body can turn some of the ALA into EPA and subsequently to DHA. However, this process provides just a small amount of EPA and DHA. So, dietary sources of EPA and DHA (like fish) are essential.
Functions of Omega-s fatty acids:
They help to provide structure and supporting interactions between cells.
Omega-3s are concentrated in high levels in cells in human eyes and brain.
They provide the human body with energy (calories) and support the health of many body systems. These include the human cardiovascular system and endocrine system.
Significance of Omega-3 fatty acids:
Omega-3 fatty acids have many potential benefits for human cardiovascular health.
One key benefit is that they help lower human triglyceride levels.
Too many triglycerides in human blood (hypertriglyceridemia) raise human risk of atherosclerosis, and through this, can increase human risk of heart disease and stroke. So, it’s important to keep triglyceride levels under control.
Omega-3s may help us by raising human HDL (good) cholesterol and lowering human blood pressure.
Some studies show omega-3s may lower human risk for Cardiovascular disease (CVD), and hence lowering the sudden death caused by an abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia), and blood clots.
Beyond heart health, omega-3s may help lower the human risk of developing some forms of cancer, including breast cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, and dementia, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), research continues to investigate these and other possible benefits.
PYQ:
[2011] A company marketing food products advertises that its items do not contain trans-fats. What does this campaign signify to the customers?
The food products are not made out of hydrogenated oils.
The food products are not made out of animal fats/ oils.
The oils used are not likely to damage the cardiovascular health of the consumers.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
The temple’s pavilion or the Saalu Mantap of the historic Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Karnataka collapsed following Torrential rains.
About Virupaksha Temple
Traced back to the 7th century AD.
Built by early rulers of the Chalukya dynasty.
The temple was significantly expanded by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under the rule of Deva Raya II (Prauda Deva Raya) of the Vijayanagara Empire.
However, the most significant expansions and contributions were made during the reign of King Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century.
The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, known locally as Virupaksha or Pampa Pathi, and is associated with the local deity Pampadevi.
Hampi, including the Virupaksha Temple, was declared aUNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986 due to its rich architectural heritage and historical significance.
Main Gopuram: The eastern entrance of the temple features a monumental nine-story gopuram (tower) that is approximately 50 meters high. This tower is intricately decorated with sculptures depicting Hindu myths and deities.
Smaller Gopurams: Other entrances of the temple are also marked by smaller but similarly elaborate gopurams.
Mandapas (Pavilions):
Ranga Mandapa: Added in 1510 by King Krishnadevaraya, this is one of the most elaborately carved areas. The Ranga Mandapa is used for temple ceremonies and performances, featuring pillars with intricate carvings of mythical creatures and deities.
Open Pillar Hall: A large hall with rows of intricately carved pillars that depict various mythological scenes and form an important part of the temple structure.
Kalyana Mandapa: This area is used for celebrating the annual marriage festival of the deities, reflecting both architectural grandeur and cultural significance.
Sanctum Sanctorum (Garbhagriha):
Main Shrine: The innermost sanctum houses the sacred Linga of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva). This area is considered the most sacred and is elaborately decorated.
Lesser Sanctums: Surrounding the main sanctum, there are smaller shrines dedicated to other deities, which are typical in South Indian temple complexes.
Pillars and Sculptures:
Carved Pillars: The temple’s pillars are renowned for their detailed carvings, which depict scenes from Hindu mythology, including episodes from the epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Artistic Themes: The sculptures include a mix of divine figures, mythological animals, and scenes from daily life, showcasing the craftsmanship and artistic sensibilities of the era.
Water Structures:
Sacred Tank: A sacred water tank within the complex is used for religious rituals and ceremonies.
About Vijayanagara Empire
It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who were brothers and possibly former officers in the Hoysala Empire.
Dynastic Rule: Governed by four main dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu.
Capital: The capital was Hampi, in the modern state of Karnataka, India, recognized today as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Geographical Span: At its peak, the empire covered not only Karnataka but also extended into parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
Krishnadevaraya: Considered the greatest ruler of the empire, known for his administrative genius and patronage of arts and literature.
Decline: The Empire suffered a major military defeat against a coalition of Deccan Sultanates in the Battle of Talikota (1565), which led to a significant decline in power.
PYQ:
[2019] Building ‘Kalyana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of-
Chalukya
Chandela
Rashtrakuta
Vijayanagara
[2016] Krishnadeva Raya, the king of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but was a also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Periyar River and important places in its catchment
Why in the News?
A mass fish kill struck the Periyar River, the ‘Lifeline of Kerala’.
The incident, believed to be caused by industrial pollution from the Edayar Industrial Area, has caused immense loss to fish farmers and disrupted the local ecosystem.
About Periyar River
Details
Length
Approximately 244 kilometers (151 miles)
Source of the river
Originates in the Sivagiri hills of Sundaramala, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu
Mouth of the River
Empties into the Arabian Sea at Aluva, near Kochi, Kerala
Flow Through
Flows through Idukki, Ernakulam, and Thrissur districts in Kerala
Major Tributaries
Muthirapuzha, Cheruthoni, Edamalayar
Key Hydroelectric Projects
Idukki Dam (one of Asia’s highest arch dams), other significant dams include Mullaperiyar Dam
Ecological Conservation
Supports diverse ecosystems, passes through Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (notable for elephants and tigers)
Cultural Significance
The ancient port of Muziris, is believed to have been located near the mouth of the Periyar.
Environmental Challenges
Faces pollution from industrial discharge and urban waste; water management disputes, especially related to the Mullaperiyar Dam’s safety and water sharing between Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Threats to Periyar River
The lower reaches of the Periyar are heavily polluted. Industries in the Eloor industrial zone discharge waste into the river.
Greenpeace India describes the lower Periyar as “a cesspool of toxins, which have alarming levels of deadly poisons like DDT, endosulfan, hexa and trivalent chromium, lead, cyanide, BHC”.
Illegal sand mining from the Periyar is another major environmental issue.
PYQ:
[2011] With reference to the Indus river system, of the following four rivers, three of them pour into one of them which joins the Indus direct. Among the following, which one is such river that joins the Indus direct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Adenovirus, herpesvirus, and papillomavirus
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
Researchers found traces of many present-day viruses in the bones of two Neanderthals who lived 50,000 years ago, providing a new perspective on their extinction.
Breakthrough Study on Neanderthals
Ancient viruses in Neanderthal DNA samples from skeletons found in Russia’s Chagyrskaya cave.
The study detected fragments resembling three modern viruses: adenovirus (common colds), herpesvirus (cold sores), and papillomavirus (genital warts).
Health Impacts Inherited in Modern Human Beings:
Modern humans inherit various health impacts from Neanderthals, including skin conditions, allergies, metabolism, nicotine addiction, mood disorders, sleep patterns, blood clotting, sense of smell, and UV radiation response.
Who were the Neanderthals?
Neanderthals were a distinct species of hominins that lived in Europe and parts of Asia around 400,000 to 40,000 years ago during the Middle to Late Pleistocene Epochs.
Their evidence was first found in 1856 in the Neander Valley in present-day Germany.
Physical Features:
Neanderthals were robustly built, with a stocky and muscular frame adapted to cold climates.
They had large brains, comparable in size to modern humans, indicating advanced cognitive abilities.
Distinctive features included a prominent brow ridge, large nose, and a receding chin.
Social Life:
Neanderthals were skilled hunters and gatherers, using tools such as stone flakes, scrapers, and spears for hunting and butchering animals.
They utilized fire for cooking, warmth, and protection, as evidenced by the presence of hearths in their archaeological sites.
Evidence suggests they had complex social structures and engaged in rituals and symbolic behaviours, including burying their dead with grave goods.
Habitat and Distribution:
Neanderthals inhabited a wide range of environments, including open grasslands, forests, and even cold tundra regions.
Their range extended from Western Europe to Central Asia, with evidence of populations in regions such as Spain, France, Germany, Croatia, and the Middle East.
Interactions with Modern Humans:
Neanderthals coexisted with early modern humans (Homo sapiens) for thousands of years in Europe and Asia.
There is evidence of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans, with genetic studies indicating that non-African humans carry about 1-2% Neanderthal DNA.
PYQ:
[2019] The word ‘Denisovan’ is sometimes mentioned in media in reference to
(a) Fossils of a kind of dinosaurs
(b) An early human species
(c) A cave system found in North-East India
(d) A geological period in the history of Indian subcontinent
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ferroptosis
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
Columbia University study on COVID-19 fatalities found ferroptosis as the main cause of lung cell death, advancing understanding of lung disease development.
What is Ferroptosis?
Ferroptosis is a type of regulated cell death characterized by the iron-dependent accumulation of lipid peroxides to lethal levels.
Other forms of cell death:
Apoptosis (highly regulated process that occurs in multicellular organisms to eliminate unwanted or damaged cells without causing inflammation),
Necrosis (cell death characterized by rapid and uncontrolled cell lysis, often accompanied by inflammation and tissue damage).
Autophagy (involves the degradation and recycling of cellular components through lysosomal machinery).
Mechanism of Ferroptosis:
The precise molecular mechanism underlying ferroptosis is still being elucidated, but it involves the deregulation of iron metabolism and lipid peroxidation. Here’s a simplified overview of how ferroptosis occurs:
Iron Accumulation: Ferroptosis is characterized by the accumulation of iron within cells, particularly in the form of labile iron pools. Excess iron can lead to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through Fenton chemistry.
Lipid Peroxidation: ROS generated from excess iron promotes lipid peroxidation, particularly of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) within cell membranes. Lipid peroxides accumulate and propagate, leading to membrane damage and loss of membrane integrity.
Glutathione Depletion: Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant that helps to neutralize ROS and prevent lipid peroxidation. In ferroptosis, there is a depletion of cellular GSH levels, which impairs the cell’s ability to counteract oxidative stress.
GPX4 Inhibition: Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) is an enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of lipid hydroperoxides to their corresponding alcohols, thereby protecting cells from lipid peroxidation. In ferroptosis, GPX4 activity is inhibited, leading to the accumulation of lipid peroxides and cell death.
Mitochondrial Dysfunction: Ferroptosis is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, including alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential and morphology, as well as disruption of mitochondrial metabolism and bioenergetics.
Cellular Consequences: The accumulation of lipid peroxides and mitochondrial dysfunction ultimately leads to cellular damage, loss of cell membrane integrity, and cell death by ferroptosis.
Significance of the Study
Targeting and preventing ferroptosis could offer novel treatment avenues for COVID-19 lung disease and its possible future mutations.
Inhibiting this form of cell death may help improve the treatment outcomes for severe cases of COVID-19.
PYQ:
[2020] COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid management of the pandemic.
