Focus include on graphite, gallium, and germanium to strengthen supply chains.
What are Critical Minerals?
Critical minerals are elements that are crucial to modern-day technologies and are at risk of supply chain disruptions.
These minerals are mostly used in making electronic equipment such as mobile phones, computers, batteries, electric vehicles, and green technologies like solar panels and wind turbines.
Many of these are required to meet the manufacturing needs of green technologies, high-tech equipment, aviation, and national defence.
List of critical minerals includes:
The centre has released a list of 30 critical minerals for India in 2023:
Identified Minerals: Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, Platinum Group elements (PGE), Phosphorous, Potash, Rare Earth Elements (REE), Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium and Cadmium.
Fertilizer Minerals: Two minerals critical for fertilizer production, phosphorous and potash, are also included in the above list.
Critical Mineral Blocks in India
Distribution: There are 20 blocks spread across eight states, including Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Jammu & Kashmir.
Types of Licenses: Four blocks are for a Mining License (ML), allowing immediate mining post-clearance. The remaining 16 blocks are for a Composite License (CL), permitting further exploration before potentially converting to an ML.
Approvals Required: Licensees must obtain various approvals, including forest clearance and environmental clearance.
Forest Land: Approximately 17% of the total concession area, or 1,234 hectares, is forest land.
India’s Critical Mineral Imports
Lithium Imports: In FY23, India imported 2,145 tonnes of lithium carbonate and lithium oxide, costing Rs 732 crore.
Nickel and Copper Imports: The country imported 32,000 tonnes of unwrought nickel and 1.2 million tonnes of copper ore, costing Rs 6,549 crore and Rs 27,374 crore, respectively.
Import Dependence: India relies entirely on imports for lithium and nickel, and 93% for copper.
Country-wise dependence:
China: India heavily relies on China for the import of critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite.
Australia: India is actively engaged with Australia for acquiring mineral assets, particularly lithium and cobalt, to secure its supply chain for critical minerals.
Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile: India is engaging with these countries, known for their reserves of battery metals like lithium and cobalt, to diversify its sources for critical minerals.
India’s Strategic Mineral Initiatives
Amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 support expanded exploration.
Establishment of Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. (KABIL) with equity from National Aluminium Company Ltd, Hindustan Copper Ltd, and Mineral Exploration and Consultancy Ltd for global mineral asset acquisition.
International Collaborations and Partnerships
India joined the U.S.-led mineral security partnership to secure critical mineral supply chains.
Creation of an India-U.S. advanced materials research forum to foster collaboration in universities, laboratories, and private sectors.
Bilateral technology collaboration on neodymium-iron-boron and studies on minerals like lithium, titanium, gallium, and vanadium.
Back2Basics: Indo-US Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (iCET)
Details
Initiation
Announced in May 2022, officially launched in January 2023
Management
Overseen by the National Security Councils of India and the US
Objectives
Enhance bilateral cooperation in critical and emerging technologies
Focus Areas of the Initiative
AI Research Agency Partnership
Defense Industrial and Technological Cooperation
Innovation Ecosystems
Semiconductor Ecosystem Development
Cooperation on Human Spaceflight
Advancement in 5G and 6G Technologies
Key Achievements
Quantum Coordination Mechanism
Public-private dialogues on telecommunications and AI
MoU on semiconductor supply chain
Defense industrial cooperation roadmap
Upcoming Initiatives
Finalization of major jet engine deal
Launch of India-US Defence Acceleration Ecosystem (INDUS-X)
Strategic Trade Dialogue establishment
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements:
Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
State governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AlphaFold 3 System
Why in the News?
AlphaFold 3, and AI System introduced in a May 2024 Nature paper, extends capabilities to predict protein-protein interactions, DNA, RNA structures, and their interactions.
Importance of Proteins
Proteins are crucial molecules regulating nearly every biological function.
They are composed of amino acids, which determine their structure and function.
Understanding protein folding is essential for comprehending cellular and organismal functions.
The Protein-Folding Problem
The process of protein folding is complex and not fully understood, known as the protein-folding problem.
It is vital for deciphering how cells, organisms, and life itself operate.
Frank Uhlmann emphasizes the significance of understanding protein structure for molecular biology.
What is AlphaFold?
Google DeepMind’s AlphaFold debuted in 2020, employs AI and machine learning to predict protein structures.
AlphaFold 2, released in 2021, significantly improved accuracy in protein structure prediction.
Derek Lowe acknowledges AlphaFold’s achievement in predicting structures effectively, although the deeper biological principles remain less explored.
AlphaFold 3’s Advancements:
It democratizes research by offering accessible structure prediction tools, even for non-experts.
Technology behind AlphaFold 3
Unlike its predecessors, AlphaFold 3 utilizes a diffusion model akin to image-generating software.
This approach involves training on noisy data and de-noising to predict accurate protein structures.
Working:
Given an input list of molecules, AlphaFold 3 generates their joint 3D structure, revealing how they all fit together.
It models large biomolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as small molecules, also known as ligands — a category encompassing many drugs.
Applications of AlphaFold 3
AlphaFold 3 excels in predicting protein structures and interactions, aiding drug discovery efforts.
DeepMind’s spin-off, Isomorphic Labs, utilizes AlphaFold 3 for drug candidate identification.
Challenges
The model’s code restriction has sparked criticism among researchers for hindering scientific collaboration and transparency.
DeepMind initially withheld AlphaFold 3’s full code, prompting calls for open access from the scientific community.
Responding to backlash, DeepMind plans to release the complete code within six months.
PYQ:
[2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?
Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
Create meaningful short stories and songs
Disease diagnosis
Text-to-Speech Conversion
Wireless transmission of electrical energy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pro-Tem Speaker of Lok Sabha
Why in the News?
The 18th Lok Sabha will convene its first session very soon. A new Speaker of the House will be elected during this session.
Until the election of the new Speaker, a pro-tem Speaker will be appointed to administer the oath to the new Members of Parliament.
Who is a Pro-tem Speaker?
The Speaker of the Lok Sabha oversees the day-to-day proceedings of the House.
According to Article 94 of the Indian Constitution, the outgoing Speaker continues in office until the first meeting of the new Lok Sabha.
A pro-tem Speaker is appointed temporarily to manage certain duties until the new Speaker is elected.
The Constitution does NOT mention explicitly about the post.
However, the ‘Handbook on the Working of the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs provides guidelines on the appointment and duties of the Speaker pro-tem.
Functions:
The primary duty of the pro-tem Speaker is to administer oaths to the new MPs, as mandated by Article 99 of the Constitution.
Appointment of the Pro-tem Speaker
When the Speaker’s post is vacant before the new Lok Sabha convenes, the PRESIDENT appoints a Member of the House as the Speaker pro-tem.
The President administers the oath to the Speaker pro-tem at the Rashtrapati Bhawan.
Generally, three other elected members of the Lok Sabha are also appointed by the President to assist in the oath-taking process.
The SENIORMOST members, in terms of years of service, are usually chosen for this role, though there can be exceptions.
Process of Administering Oaths
The Legislative I Section of the Government of India prepares a list of the seniormost Lok Sabha members after the formation of the new government.
This list is submitted to the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs or the Prime Minister, who identifies the Speaker pro-tem and the three other members for oath-taking.
After the Prime Minister’s approval, the consent of the selected members is obtained by the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs, usually over the telephone.
The Minister then submits a note to the President seeking approval for the appointments and the date and time for the swearing-in ceremony.
Upon the President’s approval, the Ministry informs the Speaker pro-tem and the other members about their appointments.
The Speaker pro-tem then administers the oath to the other three members in the Lok Sabha.
PYQ:
[2024] With reference to the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, consider the following statements :
While any resolution for the removal of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha is under consideration
He/She shall not preside.
He/She shall not have the right to speak.
He/She shall not be entitled to vote on the resolution in the first instance.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: G-7 Countries
Why in the News?
PM Modi was placed at centre stage for a group photograph at the G-7 Outreach Summit held in Italy.
This marks India’s 11th participation in the G7 Summit and PM Modi’s fifth consecutive attendance.
About G-7 (Group of Seven)
The G7 is an informal bloc of industrialized democracies comprising the United States, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom (UK).
It convenes annually to address global economic governance, international security, and more recently, issues related to artificial intelligence (AI).
Formation and Expansion:
Originally formed as the Group of Six in 1975 by the United States, France, Italy, Japan, the UK, and West Germany, with Canada joining in 1976.
It was formed as a result of the oil crisis to stabilize global economic policies and international relations.
The group’s formation coincided with the challenges of the Cold War era, aiming to address economic concerns such as inflation and recession exacerbated by the OPEC oil embargo.
Key statistics about G7 countries:
Wealth: They control 60% of the global net wealth.
Growth: They drive 46% of the global GDP.
Population: They represent 10% of the world’s population.
Russia’s Joining and Suspension
Russia joined in 1998, transforming it into the G8, aimed at enhancing its international prestige and fostering closer ties with Western nations.
Russia was suspended in 2014 following its annexation of Crimea, leading to ongoing tensions and challenges with both Russia and increasingly, China.
Functioning of the G7
Unlike formal institutions like the United Nations or NATO, the G7 lacks a charter and secretariat.
Its presidency rotates annually (Canada in 2025), responsible for setting the agenda and logistical arrangements for the summit.
Policy initiatives are crafted by ministers and envoys known as Sherpas, who prepare discussions and agreements before the annual gathering.
Non-member countries are occasionally invited to participate in G7 meetings.
Why G7 needs India?
Economic Significance and Democratic Stability: India’s regular participation in G7 meetings highlights its economic importance and stable democratic framework.
Rising Economic Power: With India poised to become the world’s fourth-largest economy, its involvement in global issues is increasingly crucial.
Leadership in the Global South: Modi’s initiatives, such as the Voice of the Global South Summit, have bolstered India’s global standing.
G20 Presidency: India’s recent presidency of the G20 demonstrated its ability to build consensus on contentious global issues.
Neutrality and Strategic Partnerships: India’s neutral stance on Western concerns over China’s actions in the South China Sea and its economic policies enhances its partnership with G7 nations.
Balancing with Russia and the West: As the West confronts Russia over Ukraine, India’s neutral stance positions it as a key ally while maintaining diplomatic balance.
Divergence within G7
Geopolitical Tensions: The G7 nations often face disagreements and tensions over geopolitical matters, such as responses to Russian aggression, conflicts in regions like Ukraine, and strategic alliances with emerging economies.
Economic Policies: Economic policies and trade relations are frequent topics of debate within the G7. Issues include trade tariffs, market regulations, financial stability, and economic cooperation in the face of global economic challenges.
Climate Change: Addressing climate change and achieving environmental sustainability are critical concerns for the G7. Discussions typically focus on climate action commitments, renewable energy investments, and international cooperation on climate policies.
Security and Defense: Security and defence cooperation, including responses to global terrorism, cybersecurity threats, and military alliances, are important agenda items for the G7.
Technology and Innovation: Managing technological advancements, including AI regulation, digital governance, cybersecurity standards, and technological innovation policies, is another area of focus.
Social Issues: Social issues such as gender equality, human rights, immigration policies, and global development aid are also part of the G7 agenda, reflecting broader societal concerns and international commitments.
PYQ:
[2020] In which one of the following groups are all four countries members of G20?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Facts about Elephants
Why in the News?
Recent studies utilizing Artificial Intelligence (AI)tools have revealed that elephants possess unique names used to address each other, placing them among the select animals with this ability.
Unlike animals such as parrots and dolphins, elephants do not imitate the calls of those they address, resembling humans in this communicative trait.
Naming Behavior in Elephants
Unlike humans, elephants do not mimic the calls of the addressee, setting their communication apart from other animals.
Published in Nature, the study titled ‘African elephants address one another with individually specific name-like calls’ involved researchers from institutions like Colorado State University and Save The Elephants.
Study Methodology
Communication Methods: Contrary to popular belief, elephants predominantly communicate through low-pitched rumbles rather than trumpets, which are primarily emotional expressions.
Data Analysis: Researchers analyzed recordings of wild female African savannah elephants and their offspring’s rumbles across various Kenyan national parks spanning from 1986 to 2022.
AI Application: Using AI technology, they scrutinized 469 recorded rumbles to detect patterns indicating specific recipients of the communication.
Success Rate: The AI model successfully identified the intended elephant recipient in 27.5% of cases, surpassing chance levels.
Observations
Behavioural Observation: To validate their findings, researchers played back recorded rumbles to 17 elephants and noted heightened reactions when elephants heard their ‘names’, indicating recognition of individual names.
Unique Communication: Unlike animals that imitate others’ calls, elephants display no evidence of imitation, suggesting a unique communication strategy.
Significance of the Study
Sophisticated Communication: The study underscores elephants’ advanced communication abilities, challenging previous assumptions about their cognitive prowess.
Human-Elephant Parallels: It draws parallels between human and elephant communication, fostering greater admiration for elephants and potentially mitigating human-elephant conflicts crucial for conservation efforts.
Future Research: Further investigation is warranted to pinpoint the exact location of elephant names within rumbles and explore whether elephants assign names to objects besides individuals.
Back2Basics: Elephants in India
Details
Population Estimate
India hosts the largest population of wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), with around 29,964 individuals,
Approximately 60% of the global population (2017 census).
Leading States
Karnataka holds the highest number of elephants, followed by Assam and Kerala.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: Endangered.
CMS: Appendix I.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I,
CITES: Appendix I.
Conservation Initiatives
‘Project Elephant’ was launched in 1992, covering 23 states across India.
This project contributed to the increase in the wild elephant population from around 25,000 in 1992 to about 30,000 in 2021.
Establishment of Elephant Reserves. Total 33 in numbers covering approximately 80,777 Sq.km.
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:
The leader of an elephant group is a female.
The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Valentina Tereshkova, Manned mission to space
Why in the News?
On June 16, 1963, Valentina Tereshkova made history as the first woman to venture into space. Her achievement marked a significant milestone in the Space Race between the USA and the USSR during the Cold War.
About Valentina Tereshkova’s Space Journey
In 1962, Tereshkova was selected among five women for the Soviet space program, aiming to achieve ‘gender equality’ in space exploration.
The USSR’s decision to send a woman into space was partly influenced by the success of Yuri Gagarin’s mission in 1961 and the desire to surpass the US in space achievements.
Tereshkova’s affiliation with theCommunist Party and her skills as a parachutist were factors in her selection for the Vostok 6 mission.
The Mission – Vostok 6
On June 16, 1963, Tereshkova piloted Vostok 6, becoming the first woman to orbit the Earth.
She spent 71 hours in space, completing 48 orbits around the Earth during her mission.
Impact and Legacy
Tereshkova’s mission boosted Soviet prestige in the Space Race, following earlier successes like launching Sputnik-1 in 1957 and Yuri Gagarin’s historic flight in 1961.
Despite her pioneering role, the USA would later achieve milestones like the Apollo moon landings, surpassing Soviet achievements in manned space missions.
Tereshkova continued to advocate for women’s participation in space exploration and held prominent positions in Soviet politics and the Air Force.
Indian Women in Space
Indian women have made significant contributions to space exploration, marking milestones and inspiring future generations. Here are notable Indian women who have ventured into space:
Kalpana Chawla: Born in Karnal, Haryana, Kalpana Chawla was the first woman of Indian origin in space. She flew on two Space Shuttle missions, including STS-87 in 1997. Tragically, she lost her life during the re-entry of the Space Shuttle Columbia in 2003.
Sunita Williams: An American astronaut of Indian-Slovenian descent, Sunita Williams has set records for spacewalks and served as a flight engineer on the International Space Station (ISS). She has logged over 322 days in space across multiple missions.
Sirisha Bandla: An aeronautical engineer and Vice President at Virgin Galactic, Sirisha Bandla became the second India-born woman to travel to space on the Virgin Galactic Unity 22 mission in 2021.
Women Pioneers of ISRO:
Lalitha Ramachandran: Joined ISRO in 1969 as a technical assistant at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), becoming one of the first female chemical engineers recruited by ISRO. She retired as associate project director of the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project.
J Geetha: Joined ISRO in 1972 after working at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. She reminisces about the challenges of data gathering in the pre-internet era and the mentorship she received from stalwarts like Satish Dhawan and Vasant R Gowarikar.
Radhika Ramachandran: Joined ISRO in 1984 and served in various roles, including technical liaison officer at ISRO’s New Delhi office and director of the Space Physics Laboratory. She highlights the merit-based culture and the support for open discussions and suggestions.
T S Ramadevi: Joined ISRO in 1970 after completing her BTech from CET, Thiruvananthapuram. She was part of the communications unit and contributed to the growth of ISRO’s transmission technologies. She retired as deputy director of management systems.
Athula Devi: Joined ISRO in 1987 and retired in January, having been part of the team that developed base software systems for the Gaganyaan launch. She emphasizes ISRO’s growth through failures and the team’s dedication to projects above personal recognition.
PYQ:
[2017] India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions. What are the main obstacles to launching a manned space mission, both in terms of technology and logistics? Examine critically. (10)
Understanding the absorbency of diapers through the Quantum physics of water absorption and contrasting materials that do or do not absorb water.
Absorption in Diapers: How it works?
Absorption depends on Microscopic forces and Material properties. Water molecules are attracted to materials like cotton due to their structure.
Cotton, a network of polymers with ions, absorbs water effectively by attracting water molecules.
For large fluid absorption like in diapers, Super-Absorbent Polymers (SAP)are crucial.
What areSuper-Absorbent Polymers (SAP)?
SAPs are synthetic materials with the ability to absorb and retain large amounts of liquid relative to their own mass.
They are commonly used in products like diapers, sanitary napkins, and other absorbent hygiene products.
SAPs are typically cross-linked polymers, meaning their molecules are bonded in a way that creates a network capable of absorbing water molecules.
Examples:
Sodium Polyacrylate: This is one of the most common types of SAP used in diapers. It forms a gel-like substance when it absorbs liquid.
Polyacrylamide: Another type of SAP used in various applications, including agriculture and wastewater treatment, due to its high water-absorbing capacity.
Quantum Physics Insight of SAP
Quantum physics plays a fundamental role in understanding the behaviour of super-absorbent polymers (SAPs), particularly in how they interact with water molecules at the atomic level:
Electron Sharing: SAPs contain ions like sodium, which have a strong affinity for water molecules. This attraction is based on the principles of quantum physics, where atoms like sodium and oxygen prefer to share electrons to achieve stability. This shared electron arrangement allows water molecules to bond with the ions in SAPs, facilitating the absorption process.
Quantum Mechanical Properties: At the quantum level, electrons behave as waves and can exist in shared states between atoms. This phenomenon allows for the formation of stable bonds between water molecules and SAP ions, enhancing the SAP’s ability to absorb large amounts of liquid.
Energy States: Quantum physics explains how SAPs manage energy states during absorption. As water enters the SAP, energy is released due to changes in the electron configurations and bonding energies of the ions involved. This process is crucial for maintaining the gel-like structure of the SAP and preventing leakage.
PYQ:
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cheetah Reintroduction in India, Gandhi Sagar WLS
Why in the News?
Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary will become the second home for cheetahs in India, after Kuno National Park. The final decision on importing cheetahs from Namibia and South Africa will be made after the monsoon season to avoid infection risks.
Cheetah Reintroduction in India:
In India, cheetahs disappeared in the early 1950s due to hunting and the loss of their habitat.
The ‘Action Plan for Reintroduction of Cheetah in India /Project Cheetah (2022)’ aims to bring cheetahs from African countries to various national parks.
It is spearheaded by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
Recently, cheetahs from Namibia were reintroduced in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh.
About Cheetah:
The cheetah is a fast-running big cat native to Africa and central Iran, capable of speeds up to 80 to 128 km/h.
They live in various habitats like savannahs, arid mountains, and hilly deserts.
Cheetahs live in three main groups: females with cubs, male coalitions, and solitary males.
They hunt during the day, preferring dawn and dusk.
The global cheetah population was 6,500 mature individuals, according to the most recent IUCN assessment in 2021.
They are listed as VULNERABLE by the IUCN.
The Asiatic Cheetah is one of the five subspecies of cheetah, critically endangered and found only in Iran.
About Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary
Located in western Madhya Pradesh, Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary covers an area of 368.62 sq km.
It spans the Mandsaur (187.12 sq km) and Neemuch (181.5 sq km) districts, bordering Rajasthan.
Situated on a flat rocky plateau characterized by shallow topsoil and exposed sheetrock.
It is divided by the Chambal River, with the Gandhi Sagar dam and reservoir within its boundaries.
Flora and Fauna:
Flora: The sanctuary features a savannah ecosystem with open grasslands interspersed with dry deciduous trees. Riverine valleys within the sanctuary support evergreen vegetation.
Fauna: The sanctuary is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including species like leopards, sloth bears, striped hyenas, grey wolves, golden jackals, jungle cats, Indian foxes, and marsh crocodiles.
Habitat Suitability for Cheetahs
Officials cite Gandhi Sagar as having an ideal habitat parallel to Maasai Mara (a National Park) in Kenya, suitable for cheetahs.
Plans include expanding the cheetah habitat to around 2,000 sq km, contingent upon cooperation with Rajasthan’s Bhainsrodgarh sanctuary.
PYQ:
[2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2012] Consider the following: (2012)
Black-necked crane
Cheetah
Flying squirrel
Snow leopard
Which of the above are naturally found in India?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Flapping Frequency
Why in the news?
Researchers at Roskilde University in Denmark discovered a formula that correlates the flapping frequency of winged and swimming animals to their mass and wing/fins size.
The formula applies universally across a diverse range of species, from insects to birds, bats, penguins, whales, and even robotic ornithopters.
Formula for Flapping Frequency
The formula was derived from Newton’s second law (F= mass x acceleration) applied to animals flapping wings to stay airborne.
Factors considered in the derivation included air density, wing size, and the forces generated by wing movements.
Research Methodology
The researchers derived the formula theoretically from Newton’s second law, relating the force needed to stay airborne or submerged to the wing/fins’ motion, air/water dynamics, and animal mass.
They incorporated empirical observations into a constant C to account for specific shape and flight kinematics variations.
Application and Validity
The formula’s validity was tested across various animals:
176 insect data points (e.g., bees, moths, dragonflies)
212 bird data points (from hummingbirds to swans)
25 bat data points
Formula Extension to Swimming Animals
The formula also predicts the frequency of fin/fluke movements in swimming animals.
Adjustments are made for water density and buoyancy effects, excluding fish with swim bladders.
Limitations and Modifications
The formula applies well in conditions with high Reynolds numbers (Re), where fluid flow is streamlined.
At low Re values, where viscosity dominates, modifications are needed.
The equation holds as long as animal density variations do not exceed a factor of ten.
Insights and Future Research
Insights from the formula include understanding flight efficiency and potential evolutionary pathways for winged animals.
Future research aims to explore further insights hidden within the C constant, potentially revealing deeper principles governing animal flight and swimming dynamics.
PYQ:
[2024] The organisms “Cicada, Froghopper and Pond skater are:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Tarang Shakti-2024, Red Flag Exercise
Why in the News?
The Indian Air Force’s first multinational air exercise, Tarang Shakti-2024, will be held in August.
It is inspired by the Red Flag exercise hosted by the US.
Tarang Shakti-2024
Originally planned for late 2023, the exercise was postponed.
The exercise will be conducted in two distinct phases:
Phase One: Scheduled in southern India during the first two weeks of August.
Phase Two: To be held in the western sector from late August to mid-September.
Some countries will partake in both phases, facilitating comprehensive training scenarios, while others will engage in specific phases based on operational objectives.
Confirmed Participants:
Australia, France, Germany, Japan, Spain, UAE, UK, USA, among others.
Red Flag Exercise
Hosted by USAF: The recently concluded Red Flag exercise at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, involved diverse international participation.
IAF Deployment: Deployed eight Rafale fighters, supported by IL-78 mid-air refuellers and C-17 Globemaster aircraft.
Combat Simulations: Included scenarios for air combat, with Red and Blue Forces simulating defensive and offensive roles respectively.
Significance of the Exercise
The exercise provides a platform to showcase advanced military technologies and capabilities, including fighter jets, transport aircraft, and aerial refuelling systems.
This enables participants to demonstrate their equipment’seffectiveness and interoperability in multinational settings.
It would enhance regional stability and promote collective security in the Indo-Pacific region.
It reinforces India’s role as a key partner in global security initiatives and strengthens diplomatic relations with participating countries.
PYQ:
[2024] Which of the following statements about the Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023 is/ are correct?
This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Electromagnetism, Faraday and his contributions
PC: The Hindu
Why in the News?
Recently Scientists have designed a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner that costs a fraction of existing machines, setting the stage for improving access to this widely used diagnostic tool. So we need to know about the Electromagnet.
What is an Electromagnet?
Invented in 1824 by William Sturgeon, electromagnets revolutionised technology.
Sturgeon was an English physicist and inventor who discovered that wrapping a coil of wire around a piece of iron and passing an electric current through the wire produced a magnetic field.
Electromagnets are used in Loudspeakers for sound reproduction, Motors for mechanical movement., and MRI machines for medical imaging, etc
How Electromagnets Work?
Electric current flowing through a wire generates a magnetic field around the wire.
Coiling the wire enhances this magnetic field by concentrating it within the coil’s core.
This configuration creates an electromagnet, where the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the current flowing through the coil.
The magnetic fluxdensity so generated is measured in ‘Tesla’.
Enhancing Magnetic Strength with a Core
Coiling the wire around a magnetic material (core), such as iron or steel:
Amplifies the magnetic field produced by the electric current.
Ferromagnetic materials like iron align their internal magnetic domains with the external magnetic field generated by the coil.
This alignment significantly increases the overall magnetic strength of the electromagnet compared to a non-magnetic core.
Persistence of Magnetization
It refers to the property of a material to retain a certain amount of magnetization even after the removal of an external magnetic field.
Certain core materials exhibit retained magnetization even after the current ceases.
This residual magnetism is useful in applications requiring sustained magnetic fields, such as:
Superconducting electromagnets used in MRI machines, are capable of producing magnetic fields up to 30 Tesla.
Research electromagnets like those used in particle physics, which require stable and powerful magnetic fields.
Who was Michael Faraday (1791-1867)?
Michael Faraday was a pioneering English scientist and physicist who made substantial contributions to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
Faraday is best known for his experiments and discoveries in electromagnetism, which laid the groundwork for the principles of electromagnetic induction and the laws of electrolysis.
Key achievements of Michael Faraday include:
Electromagnetic Induction: He discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831, showing that a changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a nearby conductor.
Electrochemistry: Faraday formulated the laws of electrolysis, which describe the quantitative relationship between the amount of material produced or consumed during electrolysis and the amount of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction: These laws describe the fundamental principles of generating electricity using magnetic fields, forming the basis for the development of electric generators and transformers.
Faraday Cage: He invented the Faraday cage, a device used to block electromagnetic fields.
PYQ:
[2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?
They use living organisms as catalysts to generate electricity from certain substrates.
They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.
They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Right to Report, POSH Act ,2013
Why in the News?
Madras HC upheld the ‘Right to Report’ serious incidents of sexual harassment a time, rejecting the 3-month deadline under the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act (POSH), 2013.
Long-term emotional and psychological damage on victims underscored the need for a broader application of the law.
Right to Report under POSH Act, 2013
Case Background: The decision came while addressing a police officer’s petition to quash an enquiry report for alleged sexual assault against a female colleague.
Madras HC Reasoning: Serious allegations leading to “grave mental trauma” and “stress” constitute a “continuing offence” under POSH, allowing victims to report and investigate at any time.
Notable Observations: the Madras HC distinguished between isolated incidents and serious allegations like assault or molestation.
Isolated Incidents: Must adhere to strict deadlines under POSH.
Serious Allegations: Treated as continuous misconduct until addressed, allowing flexibility in reporting timelines due to fear of victimisation.
What is the POSH Act?
The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act was passed in 2013.
It defined sexual harassment, laid down the procedures for a complaint and inquiry, and the action to be taken.
It broadened the Vishakha Guidelines, which were already in place.
The POSH Act broadened these guidelines:
It mandated that every employer must constitute an Internal Complaints Committee (ICC) at each office or branch with 10 or more employees.
It lays down procedures and defines various aspects of sexual harassment, including the aggrieved victim, who could be a woman “of any age whether employed or not”, who “alleges to have been subjected to any act of sexual harassment”.
This meant that the rights of all women working or visiting any workplace, in any capacity, were protected under the Act.
Definition of Sexual Harassment
Under the 2013 law, sexual harassment includes “any one or more” of the following “unwelcome acts or behaviour” committed directly or by implication:
Physical contact and advances
A demand or request for sexual favours
Sexually coloured remarks
Showing pornography
Any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature.
The Ministry of Women & Child Development has published a Handbook on Sexual Harassment of Women at the Workplace with more detailed instances of behaviour that constitutes sexual harassment at the workplace. These include, broadly:
Sexually suggestive remarks or innuendos; serious or repeated offensive remarks; inappropriate questions or remarks about a person’s sex life
Display of sexist or offensive pictures, posters, MMS, SMS, WhatsApp, or emails
Intimidation, threats, blackmail around sexual favours; also, threats, intimidation or retaliation against an employee who speaks up about these
Unwelcome social invitations with sexual overtones, commonly seen as flirting
Unwelcome sexual advances.
Unwelcome behaviour
The Handbook says “unwelcome behaviour” is experienced when the victim feels bad or powerless; it causes anger/sadness or negative self-esteem.
It adds unwelcome behaviour is one which is “illegal, demeaning, invading, one-sided and power based”.
Circumstances amounting to SHW
The Act mentions five circumstances that amount to sexual harassment implied or explicit:
The promise of preferential treatment in her employment
The threat of detrimental treatment
Threat about her present or future employment status
Interference with her work or creating an offensive or hostile work environment
Humiliating treatment likely to affect her health or safety
Procedure for complaint
Description
Filing a complaint
The aggrieved victim has the option to file a complaint with the ICC, but it is not compulsory for the ICC to act.
Assistance in filing a complaint
Any member of the ICC must provide reasonable assistance to the victim in filing a written complaint.
Filing a complaint on behalf of the victim
If the victim is unable to file a complaint due to incapacity, death, or other reasons, her legal heir may file it on her behalf.
The time limit for filing a complaint
The complaint must be made within 3 months from the date of the incident
Extension of time limit
ICC has the authority
Monetary settlement and conciliation
Yes. It is possible.
Forwarding complaint or initiating an inquiry
Must be completed within 90 days.
Confidentiality of information
The act ensures the confidentiality of the woman’s identity, respondent’s identity, inquiry details, recommendations, and actions taken
Requirements imposed on employers
Description
Internal Complaints Committee (ICC)
Employers with more than 10 employees must establish an ICC to address sexual harassment complaints.
Composition of ICC
The ICC must include women employees, another employee, and a third-party member familiar with sexual harassment issues.
Local Committee (LC) for smaller organizations
Organizations with fewer than 10 employees must create an LC to receive complaints from the informal sector.
Complaint filing process
Women can file written complaints to either the ICC or LC within three to six months of the incident.
Resolution methods
The Act provides two resolution methods: conciliation between the parties involved or conducting an inquiry by the committee.
Annual audit report
Employers must file an annual audit report on sexual harassment complaints and take responsibility for conducting workshops, awareness programs, and orientation for ICC members.
Non-compliance penalties
Non-compliance with the Act can result in penalties, including fines.
PYQ:
[2019] What are the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space?
[2014] We are witnessing increasing instances of sexual violence against women in the country. Despite existing legal provisions against it, the number of such incidences is on the rise. Suggest some innovative measures to tackle this menace.
[2010] Two of the schemes launched by the Government of India for Women’s development are Swadhar and Swayam Siddha. As regards the difference between them, consider the following statements:
Swayam Siddha is meant for those in difficult circumstances such as women survivors of natural disasters or terrorism, women prisoners released from jails, mentally challenged women etc.,whereas Swadhar is meant for holistic empowerment of women through Self Help Groups.
Swayam Siddha is implemented through Local Self Government bodies or reputed Voluntary Organizations whereas Swadhar is implemented through the ICDS units set up in the states.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bavikonda Buddhist Complex
Why in the News?
Ten years after the division of Telangana from united Andhra Pradesh, the distribution of antiquities, manuscripts, and cultural objects remains contentious.
The custody of objects like Buddha Relics from Bavikonda are part of this dispute.
About Bavikonda Buddhist Complex
Bavikonda, a significant ancient Buddhist site dating from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, is located along the Eastern Coastline of Andhra Pradesh near Visakhapatnam on the way to Bheemunipatnam.
It is located an ancient trade route linking Andhradesa with North India via Kalinga, along with its proximity to ancient ports.
The discovery of Roman silver coins further supports this historical context.
The site also features Buddhapada slabs intricately carved with Ashtamangala symbols, found on the platforms surrounding the Mahachaitya.
About Buddha Relics from Bavikonda
The relics were discovered in 1993 during archaeological excavations conducted by the Andhra Pradesh Department of Archaeology and Museums (DAM).
These discoveries have significantly contributed to our understanding of the spread of Buddhism in the region during the post-Ashoka period along the Krishna River basin.
Nature of Relics:
The site at Bavikonda yielded several earthen vessels containing gold objects and precious beads.
These relics are believed to include corporeal remains (related to skull) of the Buddha, along with silver and gold caskets.
These were found alongside an earthen urn or receptacle (Samudgaka) containing ashy deposits and burnt charcoal.
Noted Buddhavanam Sites in Andhra Region
Thotlakonda: Located near Visakhapatnam, Thotlakonda is another prominent Buddhist site dating back to the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. It consists of monastic complexes, stupas, chaityas, viharas, and a university. Excavations have revealed relics and artifacts indicating it was a major center for Buddhist learning and trade.
Salihundam: Situated near Srikakulam, Salihundam dates from the 2nd century BC to the 12th century AD. It features remnants of stupas, votive stupas, monastic complexes, and sculptures. The site is noted for its architectural and sculptural heritage, reflecting a blend of Buddhist and Hindu influences over centuries.
Pavurallakonda: Close to Bheemunipatnam, Pavurallakonda is a Buddhist hilltop monastery dating back to the 3rd century BC to the 2nd century AD. It includes viharas, chaityas, and relic caskets. The site offers panoramic views of the coastline, adding to its spiritual ambiance.
Ghantasala: Located near Krishna district, Ghantasala served as an ancient Buddhist site from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. It contains stupas, viharas, and relics that indicate its significance as a trading hub and center for Buddhist teachings.
Nagarjunakonda: Situated in the Guntur district, Nagarjunakonda is an island on the Krishna River that flourished from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. It boasts numerous Buddhist monasteries, stupas, chaityas, and sculptures. The site is renowned for its architectural grandeur and extensive archaeological findings.
PYQ:
[2015] Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of Buddha?
Avanti
Gandhara
Kosala
Magadha
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Central Information Commission (CIC), Powers and Functions
Why in the News?
The Central Information Commission (CIC) upheld Rashtrapati Bhavan’s response to an RTI query regarding the number of times former President Kovind returned decisions by the Prime Minister/Union Council of Ministers for reconsideration.
The President’s Secretariat stated that no information was available on record regarding such returns.
Back2Basics: Right to Information (RTI)
The RTI Act of 2005 grants Indian citizens the right to access government-held information, with exceptions.
Its goal is to enhance transparency and accountability in public authorities.
This Act replaced the earlier Freedom of Information Act of 2002.
RTI aligns with Freedom of Speech and Expression (Article 19) in India’s Constitution.
About Central Information Commission (CIC)
Details
Establishment
Set up under the Section 12 of the Right to Information Act, 2005.
Function
Oversees implementation of RTI Act in Central Government and Union Territories.
Resolves complaints and decides appeals related to the Act.
Headquarters
New Delhi
Composition
Chief Information Commissioner (CIC)
Up to 10 Information Commissioners (IC), (appointed by President on recommendation of PM-led Committee consisting Leader of Opposition and Cabinet Ministers.)
Qualifications
CIC and IC must be persons of eminence in public life with wide knowledge and experience in: Law, Science and Technology, Social Service, Management, Journalism, Mass Media, Administration, and Governance.
NON-ELIGIBLITY: Members of Parliament or Legislature of any State or Union Territory, hold any office of profit, be connected with any political party, or carry on any business or profession.
Tenure
CIC and IC hold office for such term as prescribed by Central Government or until they attain age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
NO Reappointment.
IC can be appointed as Chief Information Commissioner, but total tenure including term as IC should not exceed 5 years.
Removal
President can remove CIC or IC on grounds like insolvency, conviction for moral turpitude, engaging in another office of profit, etc.
Removal for misbehaviour requires Supreme Court enquiry and recommendation.
Salary & Conditions
Salary, allowances, and service conditions determined by Central Government, cannot be varied to their disadvantage during service (After RTI Amendment Act,2019)
How RTI amendment, 2019 has changed CIC?
Before the 2019 amendment to the RTI Act, ICs at the CIC held a 5-year fixed term and were considered equal in status to the Chief Election Commissioner and Supreme Court judges.
The 2019 amendments granted the Centre the power to alter these terms at its discretion.
Functions
Receives and inquires into complaints related to RTI Act violations, including non-appointment of Public Information Officer, refusal or delay in information, unreasonable fees, incomplete or false information.
Submits annual report on Act’s implementation to Central Government, presented to Parliament.
Powers
Can suo-moto order inquiries, summon persons, enforce oaths, access and inspect documents, receive evidence on affidavit, requisition public records, summon witnesses, and enforce compliance of decisions.
Can direct public authorities on information access, officer appointments, record management, training, and impose penalties or compensation for non-compliance.
PYQ:
[2018] The Right to Information Act is not all about citizens’ empowerment alone, it essentially redefines the concept of accountability. Discuss. (150 words)
[2019] There is a view that the Officials Secrets Act is an obstacle to the implementation of RTI Act. Do you agree with the view? Discuss.
[2020] “Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have a profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss.
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Death Penalty, Pardoning Power
Why in the News?
The President of India has rejected a Mercy Petition to pardon a Pakistani terrorist.
The accused was one among the Lashkar-e-Tayyeba terrorists who attacked the Red Fort in 2000, killing two soldiers and a civilian guard.
What is the process of Mercy Petition?
Step 1: The convict facing a death sentence can file a mercy petition within 7 days of the Supreme Court dismissing their appeal.
Step 2: The convict or their relative submits a written petition to the President or governor, citing grounds such as sole breadwinner, physical/mental health, perceived harshness of the law, or judicial errors.
Step 3: The petition is forwarded to the Ministry of Home Affairs for assessment and recommendations, including consultation with the relevant State government.
Step 4: Based on Home Ministry recommendations and the Council of Ministers’ advice, the President can accept or reject the mercy pleawithout a specified time limit.
Step 5: While governors cannot pardon death sentences, they can commute, remit, or reprieve sentences under their state’s executive powers for offences against state laws.
Judiciary on Mercy Petitions:
Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab (1980): The Supreme Court, upheld the death penalty but set the stringent criteria. It emphasized that the death penalty should be awarded only in the “rarest of rare” cases when all mitigating circumstances are considered.
In Maru Ram v. Union of India (1981), the Supreme Court ruled that the power to grant pardons under Article 72 of the Constitution must be exercised based on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
In Kehar Singh vs Union of India (1989) case, the court asserted that presidential pardon is an act of grace, not a right that can be claimed. The exercise of this power is purely administrative and not subject to judicial review.
In the Dhananjoy Chatterjee vs State of West Bengal (1994) case, the Supreme Court clarified that the pardoning powers under Articles 72 and 161 of the Constitution can only be exercised by the Central and State Governments, respectively, and not autonomously by the President or Governor.
In Epuru Sudhakar & Anr. v. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2006), the Supreme Court ruled that the clemency powers of the President and Governor under Article 72 and Article 161 are subject to judicial review.
In Shatrugan Chauhan v. State of U.P. (2014), the appex court has also commuted the death sentence in cases of inordinate delay in deciding mercy petitions. The court commuted the sentence of one Gurmeet Singh after he spent 27 years in custody (and 21 years on death row).
In Mohd. Afzal Guru vs State of Delhi (2014)case, the court-mandated a minimum 14-day gap between the rejection of a mercy petition and the execution of a death penalty, ensuring adequate time for legal recourse.
Report of the 262nd Law Commission (2015): Recommended abolishing the death penalty for all crimes except terrorism-related offenses and waging war.
In April 2023, the Supreme Court upheld the Mumbai High Court’s decision to commute the death sentence of a woman and her sister due to significant delays in deciding their mercy petitions.
About Presidents’ Pardoning Powers under Article 72
According to Article 72, the President of India has the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offense: In cases where the punishment or sentence is by a Court Martial;
According to Article 161, the Governor of a State has the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to matters under the executive power of the State.
In the recent Supreme Court Ruling of 2021, the apex court held that the Governor of a state can pardon prisoners, including those on death row, even before they have served a minimum of 14 years of their prison sentence.
Did you know?
Pardon means completely absolving the person of the crime and letting him go free. The pardoned criminal will be like a normal citizen.
Commutation means changing the type of punishment given to the guilty into a less harsh one, for example, a death penalty commuted to a life sentence.
Reprieve means a delay allowed in the execution of a sentence, usually a death sentence, for a guilty person to allow him some time to apply for a Presidential Pardon or some other legal remedy to prove his innocence or successful rehabilitation.
Respite means reducing the quantum or degree of the punishment to a criminal in view of some special circumstances, like pregnancy, mental condition etc.
Remission means changing the time period of the punishment without changing its nature, for example reducing twenty years of rigorous imprisonment to ten years.
Cases as specified by Art. 72
In all cases where the punishment or sentence:
is by a court-martial.
is for an offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the Union extends.
is a sentence of death.
Nature of the Pardoning Power
The pardoning power of the president is not absolute.
At a procedural level, the apex court in Epuru Sudhakar & Anr. v. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2006) has held that the President’s power must be exercised based on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers and can be challenged on multiple grounds including that relevant material was not considered, the power was exercised based on political considerations, or there was no application of mind.
This has not been discussed by the Constitution but is the practical truth. Further, the constitution does not provide for any mechanismto question the legality of decisions of presidents or governors exercising mercy jurisdiction.
PYQ:
[2014] Instances of President’s delay in commuting death sentences have come under public debate as denial of justice. Should there be a time specified for the President to accept/reject such petitions? Analyse.
Ashwatthama, a 38-year-old elephant, died of electrocution near Karnataka’s Nagarahole Tiger Reserve.
The High Court of Karnataka suo motu initiated a PIL petition to inquire about this incident attributed to a lack of care and diligence by concerned authorities.
Nagarahole Tiger Reserve
Located in the Western Ghats in Karnataka; Spans over 643 square kilometers.
Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1955 and a tiger reserve in 1999.
Part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) and a Project Tiger, Project Elephant reserve.
Managed by the Karnataka Forest Department with efforts focused on conservation, ecotourism, and community engagement.
The reserve is crisscrossed by several rivers such as the Kabini River, Lakshmana Tirtha River, and Moyar River.
Flora and Fauna: Known for its diverse ecosystem, including tropical and moist deciduous forests, home to a variety of wildlife such as tigers, leopards, elephants, gaur, and several species of deer and birds.
Protective Measures:Project Elephant
It was launched in the year 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the following objectives:
To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
To address issues of man-animal conflict
The welfare of captive elephants
It covers 23 states across India.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides financial and technical support to major elephant range states in the country through the project.
It contributed to the increase in the wild elephant population from around 25,000 in 1992 to about 30,000 in 2021.
Status of Elephant Conservation in India
Details
Population Estimate
India hosts the largest population of wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), with around 29,964 individuals,
Approximately 60% of the global population (2017 census).
Leading States
Karnataka holds the highest number of elephants, followed by Assam and Kerala.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: Endangered.
CMS: Appendix I.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I,
CITES: Appendix I.
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:
The leader of an elephant group is a female.
The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mount Canlaon, Cold Lava Mudflows
Why in the News?
After Mount Canlaon erupted in the Philippines, cold lava started flowing through streets and rivers.
It was followed by ashfall, and dangers like floods and mudflows downstream.
What is Cold Lava?
Cold lava, also known as “lahar,” is a mixture of water and rock fragments that flows rapidly down the slopes of a volcano, often triggered by heavy rainfall or volcanic eruptions.
The mixture forms a concrete-like substance that destroys everything in its path.
This can also include smooth, glassy textures or rough and jagged textures.
Another example of cold Lava in the world
Mount Merapi, Indonesia (2023): An eruption of Mount Merapi resulted in the deaths of at least 23 climbers and spewed ash up to 3,000 meters into the air, covering towns and villages
How harmful is Cold Lava?
Rain can carry cold lava down the slopes of a volcano during an eruption and into the path of nearby towns or villages.
According to the United States Geological Survey, cold lava has the power to crush and bury things in its path.
It also moves quickly like wet concrete and is considered more destructive than hot lava.
About Mount Canlaon
Mount Canlaon, located in the Philippines, is an active stratovolcano known for its frequent eruptions and volcanic activity.
It is situated on the island of Negros in the Visayas region of the Philippines.
It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, known for its high volcanic activity.
It poses hazards such as ash fall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (mudflows) that can endanger nearby communities and agriculture.
PYQ:
[2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Joshimath, Kosiyakutoli, Adi Shankaracharya
Why in the News?
The Centre approved the Uttarakhand government’s proposal to rename Joshimath tehsil to Jyotirmath and Kosiyakutoli tehsil to Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham.
This decision aims to enhance the religious and cultural significance of these areas, boosting their status as major destinations for religious tourism.
About Jyotirmath
Jyotirmath, also known as Jyotir Peeth, is one of the four cardinal mathas established by Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century to promote Advaita Vedanta philosophy.
Adi Shankaracharya performed penance under the Amar Kalpavriksha tree here, symbolising his attainment of divine knowledge (Jyoti).
Evolution to Joshimath:
Name Transition: Originally known as Jyotirmath, the town gradually adopted the name Joshimath over time, influenced by regional languages and dialects.
Cultural Evolution: The shift from Jyotirmath to Joshimath reflects a cultural and linguistic evolution rather than a specific historical event.
About Adi Shankaracharya (c 788 CE-820 CE)
Details
Philosopher and Theologian
Prominent advocate of ancient Hinduism, known as Sankara (Jagatguru).
Birthplace
Kaladi in Ernakulam, Kerala, soon to be declared a national monument.
Guru
Govinda Bhagavatpada, from whom he learned extensively.
Philosophies
Advocated Advaita Vedanta and established Dashanami Sampradaya.
Advaita Vedanta
Non-dualistic philosophy asserts the identity of Atman (self) and Brahman (ultimate reality).
Maya (creative energy) of Brahman creates the world.
Liberation through understanding Brahman and overcoming Avidya (ignorance).
Key Disciples
Padmapada, Totakacharya, Hasta Malaka, and Sureshwara – played crucial roles in spreading his teachings.
Contributions
Introduced the Shanmata system and restored the Dashanami structure.
Established four Mathas (monastic institutions) across India.
Authored commentaries on major Hindu scriptures and composed hymns.
Mathas Established
Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetam (Karnataka), Jyotir Matha (Uttarakhand),
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kavli Prize
Why in the News?
The winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize were announced, recognising achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.
About Kavli Prize
The Kavli Prize celebrates outstanding achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.
It is established in honour of Norwegian-American businessman and philanthropist Fred Kavli (1927-2013).
Awarded biennially, the prize recognizes researchers whose work pushes the boundaries of human knowledge and enhances our understanding of the universe, the brain, and nanoscale phenomena.
About Fred Kavli
Fred Kavli, born in Erejsford, Norway, immigrated to California in 1956 and quickly made a mark in the engineering field.
His entrepreneurial journey began in 1958 with the founding of Kavlico, a pioneering company known for its precision pressure sensors used across diverse industries, from aviation to consumer electronics.
The Kavli Foundation:
In 2000, after selling Kavlico for $340 million, Fred Kavli established the Kavli Foundation.
This philanthropic organisation supports fundamental research aimed at improving global quality of life.
The foundation operates 20 institutes worldwide dedicated to astrophysics, neuroscience, nanoscience, and theoretical physics.
Prize Structure and Prestige:
Comparison with Nobel Prize: The Kavli Prize mirrors the Nobel Prize in its prestige and international recognition but differs by not limiting awards to achievements within the preceding year, allowing broader scope and longevity in selection criteria.
Award Ceremony: Each Kavli Prize includes a $1 million cash award per field, a scroll, and a 7 cm diameter medal. The ceremony, held at the Oslo Concert Hall and attended by global scientific leaders, features a red-carpet event, emphasizing its significance in the scientific community.
Selection Process:
Committees: Three international committees nominate and review candidates, providing a unanimous recommendation to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
Nominees: Nominees come from prestigious institutions worldwide, ensuring a diverse and comprehensive evaluation process.
Winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize:
Field
Winners
Contributions
Astrophysics
David Charbonneau (Harvard University), Sara Seager (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Pioneering methods for detecting atomic species in planetary atmospheres and measuring their thermal infrared emission, are crucial for identifying molecular fingerprints in atmospheres of exoplanets.
Nanoscience
Robert Langer (MIT), Armand Paul Alivisatos (University of Chicago), Chad Mirkin (Northwestern University)
Langer: Nano-engineering for controlled drug delivery systems.
Alivisatos: Development of semiconductor quantum dots for bio-imaging.
Mirkin: Concept of spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) for applications in gene regulation and immunotherapy.
Mapping brain functions related to facial recognition using neuroimaging and neuronal recording techniques, identifying brain centers and neural architectures involved in face processing.
PYQ:
[2021] The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?
[2018] Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics.
[2008] Nobel Prize-winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (2008)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Longitude Prize, AMR
Why in the News?
Sysmex Astrego, a Sweden-based diagnostic company, won the £10 million Longitude Prize for developing a high-tech UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) test called the PA-100 AST System.
What is Antimicrobial Resistance?
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change so that medicines no longer work against them.
This makes infections harder to treat and can lead to more severe illness and even death.
AMR can occur naturally through genetic changes or when one type of microorganism picks up resistance from another.
It can also occur randomly due to mutations or when resistant genes spread between different organisms.
The main reasons for AMR are antibiotics incorrectly or too often, not having access to clean water and good hygiene, not doing enough to prevent infections, and people not knowing how to use antibiotics properly.
Global Impact of AMR
Global Threat: Antibiotic-resistant infections caused nearly 1.3 million deaths in 2019, with projections to exceed cancer-related deaths by 2050.
Economic Impact: The global economy faces potential losses of up to 4 trillion by 2030 and 100 trillion by 2050 due to the AMR crisis.
About the Longitude Prize
The Longitude Prize, valued at £8 million (₹85 crore), was recently awarded for its profound implications in combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
The prize launched in 2014, aims to revolutionize infection management globally.
Historical Context:
Origins: Established in 1714 to solve the maritime longitude problem, demonstrating the critical need for accurate navigation.
Modern Application: The 21st-century Longitude Prize addresses pressing global challenges like AMR, incentivizing innovative solutions.
Goal of the Prize:
Aims to replace current lab-based diagnostic methods with rapid tests that guide targeted antibiotic therapies, combating AMR effectively.
About PA-100 AST System
Technology Breakthrough: Developed by Sysmex Astrego, this system uses a phenotypic test that identifies UTI bacteria and performs antibiotic susceptibility testing in under 45 minutes.
Operation: A single-use cartridge processes less than half a milliliter of urine, using microfluidic traps and phase-contrast imaging in a shoe box-sized reader instrument.
Clinical Impact: Provides rapid “sensitive” or “resistant” results for antibiotics, aiding doctors in immediate, accurate treatment decisions at the point of care.
Current Challenges in UTI Diagnosis
Limited Accuracy: Current options include urine dipstick tests for quick results but limited accuracy (50-60%) and lab cultures with 2-3 day turnaround times.
Impact on Treatment: Delayed diagnosis often leads to empirical antibiotic use, contributing to antibiotic resistance worldwide.
Significance for India
Healthcare Burden: In India, millions seek treatment for UTIs annually, impacting lives and healthcare systems significantly.
Potential: Rapid, accurate point-of-care tests could revolutionize UTI management globally, saving lives and reducing healthcare costs.
PYQ:
[2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without a Doctor’s prescription be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.
[2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?
Genetic predisposition of some people
Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
Using antibiotics in livestock farming
Multiple chronic diseases in some people
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
