From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mount Canlaon, Cold Lava Mudflows
Why in the News?
After Mount Canlaon erupted in the Philippines, cold lava started flowing through streets and rivers.
It was followed by ashfall, and dangers like floods and mudflows downstream.
What is Cold Lava?
Cold lava, also known as “lahar,” is a mixture of water and rock fragments that flows rapidly down the slopes of a volcano, often triggered by heavy rainfall or volcanic eruptions.
The mixture forms a concrete-like substance that destroys everything in its path.
This can also include smooth, glassy textures or rough and jagged textures.
Another example of cold Lava in the world
Mount Merapi, Indonesia (2023): An eruption of Mount Merapi resulted in the deaths of at least 23 climbers and spewed ash up to 3,000 meters into the air, covering towns and villages
How harmful is Cold Lava?
Rain can carry cold lava down the slopes of a volcano during an eruption and into the path of nearby towns or villages.
According to the United States Geological Survey, cold lava has the power to crush and bury things in its path.
It also moves quickly like wet concrete and is considered more destructive than hot lava.
About Mount Canlaon
Mount Canlaon, located in the Philippines, is an active stratovolcano known for its frequent eruptions and volcanic activity.
It is situated on the island of Negros in the Visayas region of the Philippines.
It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, known for its high volcanic activity.
It poses hazards such as ash fall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (mudflows) that can endanger nearby communities and agriculture.
PYQ:
[2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Joshimath, Kosiyakutoli, Adi Shankaracharya
Why in the News?
The Centre approved the Uttarakhand government’s proposal to rename Joshimath tehsil to Jyotirmath and Kosiyakutoli tehsil to Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham.
This decision aims to enhance the religious and cultural significance of these areas, boosting their status as major destinations for religious tourism.
About Jyotirmath
Jyotirmath, also known as Jyotir Peeth, is one of the four cardinal mathas established by Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century to promote Advaita Vedanta philosophy.
Adi Shankaracharya performed penance under the Amar Kalpavriksha tree here, symbolising his attainment of divine knowledge (Jyoti).
Evolution to Joshimath:
Name Transition: Originally known as Jyotirmath, the town gradually adopted the name Joshimath over time, influenced by regional languages and dialects.
Cultural Evolution: The shift from Jyotirmath to Joshimath reflects a cultural and linguistic evolution rather than a specific historical event.
About Adi Shankaracharya (c 788 CE-820 CE)
Details
Philosopher and Theologian
Prominent advocate of ancient Hinduism, known as Sankara (Jagatguru).
Birthplace
Kaladi in Ernakulam, Kerala, soon to be declared a national monument.
Guru
Govinda Bhagavatpada, from whom he learned extensively.
Philosophies
Advocated Advaita Vedanta and established Dashanami Sampradaya.
Advaita Vedanta
Non-dualistic philosophy asserts the identity of Atman (self) and Brahman (ultimate reality).
Maya (creative energy) of Brahman creates the world.
Liberation through understanding Brahman and overcoming Avidya (ignorance).
Key Disciples
Padmapada, Totakacharya, Hasta Malaka, and Sureshwara – played crucial roles in spreading his teachings.
Contributions
Introduced the Shanmata system and restored the Dashanami structure.
Established four Mathas (monastic institutions) across India.
Authored commentaries on major Hindu scriptures and composed hymns.
Mathas Established
Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetam (Karnataka), Jyotir Matha (Uttarakhand),
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kavli Prize
Why in the News?
The winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize were announced, recognising achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.
About Kavli Prize
The Kavli Prize celebrates outstanding achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.
It is established in honour of Norwegian-American businessman and philanthropist Fred Kavli (1927-2013).
Awarded biennially, the prize recognizes researchers whose work pushes the boundaries of human knowledge and enhances our understanding of the universe, the brain, and nanoscale phenomena.
About Fred Kavli
Fred Kavli, born in Erejsford, Norway, immigrated to California in 1956 and quickly made a mark in the engineering field.
His entrepreneurial journey began in 1958 with the founding of Kavlico, a pioneering company known for its precision pressure sensors used across diverse industries, from aviation to consumer electronics.
The Kavli Foundation:
In 2000, after selling Kavlico for $340 million, Fred Kavli established the Kavli Foundation.
This philanthropic organisation supports fundamental research aimed at improving global quality of life.
The foundation operates 20 institutes worldwide dedicated to astrophysics, neuroscience, nanoscience, and theoretical physics.
Prize Structure and Prestige:
Comparison with Nobel Prize: The Kavli Prize mirrors the Nobel Prize in its prestige and international recognition but differs by not limiting awards to achievements within the preceding year, allowing broader scope and longevity in selection criteria.
Award Ceremony: Each Kavli Prize includes a $1 million cash award per field, a scroll, and a 7 cm diameter medal. The ceremony, held at the Oslo Concert Hall and attended by global scientific leaders, features a red-carpet event, emphasizing its significance in the scientific community.
Selection Process:
Committees: Three international committees nominate and review candidates, providing a unanimous recommendation to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
Nominees: Nominees come from prestigious institutions worldwide, ensuring a diverse and comprehensive evaluation process.
Winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize:
Field
Winners
Contributions
Astrophysics
David Charbonneau (Harvard University), Sara Seager (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Pioneering methods for detecting atomic species in planetary atmospheres and measuring their thermal infrared emission, are crucial for identifying molecular fingerprints in atmospheres of exoplanets.
Nanoscience
Robert Langer (MIT), Armand Paul Alivisatos (University of Chicago), Chad Mirkin (Northwestern University)
Langer: Nano-engineering for controlled drug delivery systems.
Alivisatos: Development of semiconductor quantum dots for bio-imaging.
Mirkin: Concept of spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) for applications in gene regulation and immunotherapy.
Mapping brain functions related to facial recognition using neuroimaging and neuronal recording techniques, identifying brain centers and neural architectures involved in face processing.
PYQ:
[2021] The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?
[2018] Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics.
[2008] Nobel Prize-winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (2008)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Longitude Prize, AMR
Why in the News?
Sysmex Astrego, a Sweden-based diagnostic company, won the £10 million Longitude Prize for developing a high-tech UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) test called the PA-100 AST System.
What is Antimicrobial Resistance?
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change so that medicines no longer work against them.
This makes infections harder to treat and can lead to more severe illness and even death.
AMR can occur naturally through genetic changes or when one type of microorganism picks up resistance from another.
It can also occur randomly due to mutations or when resistant genes spread between different organisms.
The main reasons for AMR are antibiotics incorrectly or too often, not having access to clean water and good hygiene, not doing enough to prevent infections, and people not knowing how to use antibiotics properly.
Global Impact of AMR
Global Threat: Antibiotic-resistant infections caused nearly 1.3 million deaths in 2019, with projections to exceed cancer-related deaths by 2050.
Economic Impact: The global economy faces potential losses of up to 4 trillion by 2030 and 100 trillion by 2050 due to the AMR crisis.
About the Longitude Prize
The Longitude Prize, valued at £8 million (₹85 crore), was recently awarded for its profound implications in combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
The prize launched in 2014, aims to revolutionize infection management globally.
Historical Context:
Origins: Established in 1714 to solve the maritime longitude problem, demonstrating the critical need for accurate navigation.
Modern Application: The 21st-century Longitude Prize addresses pressing global challenges like AMR, incentivizing innovative solutions.
Goal of the Prize:
Aims to replace current lab-based diagnostic methods with rapid tests that guide targeted antibiotic therapies, combating AMR effectively.
About PA-100 AST System
Technology Breakthrough: Developed by Sysmex Astrego, this system uses a phenotypic test that identifies UTI bacteria and performs antibiotic susceptibility testing in under 45 minutes.
Operation: A single-use cartridge processes less than half a milliliter of urine, using microfluidic traps and phase-contrast imaging in a shoe box-sized reader instrument.
Clinical Impact: Provides rapid “sensitive” or “resistant” results for antibiotics, aiding doctors in immediate, accurate treatment decisions at the point of care.
Current Challenges in UTI Diagnosis
Limited Accuracy: Current options include urine dipstick tests for quick results but limited accuracy (50-60%) and lab cultures with 2-3 day turnaround times.
Impact on Treatment: Delayed diagnosis often leads to empirical antibiotic use, contributing to antibiotic resistance worldwide.
Significance for India
Healthcare Burden: In India, millions seek treatment for UTIs annually, impacting lives and healthcare systems significantly.
Potential: Rapid, accurate point-of-care tests could revolutionize UTI management globally, saving lives and reducing healthcare costs.
PYQ:
[2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without a Doctor’s prescription be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.
[2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?
Genetic predisposition of some people
Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
Using antibiotics in livestock farming
Multiple chronic diseases in some people
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mars Craters, IAU
Why in the News?
Scientists from Ahmedabad-based Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) have identified three new craters on Mars, situated in the Tharsis volcanic region around 21.0 S, 209 W.
Back2Basics: International Astronomical Union (IAU)
The IAU was founded on July 28, 1919, during the Constitutive Assembly held in Brussels, Belgium.
Its creation was prompted by the need for international collaboration in astronomy, especially after the devastation caused by World War I.
It aims to promote and safeguard astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation.
IAU is now headquartered in Paris, France.
Major Activities and Initiatives
General Assembly: The IAU holds a general assembly every three years in varying parts of the world at which professional astronomers meet to discuss research, new cooperative ventures, and similar matters of professional interest.
Astronomical Nomenclature: IAU standardises the nomenclature of celestial bodies, features, and phenomena. It maintains several working groups dedicated to naming conventions for stars, planets, asteroids, and other objects.
Research and Collaboration: It promotes international cooperation in astronomical research and supports initiatives such as observational campaigns, data sharing, and joint projects.
Education and Outreach: It is actively involved in promoting astronomy education and public outreach efforts worldwide. It supports educational programs, workshops, and resources for students, teachers, and the general public.
Membership
IAU membership spans 92 countries. Out of those countries, 85 are National Members.
India is represented by the Astronomical Society of India (ASI).
Its members are professional astronomers from all over the world, at the D. level and beyond, who are active in professional research, education, and outreach in astronomy.
Crater Names and Significance
Lal Crater: Named after Prof. Devendra Lal, former director of PRL, this 65 km wide crater is positioned at -20.98° and 209.34°.
Mursan Crater: Named after a town in Uttar Pradesh, India, this ~10 km wide crater is situated on the eastern side of the Lal crater’s rim.
Hilsa Crater: Named after a town in Bihar, India, this ~10 km wide crater is positioned on the western side of the Lal crater’s rim.
Scientific Importance of Lal Crater
Lava Coverage: The entire Lal crater area, located in the Tharsis volcanic region on Mars, is covered with lava.
Evidence of Water: Geophysical evidence, including a 45-meter thick sedimentary deposit, suggests the presence of water in the subsurface of the Lal crater. This finding supports the theory that Mars once had water flowing on its surface.
Infilling Process: Mursan and Hilsa craters, positioned on either side of the Lal crater, offer insights into the infilling process of the Lal crater. Their presence indicates that infilling occurred episodically over time.
India’s 2nd Quest for Mars
The ISRO is expected to launch Mangalyaan-2, or Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (MOM 2), in 2025.
The mission will last one year and is aimed at studying the Red Planet.
The successor to Mangalyaan-1, or Mars Orbiter Mission 1 (MOM 1), Mangalyaan-2 will consist of only one orbiter and will be launched atop a GSLV Mark III rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
Other missions to Mars
ExoMars rover (2022): European Space Agency’s mission to explore Mars.
Tianwen-1 (2021): China’s Mars Mission aims to explore and study the Martian surface.
UAE’s Hope Mars Mission (2021): UAE’s first interplanetary mission focused on studying the Martian atmosphere.
NASA’s Mars Insight (2018): A lander designed to study the interior of Mars.
NASA’s Curiosity (2012) and Perseverance (2020): Rovers exploring the Martian surface.
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (2005), Mars Odyssey (2001), and MAVEN (2013): Orbiters studying Mars from space.
Mars 2 and Mars 3 (1971): Soviet Union’s missions to Mars, which included orbiter and lander components.
PYQ:
[2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO
is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission.
made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit Mars in its very first attempt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nitrous Oxide pollution
Why in the News?
India ranks as the world’s second-largest contributor (after China) to nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas (GHG), accounting for approximately 11% of global man-made emissions in 2020 as per data published in the journal Earth System Science Data.
The top five country emitters by volume of anthropogenic N2O emissions in 2020 were China (16.7%), India (10.9%), the United States (5.7%), Brazil (5.3%), and Russia (4.6%).
AboutNitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide (N2O), a colourless and odourless gas, is a potent greenhouse gas, 300 times more powerful than CO2. Despite its small atmospheric fraction, it ranks third in concentration after CO2 and methane (CH4). It’s a crucial target for environmental research and efforts to mitigate climate change impacts.
Sources of Emission:
Natural Sources: N2O is naturally produced in processes such as microbial nitrogen cycling in soil and water bodies, volcanic activity, and biomass burning.
Anthropogenic Activities: Human activities significantly contribute to N2O emissions, with the primary sources being:
Agricultural practices, including the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers and animal manure.
Industrial processes such as combustion of fossil fuels and wastewater treatment.
Combustion of biomass and waste.
Use of nitrous oxide in medical and dental procedures (as a sedative) and in food packaging.
Impact on Climate Change:
Greenhouse Gas: N2O is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) much higher than that of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Ozone Depletion: In addition to its role in climate change, N2O also contributes to ozone depletion in the stratosphere, further exacerbating environmental concerns.
Environmental and Health Effects:
Environmental Pollution: N2O emissions can lead to pollution of soil, water bodies, and air, affecting ecosystems and human health.
Health Risks: While N2O is relatively non-toxic at ambient levels, prolonged exposure or high concentrations can pose health risks, including respiratory issues and neurological effects.
Global Nitrous Oxide Emissions
Atmospheric Concentration: The concentration of atmospheric N2O reached 336 parts per billion in 2022, about 25% above pre-industrial levels.
Next to Carbon Emissions: In comparison, the concentration of carbon dioxide was 417 parts per million in 2022.
Persistent Lifespan: Once emitted, N2O stays in the atmosphere for longer than the average human lifespan (117 years), making its climate and ozone impacts long-lived.
Contribution to Climate Change: These emissions are responsible for 6.4% of the effective radiative forcing of greenhouse gases and have added about 0.1°C to current global warming.
Impact of Nitrogen Fertilizers: N2O emissions from human activities have increased by 40% in the past four decades, with agricultural production using nitrogen fertilizers and animal manure contributing 74% of total anthropogenic N2O emissions in the last decade.
Call for Action and Future Outlook
Scientists warn that anthropogenic N2O emissions must decline by at least 20% relative to 2019 levels by 2050 to align with net-zero emission pathways consistent with the Paris Agreement.
Nitrogen fertilizers, which are heavily subsidized in India, contribute significantly to N2O emissions. Urgent reforms are needed to promote alternative production systems and mitigate emissions.
India’s Policy Initiatives to Curb Nitrogen Pollution
Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) (2010): This policy encourages the adoption of controlled-release fertilizers to enhance nutrient management efficiency.
Soil Health Cards (2015): Provided to farmers, these cards offer insights into soil nutrient levels and tailored fertilizer recommendations, promoting balanced nutrient application.
Bharat Stage (BS VI) Emission Standards (2016): These stringent regulations for vehicles and industries aim to reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, thereby mitigating air and water pollution.
Nano Urea (2021): Marketed by the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Nano Urea is a patented fertilizer approved for commercial use, designed to curb excessive and indiscriminate conventional urea use while boosting crop yields.
PYQ:
[2016] Why does the Government of India promote the use of ‘Neem-coated Urea’ in agriculture?
(a) Release of Neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation by the soil microorganisms
(b) Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in the soil
(c) Nitrous oxide, which is a greenhouse gas, is not at all released into the atmosphere by crop fields
(d) It is a combination of a weedicide and a fertilizer for particular crops
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: N332-GT5, eOD-GT8, HIV-AIDS
Why in the News?
Researchers at the Duke Human Vaccine Institute have successfully induced broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) against HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) through vaccination for the first time.
About HIV/AIDS:
Emergence: The first cases of AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) were reported in the early 1980s, primarily among gay men in the United States.
Discovery of HIV: In 1983-1984, scientists identified HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) as the cause of AIDS.
Global Spread: HIV/AIDS quickly became a global pandemic, affecting millions of people worldwide.
Causes:
HIV is transmitted through contact with certain body fluids of an infected person, including blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.
Common modes of HIV transmission include unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing needles or syringes, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
Symptoms:
Acute HIV Infection: Many people experience flu-like symptoms, such as fever, headache, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes, within 2-4 weeks after infection.
Asymptomatic Stage: After the initial symptoms subside, HIV often enters a latent stage where individuals may not experience any symptoms for years.
Progression to AIDS: Without treatment, HIV gradually weakens the immune system, leading to the development of opportunistic infections and cancers. This advanced stage is known as AIDS and is characterized by severe immune deficiency.
Vaccines Development:
Challenges: Developing an HIV vaccine has been challenging due to the virus’s ability to mutate rapidly and evade the immune system.
Vaccine Candidates: Numerous vaccine candidates have been tested over the years, but none have yet been successful in providing robust protection against HIV infection.
Hope for the Future: Despite setbacks, advances in vaccine development, such as the identification of promising candidates like N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8, offer hope for eventually achieving an effective HIV vaccine.
How B cells and mRNA play distinct roles in the context of HIV infection?
1. B cells (B lymphocytes):
B cells are a type of white blood cell crucial for the immune response.
In HIV infection, B cells participate in the adaptive immune response by producing antibodies specific to HIV antigens.
These antibodies can neutralize HIV particles, tag infected cells for destruction by other immune cells, and contribute to the immune memory against HIV.
2. mRNA (messenger RNA):
mRNA is a molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
In the context of HIV, mRNA is involved in the replication process of the virus.
HIV uses its RNA genome to produce viral mRNA, which directs the synthesis of viral proteins necessary for the assembly of new virus particles.
Understanding HIV mRNA is crucial for developing antiviral therapies that target viral replication, such as mRNA-based vaccines or mRNA inhibitors.
N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8: The New Vaccines in Making
N332-GT5: This vaccine candidate targets a specific region on the surface of the HIV virus known as the N332 glycan site. By engaging B-cells that have the potential to produce bNAbs against this site, N332-GT5 aims to stimulate the immune system to generate a protective response against a wide range of HIV strains.
eOD-GT8: Similarly, eOD-GT8 is designed to target another region on the HIV virus, known as the eOD protein. By leveraging nanoparticles as carriers, eOD-GT8 aims to enhance the immune system’s ability to recognize and neutralize HIV, ultimately leading to the production of bNAbs.
What are Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies (bNAbs)?
In the 1990s, scientists discovered that some HIV-infected individuals produced bNAbs, which neutralize many viral strains.
bNAbs target viral protein areas crucial for infectivity, making them less likely to change.
Despite their effectiveness, bNAbs take years to develop, by which time HIV has often evolved to escape them.
Developing bNAb-Based Vaccines
The goal is to make the immune system produce bNAbs quickly in response to a vaccine.
Germline targeting involves three steps:
Identify and engage B-cells capable of producing bNAbs.
Use a booster to guide these cells to produce stronger bNAbs.
Refine bNAbs to neutralize a wide range of HIV strains.
PYQ:
[2013] Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through tattooing?
1. Chikungunya
2. Hepatitis B
3. HIV-AIDS
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Specific criteria qualify a State for special category status
Mains level: Special category status benefits to States like Bihar
Why in the News?
Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar has renewed the State’s persistent call for special category status from the Centre, which would boost the State’s share of tax revenues from the Central government.
How does the ‘Special Category’ Status benefit the states like Bihar?
Increased Central Funds: States with special category status receive a higher share of central funds for government schemes, typically 90% from the Centre, compared to 60%-80% for other states.
Tax-Related Concessions: These states enjoy various tax concessions that can attract investments and boost economic development.
Financial Aid for Development: The additional funds can be used to address developmental gaps, improve infrastructure, and support welfare programs.
Criteria for Special Category status:
Geographic Disadvantages: States with challenging terrains such as hilly or difficult terrain.
Low Population Density or High Tribal Population: States with a considerable proportion of tribal population or low population density.
Economic and Social Backwardness: States that are economically and socially disadvantaged.
Strategic Location: States that share international borders or have strategic significance.
Why has Bihar’s demand been a long-standing issue?
Economic Backwardness: Bihar has one of the lowest per capita incomes in India and lags behind in several human development indicators.
Fiscal Challenges: The bifurcation of the state leading to the formation of Jharkhand, frequent natural disasters, and insufficient water resources for irrigation have adversely affected Bihar’s fiscal situation.
Political Reiteration: Successive Bihar governments have continuously demanded special status to help the state’s development.
What are the political implications of granting ‘Special Status’ to Bihar?
Increased Bargaining Power: Granting special status could enhance Bihar’s political leverage with the central government, especially in coalition politics.
Precedent for Other States: Granting special status to Bihar could lead to similar demands from other states, potentially creating financial burdens for the Centre.
Electoral Promises and Alliances: Political parties may use the promise of special status as an electoral tool to gain or maintain power, as seen with the Congress party’s manifesto promise in 2024.
Centre-State Relations: The decision could impact the dynamics of center-state financial relations and influence the federal structure of revenue distribution in India.
Conclusion: The Central government should establish a transparent and well-defined framework for granting special category status, taking into account various economic, geographic, and social parameters. This framework should be periodically reviewed to ensure it remains relevant and fair to all states.
Mains PYQ:
Q To what extent is Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, bearing marginal note “Temporary provision with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir”, temporary? Discuss the future prospects of this provision in the context of Indian polity. (UPSC IAS/2016)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India’s ministerial portfolio system and its features
Why in the News?
President Droupadi Murmu administered oaths to the Central Council of Ministers (CoM) of the new NDA government, comprising a larger team compared to the previous term.
The Council includes 30 cabinet ministers, five Ministers of State (Independent Charge), and 36 Ministers of State, with the Prime Minister leading the team.
About Central Council of Ministers
The Central CoM is a crucial part of India’s governance system.
Members: It consists of the Prime Minister (Head), Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers.
History:
Portfolio System: The system of the CoM finds its roots in the Indian Councils Act of 1861, introduced by Lord Canning going parallel with the British Parliamentary System.
Constitutional Provisions
Articles 74 to 78 in Part V of the Indian Constitution broadly deal with the Central Council of Ministers.
Union Executive: The Union Executive encompasses the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister, Union Council of Ministers, and Attorney General of India, collectively responsible for the country’s administration.
Role of the Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the head of the Central Council of Ministers, exercising executive authority and decision-making powers on key policy issues and unallocated portfolios.
Responsibilities: Prime Minister Modi oversees critical ministries such as Personnel, Public Grievances, Pensions, Department of Atomic Energy, and Department of Space, while also leading government bodies like the Cabinet Secretariat and NITI Aayog.
Functions and Duties of CoM
1. Policy Formulation and Implementation:
Formulating Policies: The Council of Ministers, particularly the Cabinet, is tasked with formulating policies crucial for the nation’s development and welfare.
Policy Coordination: It ensures coordination among various government departments and agencies for effective policy implementation.
2. Executive Functions:
Real Executive Authority: The Council of Ministers acts as the real executive authority, exercising executive powers on behalf of the President.
Administration: It oversees the day-to-day administration of the country, ensuring the smooth functioning of government affairs.
Emergency Powers: During emergencies, the Council of Ministers advises the President on the exercise of emergency powers and crisis management.
3. Legislative Functions:
Bills and Legislation: Ministers actively participate in the legislative process by introducing bills, piloting them through Parliament, and ensuring their passage.
Policy Advocacy: They advocate for government policies and bills in Parliament, engaging in debates and discussions to garner support.
Budgetary Process: The Council of Ministers prepares and presents the annual budget, guiding fiscal policies and financial allocations.
4. Financial Management:
Budget Preparation: It plays a significant role in preparing the national budget, and outlining revenue and expenditure plans for the fiscal year.
Financial Administration: The Council oversees financial administration, ensuring compliance with budgetary provisions and efficient resource utilization.
Taxation and Fiscal Policy: Ministers propose taxation measures and formulate fiscal policies to promote economic growth and stability.
Who are the Cabinet Ministers?
The Cabinet Ministers are senior members of the Central Council of Ministers who head key government departments or ministries.
Typically, Cabinet Ministers are appointed by the Prime Minister and are part of the Cabinet, which is the core decision-making body in the government.
Each Cabinet Minister typically manages a specific portfolio aligned with the government’s priorities and responsibilities.
Examples: Minister of Finance, Minister of Home Affairs, Minister of Defence, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Health, Minister of Education, and others.
The term ‘Cabinet’ was inserted in Art. 352 of the Constitution by the 44th Amendment Act 1978.
It did not find a place in the original text of the Constitution.
Difference between Ministers of State (Independent Charge) and Ministers of State:
Ministers of State (Independent Charge)
Ministers of State
Authority
Have independent portfolios
Assist Cabinet Ministers
Reporting Structure
Directly report to PM/President
Report to and assist Cabinet Ministers
Accountability
Fully responsible for their departments
Assist Cabinet Ministers in tasks
Protocol Status
Equivalent to Cabinet Ministers in status
Lower protocol status
Attendance in Cabinet Meetings
May attend if their portfolios are discussed
Not regular attendees
PYQ:
[2013] Consider the following statements:
The Council of Ministers in the Centre shall be collectively responsible to the Parliament.
The Union Ministers shall hold the office at the pleasure of the President of India.
The Prime Minister shall communicate to the President about the proposals for legislation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2007] Assertion (A): The Council of Ministers in the Union of India is collectively responsible both to the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
Reason (R): The Members of both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha are eligible to be the Ministers of the Union Government.
Choose the correct Code:
(a) Both A are R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quantum Theory and related Researches, National Quantum Mission (NQM)
Why in the News?
The United Nations has designated 2025 as the ‘International Year of Quantum Science and Technology’ to increase public awareness about the significance of quantum science and its applications.
This initiative, led by Mexico and supported by nearly 60 countries, aims to promote activities at all levels to highlight the importance of quantum science and technology worldwide.
International Year of Quantum S&T
Growing Relevance: Quantum science and technologies, especially quantum computing, have gained prominence in public discourse due to their potential transformative impact on various fields.
Anniversary of Heisenberg’s Work: The proclamation coincides with the upcoming centenary of Werner Heisenberg’s groundbreaking paper on quantum mechanics, published in 1925.
Support from International Bodies: The proclamation has received endorsements from various international organisations, including the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
What does one mean by Quantum?
“Quantum” refers to the smallest discrete unit of any physical quantity involved in an interaction according to quantum theory.
In classical physics, many properties, such as energy and momentum, are thought to be continuous and infinitely divisible.
However, in quantum mechanics, certain properties, like energy levels and the behaviour of particles, are quantised, meaning they can only exist in specific discrete amounts or levels.
What is Quantum Theory?
Quantum theory is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.
Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that energy, momentum, and angular momentum.
Development in Quantum Theory So Far
Planck’s assumption: In 1900, Planck made the assumption that energy was made of individual units or quanta.
Albert Einstein’s theory: In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that not just the energy, but the radiation itself was quantized in the same manner.
Louis de Broglie theory: In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that there is no fundamental difference in the makeup and behaviour of energy and matter; on the atomic and subatomic level either may behave as if made of either particles or waves. This theory became known as the principle of wave-particle duality: elementary particles of both energy and matter behave, depending on the conditions, like either particles or waves (wave-particle duality).
Heisenberg proposed: In 1927, Werner Heisenberg proposed that precise, simultaneous measurement of two complementary values – such as the position and momentum of a subatomic particle – is impossible. Contrary to the principles of classical physics, their simultaneous measurement is inescapably flawed; the more precisely one value is measured, the more flawed will be the measurement of the other value. This theory became known as the uncertainty principle, which prompted Albert Einstein’s famous comment, “God does not play dice.”
What is Entanglement?
Entanglement was another of several weird properties exhibited by these tiny particles.
Two particles, having ‘interacted’ with each other at some stage, were found to have got ‘entangled’ in a way that the behaviour of one produced an instantaneous reaction in the other even if the two were no longer connected in any way and were separated by very large distances.
The entanglement property opened up new technological possibilities first time that it was possible to ‘teleport’ the quantum states of a particle to another location without the particle moving anywhere and without a medium.
What is Superposition?
It’s a phenomenon where, a particle exists simultaneously at multiple locations, known as superposition.
The chance of finding the particle at any given place was dictated by probabilistic calculations, and once it was found, or observed, at one location, it ceased to exist at all other places.
What is Quantum Computing?
Quantum computing is a new and super powerful way of doing computer stuff.
Instead of using regular computer bits that are either 0 or 1, quantum computers use special bits called qubits that can be both 0 and 1 at the same time, thanks to a thing called “quantum superposition.”
This allows them to do lots of calculations all at once, making them really fast at solving certain types of problems.
Back2Basics: National Quantum Mission (NQM)
Details
Mission Duration
2023-2031
Implementing Authority
Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the Ministry of Science & Technology
India’s Position
Seventh country to have a dedicated quantum mission after the US, Austria, Finland, France, Canada, and China
Focus Areas
Intermediate-scale quantum computers with 50-100 physical qubits in 5 years and 50-1000 physical qubits in 8 years
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Starship space vehicle and its features
Why in the News?
SpaceX’s Starship rocket completed its first fully successful test flight. This test flight brings SpaceX closer to its goal of creating a fully reusable rocket system, a development that could revolutionize space exploration and travel.
What is Starship?
Starship is a two-stage heavy lift-off vehicle designed for crew and cargo transport to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
It stands nearly 120 meters tall, surpassing the Saturn V rocket.
The Super Heavy booster is powered by 33 Raptor engines, generating significant thrust, surpassing existing rocket systems like NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS).
Raptor engine fuel uses a mix of liquid oxygen and liquid methane, enabling efficient propulsion for the rocket.
Cost Reduction and Efficiency with Starship
Starship can carry up to 150 tonnes of payload to low-Earth orbit.
It can be refuelled in space, thereby promising a significant reduction in the cost of space travel.
In-orbit refuelling allows Starship to operate like an aeroplane, reducing downtime between missions and maximizing efficiency.
Starship’s fully reusable design minimizes the need for costly hardware replacement, unlike traditional rocket systems.
Scientific Benefits of Starship
Enhanced Payload Capability: Starship’s capacity for heavy payloads enables the launch of larger space telescopes and equipment for lunar and Martian missions.
Exploration Potential: Scientists can deploy larger and more sophisticated instruments, such as drilling rigs, to explore the Moon and Mars in unprecedented detail.
Sample Return Missions: Starship’s capability to return to Earth facilitates the retrieval of valuable samples from other planets, aiding in scientific research and understanding.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Optical Atomic Clock and Classical Atomic Clock; Difference between them.
Why in the News?
Atomic clocks power GPS systems, guiding us in navigation, emergencies, and military operations.
Scientists are developing optical atomic clocks to enhance timekeeping accuracy for Navies.
What are Atomic Clocks?
Atomic clocks are accurate timekeeping devices that use the vibrations of atoms as a precise measure of time.
They rely on the natural oscillations of atoms, usually Caesium or Rubidium atoms, which are extremely stable and predictable.
This stability allows atomic clocks to keep time with extraordinary accuracy, often losing or gaining less than a second over millions of years.
However they are big, need a lot of power, and are expensive, so they’re mostly used in big research places.
Working Principle:
Use of Stable Atoms: Atomic clocks use stable atoms like Cs-133 to keep time really accurate.
Atom Energy Levels: Atoms have energy levels like steps on a ladder, and they move between these levels when they’re excited.
Creating Resonance: Cesium atomic clocks make caesium atoms vibrate by using microwave radiation at a certain frequency.
Defining Time: One second is how long it takes for caesium atoms to vibrate a certain number of times, which sets the standard for time.
Accuracy Control: Atomic clocks keep themselves accurate by constantly adjusting to make sure they’re vibrating at the right rate.
Portable Optical Atomic Clocks for Maritime Use
New portable optical atomic clocks for ships are more accurate and durable, making them suitable for use at sea.
These clocks are the best at sea, which is a big deal for keeping time on ships.
How Optical Atomic Clocks Are Different?
Use of Laser: Optical atomic clocks are even more accurate because they use lasers instead of microwaves.
Operating Frequency: They work at higher frequencies, which means they can measure smaller time intervals more precisely.
Narrow Linewidths: Optical atomic clocks are really stable because they have a narrow range of frequencies, which helps them stay accurate.
Testing and Applications of Portable Optical Atomic Clocks
Initial Testing: Scientists tested the new clocks and found they were really stable and accurate, which is a big deal for keeping time.
Comparative Performance: These new clocks worked better than old ones, showing they could change how we keep time.
Sea Trials: Tests at sea showed the clocks worked well even on a moving ship, proving they could be used for navigation and other important tasks.
Do you know?
Three rubidium atomic clocks and six hydrogen maser clocks onboard the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) had failed.
The failed satellite, IRNSS-1A, is still being used for messaging activities, and the data from other operational satellites will be used to maintain the system’s functionality.
PYQ:
[2018] Why is Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How does it help in navigation?
[2018] With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements:
IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits.
IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders.
India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) None
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Constitutional mandate of the Speaker
Mains level: Powers of the Speaker
Why in the News?
The pivotal role of the Speaker in parliamentary democracy is underscored as both the TDP and JD(U), crucial allies within the NDA, compete for the position, highlighting its significance.
Constitutional Mandate:
Speaker and Deputy Speaker are elected as per Article 93 of the Constitution, with the Speaker chosen by a simple majority.
The speaker’s term ends with the House dissolution and no-confidence motion can be moved against the Speaker.
No specific qualifications for the Speaker, who is distinct from other members.
Powers of the Speaker
Conducting the House: The Speaker decides House conduct and government business, ensuring adherence to rules, crucial for opposition participation. There are Rules and Procedure for the functioning of the House, but the Speaker has vast powers in ensuring these Rules are followed, and in choosing procedures.
Questions & Records: The Speaker holds authority over determining the validity of queries raised by members and overseeing the publication of House proceedings. The Speaker possesses the power to remove, wholly or partially, statements deemed unparliamentary.
Voice Votes, Division: The speaker can push bills through by voice vote or division, crucial for the legislative process.
As per the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha, if the Speaker thinks that is “unnecessarily claimed”, simply ask the members who are for ‘Aye’ and those for ‘No’ respectively to rise in their places and decide.
No-Confidence Motion: A pivotal moment where the Speaker’s neutrality significantly affects the Opposition is during the presentation of a motion of no-confidence against the government.
In 2018, when notices for a no-confidence motion were submitted by the YSRCP and TDP, Speaker Sumitra Mahajan postponed the House multiple times before acknowledging the motion and conducting the vote.
Casting Vote: As per Article 100 of the Constitution, pertaining to voting in the Houses, the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha or the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, or any individual acting in such a capacity, “shall refrain from voting initially but must cast a deciding vote in the event of a tie.”
His Removal:
Motion: A member of the Lok Sabha gives a written notice for the removal of the Speaker, citing specific grounds such as misconduct or inability to perform duties.
Support: The motion needs support from at least 50 members to be admitted for discussion in the House.
Resolution: Once admitted, the House discusses the motion. If the majority of members present and voting support the motion, a resolution for the Speaker’s removal is passed.
Note: During the process of removal of the Lok Sabha Speaker in India, the Speaker typically remains present and presides over the proceedings until the resolution for their removal is passed. The Speaker maintains their role in overseeing the House’s functioning unless and until the majority of members vote in favor of the motion to remove them. Once the resolution is passed and approved by the President, the Speaker ceases to hold office and their duties are formally relinquished.
Disqualification of Members
Power of the Speaker: The Speaker of the House holds the authority to disqualify legislators who defect from their party, as per the provisions of the Tenth Schedule.
Introduction of the Anti-Defection Law: The Tenth Schedule, also known as the anti-defection law, was incorporated into the Constitution in 1985 through the Fifty-Second (Amendment) Act.
Judicial Review: The Supreme Court, in the landmark case of Kihoto Hollohan versus Zachillhu in 1992, upheld the power vested in the Speaker to decide on defection cases. It ruled that only the final order of the Speaker is subject to judicial review.
Impact on Government Stability: Defections can change the numerical strength of political parties in the House, potentially destabilizing governments if members defect in significant numbers. Timely action by the Speaker in disqualifying defective members is crucial to maintaining the integrity of the Tenth Schedule and ensuring that governments retain their majority.
Supreme Court Directives: The Supreme Court has issued directives emphasizing the need for Speakers to expedite disqualification proceedings. For instance, in 2020, it ruled that Speakers must decide on disqualification pleas within three months, except in exceptional circumstances.
Impact on Government Formation: Delays in deciding disqualification petitions can have significant political ramifications, as seen in cases where governments have collapsed due to prolonged delays in addressing defection issues.
Case Example: In 2023, the Supreme Court directed the Maharashtra Assembly Speaker to expedite disqualification proceedings against members of factions within the Shiv Sena party. Prolonged delays in these proceedings contributed to the collapse of the government led by Uddhav Thackeray.
Conclusion: The Speaker holds significant powers in conducting the House, ensuring adherence to rules, deciding on crucial matters like no-confidence motions, and maintaining political stability through the judicious application of these powers.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Once a Speaker, Always a Speaker’! Do you think this practice should be adopted to impart objectivity to the office of the Speaker of Lok Sabha? What could be its implications for the robust functioning of parliamentary business in India? (UPSC IAS/2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coronal Mass Ejection, Aditya L1 and its various payloads
Why in the News?
India’s solar mission Aditya-L1 recently captured images of the Sun and it’s Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) during a solar storm in May.
The Active region AR13664 on the Sun erupted several X-class and M-class flares, which were associated with Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs).
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)
CMEs were discovered in 1971 and established their importance in solar-terrestrial relations later in the 1980s.
It consists of massive clouds of solar plasma and magnetic field lines.
It typically accompanies solar flares and filament eruptions.
The frequency of CMEs varies with the 11-year solar cycle, with about one a week observed during solar minimum and an average of two to three CMEs per day observed near solar maximum
They travel at thousands of km per hour.
They can lead to geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in extreme cases, damage to electrical power grids.
Not all CMEs interact with Earth, but those that do can cause disruptions to satellite communications and power grids.
Halo CMEs are Earth-directed CMEs visible as rings in white-light coronagraph observations.
About Aditya-L1:
Aditya-L1 mission is India’s first space mission to observe the Sun.
It is ISRO’s 2nd space-based astronomy mission after AstroSat, which was launched in 2015.
It was launched on September 2nd 2023 to observe the Sun and the solar corona.
The L1 point is a location in space where the gravitational forces of two massive objects, such as the Earth and the Sun, balance each other out, allowing a spacecraft to “hover” in a stable orbit.
Launch Details:
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) with 7 payloads (instruments) on board.
The 7 payloads include:
Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC): Images of the solar corona in visible light to study its structure and dynamics.
Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT): Images the solar chromosphere and transition region in ultraviolet light to understand heating and dynamics.
Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS): Measures solar X-ray spectrum to study solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer (HEL1OS): Measures high-energy solar X-rays to understand particle acceleration.
Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA): Measures solar wind plasma properties to study its interaction with Earth’s magnetosphere.
Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX): Measures energetic particle properties in the solar wind to study their effects on Earth’s atmosphere.
Solar Irradiance Monitor (SIM): Measures solar irradiance variations and their impact on Earth’s climate.
Objectives:
Aditya L1 will study the coronal heating, solar wind acceleration, coronal magnetometry, origin and monitoring of near-UV solar radiation and continuously observe the photosphere, chromosphere and corona, solar energetic particles and the magnetic field of the Sun.
Location:
Aditya is placed in L1 Halo orbit which is about 1.5 million km from the Earth. The orbit allows the mission to look at the Sun continuously.
L1 refers to Lagrangian/Lagrange Point 1, one of 5 points in the orbital plane of the Earth-Sun system.
Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two-body system like the Sun and Earth produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion.
PYQ:
[2017] The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, ‘String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of-
(a) Observation and understanding of the Universe
(b) Study of the solar and lunar eclipses
(c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth
(d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BRICS-11, New members of BRICS
Why in the News?
India joined a meeting of foreign ministers from the BRICS group, which was held in Russia. This meeting was the first one after BRICS expanded in 2023 to include Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE became as full-time members.
What is BRICS?
Details
Members
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)
Origin
Coined by economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 as BRIC, formalized as BRICS in 2010
Formation
First meeting of BRIC Foreign Ministers in 2006
South Africa’s Inclusion
Invited to join BRIC in December 2010
Global share of BRICS
Population: 41%
GDP: 24%
Global trade: 16%
Chairmanship
Rotated annually among members, following sequence B-R-I-C-S
India’s Hosting
Hosted the 2021 BRICS Summit
Key Initiatives
New Development Bank (NDB) established in 2014: Approved 70 infrastructure and sustainable development projects
Contingent Reserve Arrangement signed in 2014: Aims to forestall short-term balance of payments pressures and strengthen financial stability
Customs agreements signed for trade facilitation
BRICS Remote Sensing Satellite Constellation initiated in 2021: Involves six existing satellites developed by members
Objective of BRICS
The primary objectives of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) are to promote economic cooperation, development, and influence in world affairs.
Key goals include fostering economic growth and cooperation among member nations, creating institutions for development financing, and strengthening political coordination and dialogue on international issues.
BRICS-11 Expansion
BRICS celebrated its 15th summit by adding six new members, growing from five to eleven countries. This move aims to boost its global influence.
New members include Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Ethiopia, and Argentina, expanding BRICS’ reach across different regions.
These countries full membership commenced on January 1, 2024.
Challenges within BRICS
No Unified Vision: BRICS lacks a clear and unified vision for addressing global issues, hindering coordinated action.
Bilateral Conflicts: Tensions between member countries, such as China-India border disputes and Russia’s conflicts, undermine cohesion and collaboration within BRICS.
Economic Disparities: Economic inequality among member nations, with China dominating the group economically, poses challenges to equitable decision-making and cooperation.
Trade Imbalances: Trade imbalances among member states hinder intra-BRICS trade and economic integration efforts.
Heterogeneity: Cultural, linguistic, and political diversity among member nations limit the development of common strategies and objectives.
Limited Institutional Framework: BRICS lacks robust institutional mechanisms for effective coordination and implementation of collective initiatives.
PYQ:
[2014] With reference to a grouping of countries known as BRICS, consider the following statements:
The First Summit of BRICS was held in Rio de Janeiro in 2009.
South Africa was the last to join the BRICS grouping.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cabinet Committees; their composition and functioning.
Why in the News?
After the swearing-in ceremony of PM Modi, he is set to share the four big portfolios of Home, Defence, Finance, and External Affairs with its alliance partners.
What are the Cabinet Committees?
Cabinet committees in India are groups of ministers formed by the Prime Minister to handle specific tasks or issues more efficiently.
The PM sets up these committees with selected members of the Cabinet and assigns specific functions to these committees.
The PM may changethe number of committees, and modify the functions assigned to them.
Usually, only Cabinet ministers are members of these committees. However, non-Cabinet ministers are not unheard of to be members or special invitees to committees.
If the PM himself is a member of any such committee, he acts as the head of that committee.
Evolution of Cabinet Committees in India’s Governance
Cabinet committees operate under the Government of India Transaction of Business Rules, 1961.
These committees are categorized as Standing (Permanent) or Ad-Hoc (Temporary).
They are established based on Article 77(3) of the Constitution, allowing the President to make rules for efficient transaction of government business and allocation among ministers.
Membership varies from three to eight, predominantly comprising Cabinet ministers, with the Prime Minister often presiding.
The number, terminology, and composition may change over time.
Note: All Cabinet Committees except the Cabinet Committee on Accommodation and the Cabinet Committee on Parliamentary Affairs are headed by the Prime Minister.
There are 8 Cabinet committees at present —
Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (composed of the PM (ex-officio Chairman) and the Minister of Home Affairs),
Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (headed by the PM himself),
Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (headed by the PM),
Cabinet Committee on Investment and Growth,
Cabinet Committee on Parliamentary Affairs,
Cabinet Committee on Employment & Skill Development,
Cabinet Committee on Accommodation, and
Cabinet Committee on Security.
The Committees on Investment and Employment were innovations introduced in 2019 by the Modi government.
About Cabinet Committee on Security
Head of the Committee: The Prime Minister assumes the role of the committee’s head.
Membership: Cabinet ministers of Finance, Defense, Home Affairs, and External Affairs serve as members.
Key Responsibilities: The committee addresses issues related to law and order, internal security, and foreign affairs policy with security implications, including matters concerning atomic energy.
Economic and Political Considerations: It also examines economic and political issues relevant to national security.
Financial Oversight: The CCS reviews cases involving capital defence expenditure exceeding Rs 1,000 crore.
Departmental Considerations: Additionally, it evaluates matters concerning the Department of Defence Production, Department of Defence Research and Development, Services Capital Acquisition plans, and procurement of security-related equipment.
Why is CCS so important?
The CCS, led by the Prime Minister, includes key ministers overseeing finance, defence, home affairs, and external affairs, playing a pivotal role in national security discussions and appointments.
It makes major decisions regarding significant appointments, national security issues, and defence expenditure, indicating its crucial role in India’s security framework.
Apart from defence matters, the CCS addresses law and order, internal security, foreign policy on security issues, and matters related to atomic energy, showcasing its broad spectrum of responsibilities.
Alliance Partners in the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS)
1996 Government Transition: A notable instance was during the 1996 H.D. Deve Gowda government, following Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s resignation as Prime Minister. Deve Gowda, then CM of Karnataka, took office as Prime Minister on June 1. Mulayam Singh Yadav from the Samajwadi Party served as Defence Minister, P. Chidambaram, founder of the Tamil Manila Congress earlier that year, became Finance Minister, and Indrajit Gupta of CPI assumed the role of Home Minister.
2001 Appointment: During Vajpayee’s tenure leading the NDA government in 2001, George Fernandes, founder of the Samata Party, was appointed Defence Minister, holding the position for three years. Notably, during his tenure as Defence Minister in Vajpayee’s second and third ministries (1998–2004), Fernandes oversaw critical events such as the Kargil War and nuclear tests at Pokhran.
Party Distribution: However, during the UPA government, the Congress retained all CCS positions, whereas in the Modi government, the BJP held all four positions.
PYQ:
[2014] The size of the cabinet should be as big as governmental work justifies and as big as the Prime Minister can manage as a team. How far the efficacy of a government then is inversely related to the size of the cabinet? Discuss.
[2017] Out of the following statements, choose the one that brings out the principle underlying the Cabinet form of Government:
(a) An arrangement for minimizing the criticism against the Government whose responsibilities are complex and hard to carry out to the satisfaction of all.
(b) A mechanism for speeding up the activities of the Government whose responsibilities are increasing day by day.
(c) A mechanism of parliamentary democracy for ensuring collective responsibility of the Government to the people.
(d) A device for strengthening the hands of the head of the Government whose hold over the people is in a state of decline.
Jharkhand CM marked the 124th death anniversary of revolutionary tribal leader “Birsa Munda” by paying his tributes.
Who was Birsa Munda (1875-1900)?
Birsa Munda was born on November 15, 1875, during a period of significant change for his community, the Mundas, residing in the Chotanagpur region of present-day Jharkhand.
Birsa Munda spent his early years travelling with his parents and received primary education under Jaipal Nag.
Inspired by the peaceful Sardari agitation against British rule, Birsa became a prominent leader advocating for tribal rights.
Causes of the Rebellion
Impact of Colonial Policies: Colonial policies, including the Permanent Settlement Act (1793), disrupted traditional land ownership systems, leading to displacement and exploitation of indigenous communities.
Erosion of Khuntkattidar System: The Mundas’ traditional land rights system, known as khuntkatti, was eroded by jagirdars and thikadars, leading to land alienation.
Land Alienation and Exploitation: Non-tribal migration into tribal regions accelerated under British rule, resulting in exploitation through high-interest money lending and forced labour.
Missionary Activity: The spread of education through missionary activities led to increased awareness among tribals, deepening social cleavages but also inspiring movements for tribal reconstruction.
Major Activities:
1. New faith ‘Birsait’ against religious conversion
Having gained awareness of the British colonial ruler and the efforts of the missionaries to convert tribals to Christianity, Birsa started the faith of ‘Birsait’.
Soon members of the Munda and Oraon community started joining the Birsait sect and it turned into a challenge to British conversion activities.
The Mundas called him Dharati Aaba, the father of earth.
2.The Birsa Movement: Ulgulan
The Munda Rebellion was a tribal rebellion led by Birsa Munda in the region south of Ranchi in 1899-1900.
It mainly concentrated in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar, Sarwada, and Bandgaon.
The revolt sought to establish Munda Raj and independence, known as Ulgulan or ‘Great Tumult’ by Munda tribals.
The rebellion ended with the suppression by British forces and the death of Birsa Munda.
Significant Outcomes
Impact: Birsa Munda’s mobilization of tribal communities left a lasting legacy, prompting government reforms such as the repeal of the Begar system and the enactment of the Tenancy Act (1903).
His Death: The movement was violently suppressed and Birsa Munda died in jail on 9 June 1900.
What is Permanent Settlement System?
The Permanent Settlement system introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 was a land revenue system implemented in British India, particularly in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
Under this system, the land revenue to be paid by the peasants (ryots) was fixed permanently without revision for an extended period (typically 10 years or more).
This fixed amount was based on the estimated productive capacity of the land.
It established the Zamindari system, where Zamindars (landlords) were recognized as the owners of land.
They were responsible for collecting revenue from the peasants and paying it to the British government.
In return, they were entitled to keep a portion of the collected revenue as their income, often ranging from 10% to 15%.
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hydrogen Line and its significance in interstellar studies
Why in the News?
The hydrogen line stands as a pivotal tool in contemporary astronomy, serving various purposes from studying distant stars to questing for extraterrestrial intelligence, should it exist.
What is a Hydrogen Line?
The hydrogen line is a special type of light that hydrogen atoms emit.
It happens when an electron, a tiny particle that orbits the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, jumps from a higher energy level to a lower one.
This jump releases energy in the form of light, specifically with a wavelength of about 21 centimetres. This wavelength is what scientists call the hydrogen line.
Why is it Important?
Hydrogen is everywhere in the universe. It’s the simplest and most abundant element, making up about 75% of the universe’s elemental mass.
So, studying the hydrogen line allows us to understand a lot about the composition and distribution of matter in the universe.
By observing the hydrogen line’s emission from different regions of space, astronomers can create maps showing where hydrogen gas is located.
Secrets about the early Universe: The hydrogen line also holds secrets about the early universe. Shortly after the Big Bang, the universe was filled with hydrogen gas.
By studying the hydrogen line from distant parts of the universe, astronomers can learn about its conditions and evolution billions of years ago.
How Do We Interpret Hydrogen Line?
Radio telescope data enables mapping of hydrogen distribution, revealing locations of hydrogen clouds crucial for understanding galaxy and galaxy cluster formation and evolution.
Observing hydrogen line emission from different galaxy parts enables studying internal structures and dynamics, like rotation curves, offering insights into mass distribution within galaxies.
Observing hydrogen lines from distant galaxies unveils early universe conditions, aiding in understanding cosmic evolution’s initial stages.
What’s Next?
New Discoveries: Scientists are continually developing new technologies and techniques to improve the sensitivity and resolution of radio telescopes.
This enables them to detect fainter signals and uncover new insights into the universe’s hydrogen content.
Exploring Dark Matter: The hydrogen line observations could also contribute to understanding dark matter, an invisible substance that makes up about 27% of the universe’s total mass-energy content.
By studying the hydrogen distribution in relation to the gravitational effects observed in galaxies, scientists hope to shed light on the nature of dark matter.
PYQ:
[2012] A team of scientists at Brookhaven National Laboratory including those from India created the heaviest anti-matter (anti-helium nucleus). What is/are the implication/implications of the creation of anti-matter?
It will make mineral prospecting and oil exploration easier and cheaper.
It will help prove the possibility of the existence of stars and galaxies made of anti-matter.
It will help us understand the evolution of the universe.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Ammonia, SIGHT Program, National Green Hydrogen Mission.
Why in the News?
Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) has initiated the bidding process for a total capacity of 5.39 lakh Metric Tonnes (MT) per annum of Green Ammonia production.
The initiative falls under Mode 2A of the Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition (SIGHT) Programme, part of the National Green Hydrogen Mission led by the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE).
What is Green Ammonia?
Green ammonia, also known as renewable ammonia, is a form of ammonia produced using renewable energy sources, which is proposed as a sustainable, emission-free alternative with a multitude of applications in industry and other sectors.
It is produced by combining nitrogen with hydrogen, which is generated through water electrolysis using renewable energy, and then reacting the hydrogen and nitrogen at high temperatures and pressures to form ammonia.
About the National Green Hydrogen Mission
The National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in January 2023.
Objective: To make India a ‘global hub’ for using, producing and exporting green hydrogen.
Earlier, the National Hydrogen Mission was launched on August 15, 2021, with a view to cutting down carbon emissions and increasing the use of renewable sources of energy.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) formulates the scheme guidelines for the implementation of these missions.
Key features of the NGHM
Power capacity: The mission seeks to promote the development of a green hydrogen production capacity of at least 5 MMT per annum with an associated renewable energy capacity addition of about 125 GW in the country by 2030.
Job creation: It envisages an investment of over ₹8 lakh crore and creation of over 6 lakh jobs by 2030.
Reducing energy import bill: It will also result in a cumulative reduction in fossil fuel imports of over ₹1 lakh crore and abatement of nearly 50 MMT of annual greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.
Export promotion: The mission will facilitate demand creation, production, utilisation and export of green hydrogen.
Incentivization: Under the Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition Programme (SIGHT), distinct financial incentive mechanisms are provided.
Green Hydrogen Hubs: Regions capable of supporting large-scale production and/or utilisation of hydrogen will be identified and developed as Green Hydrogen Hubs.
What is the SIGHT Program?
In the initial stage, two distinct financial incentive mechanisms proposed with an outlay of ₹ 17,490 crore up to 2029-30:
Incentive for manufacturing of electrolysers
Incentive for production of green hydrogen.
Depending upon the markets and technology development, specific incentive schemes and programmes will continue to evolve as the Mission progresses.
PYQ:
[2019] Consider the following statements:
Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into the environment.
Cattle release ammonia into the environment.
Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Natal Satyagraha, Beginning of non-violent protest
Why in the News?
On June 7, 1893, Mahatma Gandhi faced racial discrimination when he was forced off a first-class train compartment at “Pietermaritzburg railway station” in South Africa.
This event ignited the spirit of civil disobedience in him through his first non-violent protest in the “Natal Satyagraha”.
History of ‘Satyagraha’
The terms originated in a competition in the news-sheetIndian Opinionin South Africa in 1906.
Mr. Maganlal Gandhi, grandson of an uncle of Mahatma Gandhi, came up with the word “Sadagraha” and won the prize.
Subsequently, to make it clearer, Gandhi changed it to Satyagraha.
About the Pietermaritzburg Incident
Gandhi’s forced removal from a first-class train compartment in 1893 served as a catalyst for his commitment to resisting racial discrimination.
This event inspired him to pursue nonviolent resistance, planting the seeds for his philosophy of Satyagraha.
Its’ Aftermath
Formation of Natal Indian Congress and Advocacy
Establishment: Gandhi organized the Indian community and founded the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) in 1894 at Durban to advocate for their rights.
Campaigns: He initiated various campaigns, including petitions and boycotts, challenging discriminatory laws and policies in South Africa.
Natal Satyagraha
The passage of the Asiatic Registration Act in 1906 sparked the Natal Satyagraha, protesting against this discriminatory law.
Gandhi emerged as the leader of the movement, advocating for nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience.
Satyagraha emphasized confronting oppression with moral courage and integrity, without resorting to violence.
Gandhiji’s South Africa Settlements:
Phoenix Settlement in Natal: Founded in 1904, the Phoenix Settlement was established by Gandhi as a communal living space and centre for social and political activism. It served as a hub for his Satyagraha campaigns against racial discrimination and injustice in South Africa.
Tolstoy Farm outside Johannesburg: Gandhi established Tolstoy Farm in 1910 as a self-sustaining community inspired by the teachings of Russian writer Leo Tolstoy. It served as a refuge for Indian immigrants and a base for organizing resistance against discriminatory laws.
Characteristics and Impact of Natal Satyagraha
Mass Participation: The movement garnered widespread support from the Indian community, involving thousands in nonviolent protests.
He mobilized support for the welfare of Indians and established the Transvaal British Indian Association in Johannesburg in 1903.
Arrests and Imprisonment: Gandhi and many others faced arrests and imprisonment for their acts of civil disobedience. He faced imprisonment multiple times for his nonviolent protests, including the Volkrust Satyagraha in 1913.
Attracted International attention: The Satyagraha attracted international attention and led to negotiations, culminating in the Indian Relief Act in 1914.
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to the British colonial rule in India, consider the following statements:
Mahatma Gandhi was instrumental in the abolition of the system of ‘indentured labour’.
In Lord Chelmsford’s ‘War Conference’, Mahatma Gandhi did not support the resolution on recruiting Indians for World War.
Consequent upon the breaking of Salt Law by Indian people, the Indian National Congress was declared illegal by the colonial rulers.
