Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 329(b), Forms 17A and 17C
Why in the News?
The Election Commission of India (ECI) told the Supreme Court that there is no legal mandate to provide Form 17C (account of votes recorded) to any other person other than the candidate or his agent.
What does Article 329(b) say?
It specifically bars courts from intervening in any disputes related to the electoral processduring the active phase of an election—from its notification to the final declaration of results.
This is to prevent any potential delays or disruptions caused by litigation during the election.
About Forms 17A and 17C
As per the Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961, there are two forms that have data on the number of electors and voters — Forms 17A and 17C.
Form 17A: This document, compiled by the Returning Officer for each constituency, lists contesting candidates and registers voter information, including names and symbols.
Form 17C: Form 17C contains the account of votes recorded at each polling station during the election. It is prepared by the Presiding Officer of the polling station after the conclusion of polling. It includes:
EVM identification numbers.
Total number of electors and voters at the polling station.
Number of voters who did not record their votes after signing the register.
Number of voters not allowed to vote.
Total number of votes recorded per EVM.
Part-II of Form 17C: It carries counting results entered on counting day. This form is crucial for any legal challenges to the election results and for candidates to verify results on counting day.
Why is there a Demand to Make Form 17C Data Public?
Activists advocate for greater transparency in election processes.
The high number of polling stations makes it hard for candidates to compile all data.
The Election Commission of India (ECI) is not legally required to publish aggregate voter turnout data.
The ECI ensures that all statutory requirements, including providing Form 17C to candidates, are met.
Discrepancies noted in Form 17C can be contested to maintain election integrity.
Back2Basics: Conduct of Election Rules, 1961
The Conduct of Election Rules, 1961, commonly referred to as the 1961Rules, outline the procedural framework governing various aspects of the electoral process in India.
These rules were formulated under the authority of the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
It serves as the foundational legislation for conducting elections in the country.
Activities covered: Preparation of electoral rolls, the nomination of candidates, the conduct of polling, counting of votes, and the declaration of results.
Regulatory Function: The 1961 Rules incorporate provisions for addressing electoral malpractices, disputes, and grievances, thereby safeguarding the sanctity of elections.
PYQ:
[2017] For election to the Lok Sabha, a nomination paper can be filed by
(a) Anyone residing in India.
(b) A resident of the constituency from which the election is to be contested.
(c) Any citizen of India whose name appears in the electoral roll of a constituency.
According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.
Treatment Challenges
Currently, there are no established effective treatments for PAM.
Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Autoimmune Diseases, X Chromosome
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
The X chromosome influences biological functions and disease susceptibilities, affecting genetic disorders, autoimmune diseases, and Alzheimer’s, with research offering potential new treatments and therapies.
Back2Basics: Chromosomes
Chromosomes are fundamental components of cells that play a vital role in storing and transmitting genetic information.
These structures contain genes, which carry instructions for the development, functioning, and inheritance of traits.
Chromosomes consist of tightly coiled DNA molecules wrapped around proteins called histones, forming chromatin.
Before cell division, chromosomes replicate into identical sister chromatids held together at the centromere.
Types of Chromosomes:
Autosomes: Non-sex chromosomes (22 pairs in humans) determine most traits.
Sex Chromosomes: Determine biological sex (XX for females, XY for males).
Functions of Chromosomes
Genetic Information Storage: Genes on chromosomes encode instructions for protein production and cellular processes.
Inheritance: Chromosomes transmit genetic information during sexual reproduction through meiosis, ensuring genetic diversity in offspring.
Gene Expression Regulation: Chromosomes control gene activation or silencing, crucial for development and cell functioning.
Genetic Landscape of the X chromosome:
The human X chromosome encodes around 800 genes, producing proteins.
Loss of function in these genes can lead to various genetic diseases.
Diseases influenced by the X chromosome fall into three categories:
X-linked genetic diseases
Diseases influenced by XCI (X chromosome inactivation) escape
Diseases linked to X-chromosome aneuploidy
What is the X chromosome?
It is one of the two sex chromosomes in humans, the other being the Y chromosome.
Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
Significance:
Encodes around 800 genes that are crucial for various biological processes.
Plays a significant role in determining sex and influencing many physiological functions.
Loss of function or mutations in X chromosome genes can lead to several genetic disorders.
What are Autoimmune Diseases?
Diseases where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own cells and tissues.
Normally, the immune system defends against infections by targeting harmful pathogens.
Common Autoimmune Diseases:
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): Chronic inflammation affecting various body parts.
Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Inflammation of joints and surrounding tissues.
Sjogren’s Syndrome: Affects glands that produce moisture, leading to dry mouth and eyes.
How does the X chromosome cause Autoimmune Diseases?
X Chromosome Inactivation (XCI):
In females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated during early embryonic development to balance gene expression between males and females.
This process is crucial to prevent overexpression of X-linked genes.
XCI Escape:
Not all genes on the inactive X chromosome are completely silenced.
Up to a fourth of these genes may escape inactivation and continue to be expressed.
Link to Autoimmune Diseases:
Skewed XCI: Uneven inactivation of X chromosomes may lead to an imbalance in gene expression, contributing to autoimmune disorders.
Incomplete XCI: Reactivation of genes that should be silenced can result in abnormal immune responses.
Studies, such as one published in Science Advances (May 3, 2023), have shown that reactivation of X-linked genes in immune cells can lead to lupus-like symptoms in mice.
Linkage between X chromosome and Alzheimer’s disease
Sex Bias in Alzheimer’s:
Women are almost twice as likely as men to develop Alzheimer’s disease.
Role of X-Linked Genes:
Researchers have identified a gene called ubiquitin-specific peptidase 11 (USP11) on the X chromosome.
USP11 Gene: Involved in protein modification processes and thought to influence the accumulation of tau proteins in the brain.
XCI Escape: USP11 may escape XCI in females, leading to higher expression levels and contributing to Alzheimer’s pathology.
A study from Case Western Reserve University (Cell, October 2022) highlighted this mechanism, suggesting it as a target for new treatments.
PYQ:
[2011] At present, scientists can determine the arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does this knowledge benefit us?
It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock.
It is possible to understand the causes of all human diseases.
It is possible to develop disease-resistant animal breeds.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Water Forum, World Water Council;
Why in the News?
The World Bank report, titled “Water for Shared Prosperity,” was released at the 10th World Water Forum in Bali, Indonesia.
It underscores the widening gap in access to water resources and services, exacerbated by factors like population growth, urbanization, and climate change.
Water for Shared Prosperity: Key Highlights of the Report
In 2022, 2.2 billion people lacked access to safely managed drinking water services, while 3.5 billion lacked access to safely managed sanitation.
Over 800 million people globally are at high risk of drought, with double that number living in flood-prone areas.
Low-income countries have seen a regression in access to safe drinking water, with an additional 197 million people lacking access since 2000.
Rural-urban access gaps in low-income countries have remained largely unchanged over the last two decades.
Hotspots in regions like the Sahel, Southeastern Africa, and South and Central Asia experience the highest water stress.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo holds over half of Africa’s total water resources.
About World Water Forum:
It is a large-scale international event that focuses on the discussion and development of solutionsto global water-related challenges.
It is held every three years. The first forum took place in took place in Marrakesh, Morocco in March 1997.
It is organized by the World Water Council, an international organization.
It brings together stakeholders from various sectors including governments, organizations, businesses, and academia to promote awareness, build political commitment, and trigger action on critical water issues at all levels.
What is the World Water Council (WWC)?
The World Water Council was founded in 1996.
The idea for the WWC emerged from discussions during the International Water and Sanitation Congress & Exhibition in 1994 and the subsequent Ministerial Conference on Drinking Water and Environmental Sanitation in 1996.
WWC’s activities focus on targets related to SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), among others.
The Council was established by renowned water specialists and international organizations, including academic institutions, private companies, governments, and NGOs etc.
Objective: The primary aim of the Council is to raise awareness about critical water issues at all levels, including the highest decision-making levels, to facilitate efficient conservation, protection, development, planning, management, and use of water resources globally.
Membership: The WWC boasts a diverse membership base comprising over 300 member organizations in approximately 50 countries.
Key Functions and Contributions:
World Water Forums: It is the world’s largest event on water and gathers participants from various sectors to discuss and collaborate on water issues.
Policy Influence: The WWC works to influence policy by facilitating discussions among political and economic decision-makers.
Research and Advocacy: Through its publications, policy papers, and strategic projects, the WWC fosters greater understanding and awareness of water issues.
PYQ:
[2016] The effective management of land and water resources will drastically reduce the human miseries. Explain.
[2012] If National Water Mission is properly and completely implemented, how will it impact the country?
Part of the water needs of urban areas will be met through recycling of waste water.
The water requirement of coastal cities with inadequate alternative sources of water will be met by adopting appropriate technologies that allow for use of ocean water.
All the rivers of Himalayan origin will be linked to the rivers of peninsular India.
The expenses incurred by farmers for digging bore wells and for installing motors and pump sets to draw groundwater will be completely reimbursed by the Government.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Migration Report, 2024;
Why in the News?
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) has recently launched the World Migration Report 2024.
Back2Basics: International Organization for Migration (IOM)
Details
About
Originated in 1951 as the Provisional Intergovernmental Committee for the Movement of Migrants from Europe (PICMME) after World War II’s upheavals.
In 2016, IOM agreed with the United Nations, becoming a related organization.
Headquarters
Geneva, Switzerland
Members
Currently has 175 Member States and 8 states with Observer status.
India became an IOM Member State on 18th June 2008.
Key Highlights of the Report:
Climate Change Impacts on Migration
The report highlights a significant increase in global migration due to environmental impacts and climate change, with more than 216 million people projected to be on the move within their countries by 2050.
Migration is being used as a strategy to cope with and adapt to the adverse effects of climate change, although its effectiveness varies based on individual circumstances and active involvement of migrants.
Specific Regional Insights:
Africa:
Climate change has led to severe weather changes, including decreased rainfall and increased temperatures in North Africa, contributing to migration.
Countries like Libya, Algeria, and Morocco have seen migration due to reduced rainfall and increased drought conditions.
Asia:
In South Asia, particularly Pakistan and Bangladesh, extreme weather events like floods have led to substantial displacement.
The 2022 floods in Pakistan resulted in nearly 1.7 million displacements and in Bangladesh, record-breaking floods in 2022 triggered over 1.5 million displacements.
In India, strong influence of climate impacts on internal migration from Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Remittances Inflows in India
According to the Report, India has consistently been the top recipient of remittances globally. In 2022, India received a record-breaking $111.22 billion in remittances.
Remittance Inflows:
India is way ahead of its closely ranked peers Mexico ($61.1 billion), China ($51 billion), Philippines ($38.05 billion) and France ($30.04 billion).
This is the first time any country has crossed the USD 100 billion mark in remittance inflows.
The largest contributions to India’s remittances come from the UAE, USA, and Saudi Arabia, reflecting the extensive Indian diaspora in these regions.
Migration Statistics:
With 18 million international migrants residing primarily in the UAE, USA, and Saudi Arabia, India hosts the world’s largest number of international migrants.
This large diaspora plays a crucial role in the economic linkage between India and these countries through remittances.
India came in 13th as the destination country for immigrants, with 4.48 million.
PYQ:
[2015] Discuss the changes in the trends of labour migration within and outside India in the last four decades.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Change; New Collective Quantitative Goal; Evolutions in Global Climate Finances;
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
At the upcoming COP29 in Baku in November this year, Azerbaijan, the primary discussion will center on the New Collective Quantitative Goal (NCQG) for climate finance.
Recent Climate Conferences and Decisions:
2022 Sharm el-Sheikh Conference: A Loss and Damage Fund was established to assist developing countries in recovering from climate disasters.
Dubai Conference: The focus was on the Global Stocktake (GST) of climate actions, acknowledging the need to transition away from fossil fuels and tripling global renewable energy capacity by 2030.
What is the New Collective Quantitative Goal (NCQG)?
All the parties of the Paris Agreement participate and review the implementation of the Agreement and make decisions. CMA is held once a year.
This goal will start with a target of at least $100 billion per year, focusing on the requirements and priorities of developing countries.
It will replace the previous commitment of USD 100 billion per year that developed nations had pledged in 2009 but never delivered.
NCQG:A timeline
In 2009: The developed countries agreed to provide approximately $30 billion in ‘new and additional’ financial resources to developing countries from 2010 to 2012.
Additionally, these countries committed to collectively raising $100 billion annually by 2020 to support climate action in developing countries.
In 2015: It was decided to continue this collective goal of mobilizing $100 billion yearly by developed countries up to 2025.
A new climate finance target is to be set before 2025, maintaining at least $100 billion per year and considering the needs and priorities of developing countries. This is referred to as the NCQG or the new goal for post-2025.
Financial Requirements for Effective Climate Action:
Current Funding Gaps: The scale of annual climate finance has consistently fallen short of the $100 billion promised by developed countries.
Projected Needs: Developing countries require about $6 trillion annually until 2030 to implement their climate action plans, according to a 2021 UN Climate Change report. An updated version of this report is expected to raise this figure even higher.
Global Transition Costs: A global transition to a low-carbon economy is estimated to require about $4-6 trillion every year until 2050.
Renewable Energy Expansion: Tripling renewable energy capacity, as agreed in Dubai, is estimated to cost $30 trillion until 2030, per the International Renewable Energy Association (IRENA).
Prospects for Meeting Financial Targets:
Realistic Expectations: Discussions are ongoing, with India suggesting a target of at least $1 trillion per year, primarily through grants and concessional finance.
Challenges: Developed countries have historically fallen short of even lesser goals, and achieving trillions in finance is seen as ambitious.
Back2Basics: GlobalInitiatives for Financing Climate Action
Established
Purpose
How it Works
Green Climate Fund (GCF)
2010
To support developing countries in adaptation and mitigation to counter climate change.
Mobilizes funding from developed to developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance climate resilience. Operates under the UNFCCC financial mechanism.
Global Environment Facility (GEF)
1991
To tackle global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development.
Provides grants for projects related to environmental conventions (biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, ozone layer, organic pollutants). Functions as a financial mechanism for multiple conventions including the UNFCCC.
Climate Investment Funds (CIF)
2008
To bridge funding and learning gaps for cleaner technology transformations.
Offers scaled-up financing to middle-income countries to initiate cleaner technology transformations. Includes funds like the Clean Technology Fund (CTF) and the Strategic Climate Fund (SCF).
Adaptation Fund
2001
To finance concrete adaptation projects in developing countries party to the Kyoto Protocol.
Financed by a share of proceeds from CDM project activities, it supports concrete adaptation projects in vulnerable communities.
Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF)
2001
To finance projects in adaptation, technology transfer, and various management sectors.
Managed by the GEF, supports projects in sectors not directly funded through other funds such as energy, transport, and waste management.
Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF)
2001
To support the least developed countries (LDCs) in their climate change initiatives.
Finances the preparation and implementation of National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) which identify priority activities for LDCs to adapt to climate change.
Carbon Pricing Mechanisms
NA
To internalize the cost of GHG emissions, incentivizing emission reductions.
Involves setting a price on carbon emissions either through carbon taxes or emissions trading schemes (ETS), encouraging businesses to reduce emissions.
To enhance cooperation to achieve NDC goals under the Paris Agreement.
Facilitates technical and financial support to help countries implement and enhance their NDC commitments for reducing emissions.
PYQ:
[2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?
The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2ºC or even 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels.
Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AMR, Initiatives mentioned;
Why in the news?
The International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and Associations (IFPMA) released a report titled “From Resistance to Resilience: Reinforcing the Response to Antimicrobial Resistance,” emphasizing the urgent need for enhanced Antibiotic development.
Report Highlights:Current State of Antibiotic Development:
Weak Pipeline: The current pipeline for developing new antibiotics is described as weak, fragile, and insufficient against growing antimicrobial resistance.
AMR Threat: Recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the greatest global health threats, AMR is linked to around 1.2 million direct deaths and 5 million associated deaths annually.
What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)?
Antimicrobials are substances designed to eliminate or suppress the growth of microorganisms.
This category encompasses antibiotics, fungicides, antiviral drugs, and agents targeting parasites.
AMR occurs when microbes such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi become resistant to antimicrobial treatments to which they were previously susceptible.
Microorganisms that develop resistance to antimicrobials are sometimes referred to as “superbugs”.
Global Status of AMR
A recent report from the Global Research on Anti-microbial Resistance (GRAM) project found that:
In 2019, an estimated 4.95 million people suffered from at least one drug-resistant infection and AMR directly caused 1.27 million deaths.
AMR is one of India’s major public health problems, directly contributing to about 30% of deaths due to neonatal sepsis across India.
These are due to multidrug-resistant (MDR)hospital-acquired infections in many cases.
30% of the COVID-19 deaths in India could be attributed to our failure to treat the secondary bacterial infections caused by MDR pathogens with the appropriate antibiotics.
What are the factors that cause AMR?
Over-prescription of Antibiotics: Frequently prescribing antibiotics for conditions that do not require them, such as viral infections, accelerates the emergence of resistance.
Incomplete Treatment Courses: Patients not completing their antibiotic courses as prescribed can leave surviving bacteria that adapt to become resistant.
Self-Medication: Individuals using antibiotics without a prescription, especially in regions where they are available over the counter, increases misuse and drives resistance.
Lack of New Antibiotics: The slow pace of new antibiotic development fails to keep up with the rate of bacterial evolution, reducing effective treatment options.
Hospital Settings: Hospitals are critical hotspots for the spread of resistant infections due to the high use of antibiotics and the concentration of vulnerable patients with open wounds, invasive devices, and weakened immune systems.
Global Travel: International travel allows for the rapid spread of resistant mutant strains between communities and across borders.
India’s efforts to combat AMR:
Description
National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR)
Launched in 2017, this 5-year plan involves multiple ministries to tackle AMR across human, animal, and environmental sectors.
Focuses on enhancing awareness, surveillance, infection prevention, optimizing antimicrobial use, promoting research, and fostering international collaborations.
New Delhi Declaration on AMR
Adopted in 2023 at the G20 Summit.
It emphasizes strengthening surveillance, regulating antibiotic sales, and boosting research for new treatments and diagnostics in the South-East Asia Region.
National Anti-Microbial Resistance Research and Surveillance Network
Established under the Indian Council of Medical Research to monitor AMR trends through a network of laboratories across India.
National Programme on Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance
Initiated by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare to enhance AMR surveillance, infection control, and antimicrobial stewardship in healthcare facilities.
Red Line Campaign
Started in 2016, it raises awareness about the irrational use of antibiotics.
Medicines marked with a red line on their packaging are prescription-only, aiming to reduce misuse and over-the-counter sales.
National One Health Program for Prevention and Control of Zoonoses
Launched in 2019, this program uses a multi-sectoral approach to strengthen responses to zoonotic diseases, including those caused by antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Solar System; Venus and its physiography; Non-Thermal Dissociative Recombination;
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
Over four billion years ago, Venus had enough water to potentially cover its surface with an ocean approximately 3 km deep, but today, it would remain with only 3 cm.
A research by US scientists explain the Non-Thermal Dissociative Recombination (DR) responsible for faster loss of water from Venus.
About Venus
Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is a terrestrial planet and is the closest in mass and size to its orbital neighbour Earth.
Venus is notable for having the densest atmosphere of the terrestrial planets, composed mostly of carbon dioxide with a thick, global sulphuric acid cloud cover.
At the surface it has a mean temperature of 464 °C (737 K) and a pressure of 92 times that of Earth’s at sea level.
These extreme conditions compress carbon dioxide into a supercritical state close to Venus’s surface.
Internally, Venus has a core, mantle, and crust. Venus lacks an internal dynamo, and its weak induced magnetosphere is caused by atmospheric interactions with the solar wind.
Venus is one of two planets in the Solar System (the other being Mercury), that have no moons.
The rotation of Venus has been slowed and turned against its orbital direction (retrograde) by the currents and drag of its atmosphere.
It takes 224.7 Earth days for Venus to complete an orbit around the Sun, and a Venusian solar year is just under two Venusian days long.
Water Loss on Venus:
Venus lost its water primarily due to two factors:
Evaporation due to Greenhouse Effect: Its dense atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide, creating a strong greenhouse effect and surface temperatures around 450 degrees Celsius, which prevents water from existing in liquid form.
Proximity to the Sun: This leads to the disintegration of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen in the ionosphere under solar heat and ultraviolet radiation.
Mechanism of Water Loss:
Thermal Process: Initially, hydrodynamic escape was significant, where solar heating caused the outer atmosphere to expand, allowing hydrogen to escape into space. This process cooled and slowed about 2.5 billion years ago.
Non-Thermal Process: Focus of recent study; involves hydrogen escaping into space, reducing water formation as oxygen atoms lack hydrogen to bond with.
Key Research Findings: Non-thermal Dissociative Recombination (DR)
The discrepancy in water loss rates was addressed by identifying a previously overlooked chemical reaction involving the formyl cation (HCO+).
HCO+ dissociative recombination (DR) reaction occurs when HCO+ gains an electron and splits into CO and a hydrogen atom, which then escapes into space.
This reaction is responsible for losing out water without evaporation.
This reaction was modelled to significantly increase the rate of hydrogen escape, potentially doubling the rate at which Venus lost water.
The model suggests that water levels on Venus would have been stable from nearly 2 billion years ago due to the ongoing non-thermal HCO+ DR reaction, yet some water remains today.
Future Researchon Venus
Existence of HCO+ Ions: Direct evidence of HCO+ ions in Venus’s atmosphere is still missing. Past missions did not focus on this molecule, and its involvement in water loss was not previously considered crucial.
Future Missions: The findings underscore the importance of future Venus missions to investigate the presence of HCO+ in the upper atmosphere, similar to the MAVEN mission to Mars.
PYQ:
[2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?
Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are made of ice, dust and rocky material.
Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Red Dwarf Star, Speculoos-3b
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
Astronomers have identified a new Earth-sized exoplanet, named Speculoos-3b, orbiting an ultracool red dwarf star.
Back2Basics: Red Dwarf Star
A red dwarf is the most common type of star in the Milky Way galaxy.
However, due to their low luminosity, individual red dwarfs cannot be easily observed.
Proxima Centauri, the star nearest to the Sun, is a red dwarf, as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars.
According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the fusing stars in the Milky Way.
About Speculoos-3b
Speculoos-3b is an Earth-sized exoplanet recently discovered orbiting an ultracool dwarf star.
It was discovered by a team of astronomers led by Michael Gillon from the University of Liege in Belgium.
It is located approximately 55 light-years away from Earth.
Due to its short orbital period, Speculoos-3b receives almost ten times more energy per second than Earth does from the Sun.
SPECULOOS Project
Project Overview: The discovery was made under the SPECULOOS project, aimed at exploring exoplanets around ultra-cool dwarf stars.
The SPECULOOS Southern Observatory is a project carried out by the University of Liège (Belgium) and the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge (United Kingdom)
Astrophysical Significance of the Discovery
Prevalence of Ultracool Dwarfs: Ultracool dwarf stars, like the host of Speculoos-3b, constitute about 70% of all stars in our galaxy and are known for their longevity, surviving up to 100 billion years.
Importance for Life’s Potential: The extended lifespan of these stars provides a stable environment that could potentially support the development of life on orbiting planets.
PYQ:
[2015] The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of:
(a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth
(b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available
(c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space
(d) search for meteorites containing precious metals
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Phtheirospermum Lushaiorum:
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
A rare hemi-parasitic terrestrial plant has been found in Phawngpui National Park of Mizoram.
It has been named ‘Phtheirospermum Lushaiorum’ after the Lushai tribe of Mizoram, honoring their commitment to biodiversity conservation.
About Lushai Tribe
Lushai is another tribe under the Kuki-chin group(racially from Mongolia) of tribes.
They are commonly known as Mizos.
In Tripura there are 5,384 persons (as per 2011 Census).
Occupation: They mostly reside in the Jampui Hills area of Tripura and have Jhum Cultivation and hunting of wild animals as their main occupation.
Culture and belief:
converted to Christianity and still follow Christianity as their religion.
Their Cheraw Dance (Bamboo Dance) is quiet famous.
About Phtheirospermum Lushaiorum
This plant lacks a fully developed root system and taps into the sap of host plants through specialized structures known as haustoria.
Despite its parasitic nature, it contains chlorophyll and can produce its food, showing some independence from its host.
It flowers from July to September, with fruit production occurring from August to October.
The plant grows near a popular trekking route in Phawngpui National Park, facing threats from both anthropogenic activities and natural factors.
Back2Basics: Phawngpui National Park
Also known as Blue Mountain National Park, it is one of the two national parks in Mizoram (the other being Murlen NP).
Geographical location:
Close to the border with Burma (Myanmar).
The park overlooks the Chhimtuipui River, which flows toward Burma.
The geography of Phawngpui is characterized by its cloud-covered mountain area, which gives it a distinctive blue appearance from a distance.
Flora and Fauna:
Bird species:Blyth’s tragopan, falcons, sunbirds, dark-rumped swifts, and the Mizoram state bird, Mrs. Hume’s pheasant.
Mammals: Mountain goat, slow loris, tiger, leopard, leopard cat, serow, goral, Asiatic black bear, stump-tailed macaque, and capped langur.
Flora: Grassy meadows, orchids, rhododendrons, and bamboo groves.
PYQ:
[2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 meters and has orange-coloured fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discovered?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IMEC Project, Various ports mentioned
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
An Indian inter-ministerial delegation visited the UAE to discuss the operational aspects of the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC), marking a significant step forward since the signing of the agreement.
About IMEC Project
IMEC is part of the broader Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII), which focuses on infrastructure development in economically developing regions.
The MoU for IMEC was formally endorsed on September 10, 2023, during the 2023 G20 New Delhi summit.
Signatories to this agreement: India, United States, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, France, Germany, Italy, and the European Union.
Aim: To integrate Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, enhancing economic cooperation across these regions.
Objectives:
Improve transportation efficiency, lower costs, and promote economic cohesion among participating nations.
Generate employment opportunities and reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions.
Facilitate trade and connectivity, thereby reshaping regional integration among Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.
Corridor Configuration:
IMEC comprises two primary corridors:
East Corridor: Linking India to the Arabian Gulf.
Northern Corridor: Connecting the Gulf region to Europe.
Key ports integral to the project’s success include:
India: Mundra, Kandla, and Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (Mumbai).
Middle East: Fujairah (UAE), Jebel Ali (Dubai, UAE), Abu Dhabi (UAE), Dammam (Saudi Arabia), and Ras Al Khair (Saudi Arabia).
Israel: Haifa port.
Europe: Piraeus (Greece), Messina (Italy), and Marseille (France).
Additionally, it encompasses various infrastructure components such as railway networks, ship-to-rail connections, road transport routes, electricity cables, hydrogen pipelines, and high-speed data cables.
Significance:
IMEC, upon completion, will establish a dependable and cost-efficient cross-border ship-to-rail transit network, complementing existing maritime and road transport networks.
The IMEC Project holds significant promise in redefining regional trade dynamics and fostering sustainable economic growth and cooperation among the involved countries.
PYQ:
[2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same. (150 Words, 10 Marks)
[2016] ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of:
(a) African Union
(b) Brazil
(c) European Union
(d) China
Back2Basics: Partnership for Global Infrastructure Investment (PGII)
The PGII was first announced in June 2021 during the G7 (or Group of Seven) summit in the UK.
The G7 countries include the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the European Union (EU).
US President Joe Biden had called it the Build Back Better World (B3W) framework. However, it did not register much progress.
In 2022, during the G7 summit in Germany, the PGII was officially launched as a joint initiative to help fund infrastructure projects in developing countries through public and private investments.
Objective: To mobilise nearly $600 billion from the G7 by 2027 to invest in critical infrastructure.
It is essentially in response to the infrastructure projects being undertaken and funded by China under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) at a global level.
Present Maritime Routes between India and Europe
Trade Route
Route
Issues
Advantages
Suez Canal Route
Indian Ocean -> Arabian Sea -> Red Sea -> Suez Canal -> Mediterranean Sea -> Europe
High traffic causing congestion.
Potential for piracy, especially near the Horn of Africa.
Most efficient and shortest maritime route.
Well-established with advanced port facilities.
Cape of Good Hope Route
Indian Ocean -> Arabian Sea -> Indian Ocean (southern tip of Africa) -> Atlantic Ocean -> Europe
Longer transit time compared to the Suez Canal.
Higher fuel costs and longer journey duration.
Avoids congestion and security risks of the Suez Canal.
Suitable for large vessels unable to transit the Suez Canal.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Endangered Species Day, Species mentioned in the news
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
National Endangered Species Day is an annual event that strives to raise awareness about the significance of safeguarding endangered species and their habitats.
This year, National Endangered Species Day was celebrated on May 17.
What is National Endangered Species Day?
National Endangered Species Day is observed every year on the 3rd Friday of May.
This day was co-founded in 2006 by the Endangered Species Coalition and David Robinson.
Robinson defines Endangered Species Day as a “worldwide day of action to rescue species and celebrate conservation triumphs”.
Theme for 2024: “Celebrate Saving Species”.
According to the IUCN Red List Analysis 2020, over 500 land animal species will likely go extinct in the next two decades if current trends continue.
Flagship species in India that are Endangered and often seen in the News:
Species
Conservation Status
Key Information
Asian Elephant
IUCN: Endangered
CITES Appendix I;
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
Symbol of Heritage: Plays a key role in forest and grassland ecosystems.
Threats: Habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict, and poaching for tusks.
Conservation Needs: Sustained efforts are crucial to ensure their survival and maintain biodiversity.
Ganges River Dolphin
IUCN: Endangered
CITES: Appendix I;
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
Critical Habitat: Found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems.
Challenges: Water extraction, pollution, and river traffic.
Population Decline: Less than 2,000 individuals remain in India.
Bengal Tiger
IUCN: Endangered
CITES Appendix I;
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
Iconic Predator: Represents a significant part of India’s wildlife.
Current Status: Numbers are increasing, but threats like poaching and habitat loss persist.
Habitat: Found across varied ecosystems, from forests to mangroves.
Red Panda
IUCN: Endangered
CITES: Appendix I
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
Status: Significant decline due to habitat loss and poaching.
Habitat Zones: Found in the eastern Himalayas and parts of Northeast India.
Conservation Importance: Serves as an indicator species for the health of the Himalayan forests.
Asiatic Lion
IUCN: Endangered
CITES: Appendix I
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
Last Refuge: Exclusively found in Gir National Park, Gujarat.
Population Challenges: Threats include poaching and accidental deaths from open wells and fences.
Conservation Strategies: Involves habitat restoration and stricter anti-poaching laws.
Nilgiri Tahr
IUCN: Endangered
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
Mountain Inhabitant: Lives in the mountainous regions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Population Pressure: Climate change and human interference are major threats.
Survival Strategies: Requires focused conservation to stabilise its declining population.
Lion-tailed Macaque
IUCN: Endangered
CITES Appendix I;
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
Distinct Appearance: Notable for its silver mane, found in the Western Ghats.
Critical Decline: Population affected by habitat fragmentation and human interaction.
Behavioural Changes: Adjustments in their natural behaviours due to human activities are concerning.
Great Indian Bustard (GIB)
IUCN: Critically Endangered
CITES Appendix I;
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
IBs are the largest among India’s four bustard species and are considered flagship birds of grasslands.
Habitat reduced to just 10 per cent.
Overhead power transmission, poor vision, windmills, noise pollution, landscape changes, and alterations in cultivation patterns pose significant threats to GIBs.
Golden Langur
IUCN: Endangered
CITES Appendix I;
Schedule I (WPA, 1972)
Approximately 7,396 Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei) in India as per a census conducted by Assam Forest Department.
Hangul (Kashmir Stag)
IUCN: Critically Endangered
CITES: Appendix I;
Kashmir’s Hangul, a shy and endangered species of deer, has exhibited a robust breeding season, suggesting a hopeful future for its population in the Dachigam National Park.
The Hanguls population could surpass 300 this spring, marking the first time in over 30 years.
PYQ:
[20I2] Which one of the following groups of animals belongs to the category of endangered species?
(a) Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and Asiatic Wild Ass
(b) Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and Great Indian Bustard
(c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey and Saras (Crane)
(d) Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull, Hanuman Langur and Cheetal
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Wood Age; Schoningen Wooden Artefacts; Prehistory vs. History; Christian Jorgensen Thomsen’s classification
Why in the News?
New research suggests the Stone Age be termed the “Wood Age” due to advanced wooden tools found in Schoningen, Germany.
About Schoningen Wooden Artefacts
A study of around 300,000-400,000-year-old wooden artefacts excavated from a coal mine in Schoningen, Germany, between 1994 and 2008.
It reveals that these were not merely “sharpened sticks” but “technologically advanced tools” requiring skill, precision, and time to build.
The tools demonstrated a broad spectrum of wood-working techniques including splitting, scraping or abrasion.
Back2Basics: Periodising Human Prehistory
Prehistory vs. History: Human ‘history’ began with the advent of writing, while everything before that is ‘prehistory,’ studied using archaeological evidence and ethnographic research.
19th Century Periodization: Danish archaeologist Christian Jorgensen Thomsen introduced the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age classification based on technological advancements. This classification has been refined to reflect diverse cultural experiences.
The Stone Age Timeline
Beginning: The Stone Age began when hominids first used stone tools, around 3.4 million years ago in Ethiopia, and lasted until about 6,000-4,000 BP (Before Present).
Divisions: The Stone Age is divided into:
Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): Characterized by rudimentary stone tools and a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, ending around 11,650 BP.
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): A transitional phase.
Neolithic (New Stone Age): Beginning roughly 12,000 BP in West Asia, marked by settled agriculture and domestication of animals.
Use of Wood: Preservation Bias and Archaeological Evidence
Stone Tools: Stone tools provide significant insight into the lives and capabilities of early humans. Charles Darwin noted that even the rudest stone tools required a high degree of mental sophistication and physical dexterity.
Other Materials: Evidence shows the use of bones, antlers, clay, and some metalworking alongside stone tools. However, evidence of woodworking is limited due to wood’s perishable nature.
Lesser Evidence of Wood: Wood has been recovered from less than 10 of thousands of Lower Palaeolithic sites (up to around 200,000 BP). The earliest wooden dwellings date to only 700,000 BP, much later than the earliest stone tools.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to the period of the Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul were well-known as
(a) ports handling foreign trade
(b) capitals of powerful kingdoms
(c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture
After the allegations of ‘unethical practices’ by ARCs, including aiding defaulting promoters, the RBI intervened, with the Deputy Governor urging integrity and ethical conduct in their operations.
The new guidelines laid out by the RBI:
Enhanced Capital Requirements:
Minimum Capital Requirement Increase: ARCs are now mandated to maintain a minimum capital requirement of Rs 300 crore, a significant increase from the previous Rs 100 crore stipulation established on October 11, 2022.
Transition Period for Compliance: Existing ARCs are granted a transition period to reach the revised Net Owned Fund (NOF) threshold of Rs 300 crore by March 31, 2026.
Interim Requirement: However, by March 31, 2024, ARCs must possess a minimum capital of Rs 200 crore to comply with the new directives.
Supervisory Actions for Non-Compliance:
ARCs failing to meet the prescribed capital thresholds will face supervisory action, potentially including restrictions on undertaking additional business until compliance is achieved.
Expanded Role for Well-Capitalized ARCs:
Empowerment of Well-Capitalized ARCs: ARCs with a minimum NOF of Rs 1000 crore are empowered to act as resolution applicants in distressed asset scenarios.
Investment Opportunities: These ARCs are permitted to deploy funds in government securities, scheduled commercial bank deposits, and institutions like SIDBI and NABARD, subject to RBI specifications. Additionally, they can invest in short-term instruments such as money market mutual funds, certificates of deposit, and corporate bonds commercial papers.
Investment Cap: Investments in short-term instruments are capped at 10% of the NOF to mitigate risk exposure.
About Asset Reconstruction Company (ARC):
Description
About
ARC is a special financial institution that acquires debtors from banks at a mutually agreed value and attempts to recover the debts or associated securities.
Regulation
ARCs are registered under the RBI.
Regulated under the SARFAESI Act, 2002 (Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Securities Interest Act).
(Note: For reading more details on SARFAESI Act you can visit on our article named “RBI asks for SARFAESI Act Compliance” of Sept 2023)
Objective
ARCs take over a portion of the bank’s non-performing assets (NPAs) and engage in asset reconstruction or securitization, aiming to recover the debts.
Functions
Asset Reconstruction: Acquisition of bank loans or other credit facilities for realization.
Securitization: Acquisition of financial assets by issuing security receipts.
Foreign Investment
100% FDI allowed in ARCs under the automatic route.
Limitiations
ARCs are prohibited from undertaking lending activities.
They can only engage in securitization and reconstruction activities.
Working
Bank with NPA agrees to sell it to ARC at a mutually agreed value.
ARC transfers assets to trusts under SARFAESI Act.
Upfront payment made to bank, rest through Security Receipts.
Recovery proceeds shared between ARC and bank.
Security Receipts
Issued to Qualified Institutional Buyers (QIBs) for raising funds to acquire financial assets.
Significance
Banks can clean up their balance sheets and focus on core banking activities.
Provides a mechanism for resolution of NPAs and debt recovery
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to the governance of public sector banking in India, consider the following statements:
Capital infusion into public sector banks by the Government of India has steadily increased in the last decade.
To put the public sector banks in order, the merger of associate banks with the parent State Bank of India has been affected.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Baobab Trees and its conservation status
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
A recent study uncovers the origins and evolution of Baobabs, uniquely shaped trees in Madagascar, with species also native to Africa and Australia.
Do you know?
Mandu, in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, is perhaps the only place in India where baobab trees are found in abundance, with an estimated 1,000 trees in the periphery of the town.
Madhya Pradesh state government has plans to apply for a GI (Geographical Indication) tag for the Khorasani Imli or the fruit of the baobab.
A Baobab tree near the Golconda Fort in Andhra Pradesh is believed to be more than 400 years old.
Aside from Mandu, baobab trees have been recorded in Prayagraj (formerly Allahabad) in Uttar Pradesh, Wai in Maharashtra, and some places in Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
About Baobab Trees
Baobabs are deciduous trees (that lose their leaves in autumn) belonging to the genus Adansonia. It comprises 8 distinct species:
Adansonia digitata in continental Africa.
Adansonia gregorii in Northwestern Australia.
6 other species endemic to Madagascar.
Baobabs are known for:
Great heights, with some extending up to 50 metres.
Exceptionally long lifespans, going up to 2,000 years.
They have trunks with large circumferences; thin, spindly branches.
Nicknamed “upside down” trees because their tops resemble uprooted plants turned upside down.
Conservation Status:
‘Threatened’ with extinction according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
‘Least Concern’ category but still faces threats such as residential and commercial development and livestock farming and ranching.
Importance of Conservation:
The study emphasized the conservation of the baobab as a keystone species:
Keystone species provide essential resources, such as food or shelter, for a guild of animals.
In return, these animals provide essential services, such as pollination or diaspore dispersal.
Why Baobab tree is called the “Mother of Forests”?
They can store large amounts of fresh water in their extraordinary trunks.
It also allows the baobab tree to produce nutritious fruits even during the driest years.
This makes them true life savers during times when water is scarce.
In local cultures, they are revered for multiple uses:
Edible fruits and seeds.
Seed oil used for cooking.
Bark fibre used for clothing.
PYQ:
[2021] “Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome and as a result the soil surface is often almost bare. Apart from trees, the vegetation is largely composed of plant forms that reach up into the canopy vicariously, by climbing the trees or growing as epiphytes, rooted on the upper branches of trees.” This is the most likely description of-
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Udagai, Reign of Raja Raja I (Rajaraja Chola) and his achievements
Why in the news?
The southern part of India historically ruled by the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings, was known for its great literature, art, culture, and temple architecture.
It also witnessed fierce battles among these kingdoms led by Raja Raja I.
Who was Raja Raja I?
His reign marked a golden era for the Chola Empire through extensive military conquests, administrative reforms, and cultural patronage.
Ponniyin Selvan (The Son of Ponni) is a Tamil language historical fiction novel with the story of the early days of Prince Raja Raja I (also called Arulmozhivarman).
Here are detailed facts and key events from the reign of Raja Raja I:
Background and Ascension to the Throne:
Full Name:Arulmozhivarman, popularly known as Raja Raja Chola I.
Reign:
He reigned from 985 AD to 1014 AD, taking the throne following the death of his father Sundara Chola.
He was succeeded by Rajendra I.
Military Conquests:
Raja Raja I embarked on several military campaigns that significantly expanded the Chola Empire.
He conquered parts of what is now Tamil Nadu, northern parts of Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, consolidating the Chola influence across the region.
His most notable military achievement was the conquest of the ancient Chera capital of Mahodayapuram and the invasion of Sri Lanka, where he captured the northern half of the island.
Nagapattinam Port was his major naval base.
His success allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya (Sumatra) and Kadaram (Malaysia).
Administrative Reforms:
He streamlined the administrative structure of the empire with precise revenue collection and management systems.
He implemented a well-organized provincial administration with efficient governance, dividing his empire into various provinces under the control of local governors.
Cultural Contributions and Temple Building:
Raja Raja I was a great patron of the arts and architecture. Under his reign, Chola architecture and Tamil literature flourished.
Construction of the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur (Dravidian style).
Completed in 1010 AD
He also supported the revival of Hinduism and promoted Shaivism, actively endowing temples and supporting the livelihood of the temple priests. He called himself ‘Shivapada Shekhara’.
He also allowed for the flourishing of other religiouspractices for example Vaishnavism and Buddhism.
Trade and Diplomacy:
His reign saw an increase in trade and diplomatic contacts with far-off kingdoms, including those in Southeast Asia.
The Chola navy played a crucial role in protecting and enhancing trade routes in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
To promote trade, Rajaraja sent the first Chola mission to China.
About the Battle of Udagai/Udayagiri
It occurred in 1003 CE between the Cholas and the Cheras at Udagai, now known as Udayagiri in Kalkulam taluk of Kanniyakumari district, during the reign of Raja Raja I, the greatest of Chola kings.
It was the bloodiest war in medieval Indian history, where the Cholas plundered Udagai and returned to their headquarters in Thanjavur with tonnes of gold and the best elephants.
The battle began with the conquest of Kanthalur Salai in the Chera Kingdom.
The Chola army was led by Raja Raja’s son Rajendra.
Evidence from Epigraphy
The Discovery of a Chola period epigraphy near Chengam suggests that Salai was an army training centre run by the Cheras.
The training centre was a challenge to the Cholas.
The battle marked the end of the relationship between the Cholas and the Cheras, which had been established through marriages.
Aftermath of the War
The battles terminated the relationship between the Cholas and Cheras during the reign of Rajendra Chola.
In 1004 CE, Raja Raja celebrated his birthday grandly in the Chera kingdom, renaming the village Muttam as Mummudi Chola Nalloor.
He granted the temple at Thirunanthikarai for a seven-day celebration of his birthday.
Subsequently, he returned to Thanjavur with gold, elephants, and cattle.
Kamban Manian, a Chola general, brought a Shiva idol made of emerald to Thirupazhanam near Thanjavur, though it is no longer found there.
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following events in the history of India:
Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja.
Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I.
Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka-I.
Pala dynasty founded by Gopala.
What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sperm Whales, Project CETI
Why in the news?
A recent study has uncovered the intricate structure of their communication system, which appears to possess a “phonetic alphabet,” offering new insights into the depth of their social interactions.
Sperm whales, the largest toothed whales, utilize a diverse array of vocalizations to communicate, including bursts of clicking noises known as ‘codas’.
About Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus)).
Sperm whales, the largest toothed whales
It has a series of vertical creases or wrinkles on its body and a small, inconspicuous dorsal fin located near the rear of its back.
The sperm whale uses ‘echolocation’ to navigate and locate prey during these deep dives.
Prey: Sperm whales primarily feed on squid (including the giant squid) sharks and deep-sea fish.
Habitat: Sperm whales are found in deep oceanic waters worldwide, from the equator to the edges of the pack ice in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Behavior: Known for their exceptional diving capabilities, sperm whales can dive to depths of over 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) and stay submerged for up to 90 minutes. They are social animals, typically found in groups called ‘pods’, which can contain up to twenty individuals.
Conservation Status: Listed as ‘VULNERABLE’ by the IUCN.
Threats cause: Collisions with ships, entanglement in fishing gear, and noise pollution.
Insights from the Study:
Expressivity: The study, which utilized data from Project CETI demonstrated that sperm whale calls exhibit a broader range of expressivity than previously recognized, hinting at a nuanced mode of communication.
Social Dynamics: Like all marine mammals, sperm whales rely heavily on vocalizations as an integral aspect of their social interactions.
Contextual Analysis: The next phase of research aims to decipher the behavioural context surrounding sperm whale vocalizations, shedding light on their potential meanings.
About Project CETI (Cetacean Translation Initiative)
Project CETI is a non-profit, interdisciplinary scientific and conservation initiative on a mission to listen to and translate the communication of sperm whales off the island of Dominica in the Eastern Caribbean.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 300A, 44th Constitutional Amendment, Right to Property
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Supreme Court’s ruling safeguards landowners from arbitrary government acquisition, emphasizing adherence to Article 300A, ensuring the constitutional right to property and sub-rights compliance.
Procedural Sub-Rights under Right to Property
These seven rights are foundational components of a law that is in tune with Article 300A, and the absence of one of these or some of them would render the law susceptible to challenge:
Right to Notice: Individuals must be informed about the intention to acquire their property.
Right to Be Heard: Affected individuals have the right to voice objections.
Right to a Reasoned Decision: The government must justify the acquisition with a reasoned decision.
Public Purpose Justification: Acquisitions must serve a demonstrable public purpose.
Right of Restitution or Fair Compensation: Landowners are entitled to fair compensation for their property.
Right to An Efficient and Expeditious Process: Acquisition procedures should be efficient and adhere to set timelines.
Right of Conclusion: The process concludes with the physical transfer of property; failure to take possession renders the acquisition incomplete.
Back2Basics:Right to Property in India
The Right to Property was initially a fundamental right under the Constitution of India, included in Part III (Articles 19 and 31).
Through the 44th Amendment Act of 1978, this right was removed from the list of fundamental rights. It was reclassified as a constitutional right under Article 300A.
About Article 300A:
Article 300A was introduced to the Constitution, stating that “No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law.”
Legal Framework: This implies that the government can still acquire private property, but this acquisition must be done through a law that justifies the acquisition and provides for fair compensation to the affected parties.
Current Legal Status
Not a Fundamental Right: The Right to Property is no longer a fundamental right, which means it cannot be directly enforced through the Supreme Court or High Court under Article 32 or Article 226. However, it remains a constitutional right.
Protection under Law: Any person deprived of his property under any state enactment can approach a High Court challenging the legality of the act under Article 300A.
Legal Recourse: Affected individuals have the right to legal recourse if they believe that the acquisition was not justified or that the compensation was inadequate.
Recent Judgment: Human Rights
Case Background: The judgment supported a Calcutta High Court decision that dismissed an appeal by the Kolkata Municipal Corporation regarding the acquisition of private land.
Court’s Order: The Corporation was ordered to compensate with ₹5 lakh for costs within 60 days.
Human Rights Perspective: The right to property is not only protected as a constitutional right but has also been recognized as a human right by a “Bench of Justices P.S. Narasimha and Aravind Kumar”.
Legal Interpretations and Clarifications
Justice Narasimha clarified that the phrase ‘authority of law’ in Article 300Aextends beyond the state’s power of eminent domain.
It necessitates a proper legal framework for property acquisition.
The ruling underscored that mere possession of eminent domain power and the provision of compensation do not justify compulsory acquisition if due processes are not followed.
PYQ:
[2021] What is the position of the Right to Property in India?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AIFs and their regulation; Benefits offered.
Why in the News?
In response to tightening regulations impacting operations, the RBI has recommended that investments exceeding 50% of Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs) units by a person resident outside India be treated as Indirect Foreign Investment.
BACK2BASICS:
What are Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs)?
An Alternative Investment Fund or AIF is any fund established or incorporated in India that is a privately pooled investment vehicle that collects funds from sophisticated investors, for investing by a defined investment policy for the benefit of its investors.
AIFs are regulated by the SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India).
As per the SEBI (Alternative Investment Funds) Regulations, 2012, an AIF can be set up as a trust, a company, a limited liability partnership, or a corporate body.
Who can invest in an AIF?
Indian Residents, NRIs (Non-Resident of India), and foreign nationals are eligible to invest in these funds.
Joint investors can also invest in AIF. They can be spouse, parents, or children of investors.
The minimum investment amount for investors is Rs1 crore for investors. For directors, employees, and fund managers, this limit is Rs 25 lakh.
Most AIFs come with a minimum lock-in period of three years.
The maximum number of investors in every scheme is capped at 1,000. However, in the case of angel fund, the cap is 49.
Categories of an applicant who can seek registration as an AIF:
Category I and II AIFs are required to be close-ended and have a minimum tenure of three years. Category III AIFs may be open-ended or close-ended.
Note: Investment by an Indian company (which is owned or controlled by foreigners) into another Indian entity is considered as Indirect Foreign Investment (IFI). It is also known as downstream investment.
Present Regulatory Landscape:
Regulatory Ambiguity: Recent regulatory notes have instilled mistrust in the industry, particularly regarding Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) policy surrounding AIFs, spooking investors and prompting reconsideration of fund deployment strategies.
Changing Stance: The regulatory stance has evolved, with amendments in 2015-16 allowing AIFs to attract foreign capital through the automatic route, promoting onshore management and incentivizing Indian fund managers to relocate to India.
Offshore Alternatives:
Reason for Offshoring: Offshore funds benefit from a more stable regulatory environment, with considerations for tax implications necessitating careful structuring.
Attractive Destination: Gujarat International Finance Tec-City (GIFT City) has emerged as an attractive alternative for managers due to regulatory stability, tax incentives, and proximity to India.
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to Foreign Direct Investment in India, which one of the following is considered its major characteristic?
(a) It is the investment through capital instruments essentially in a listed company.
(b) It is a largely non-debt-creating capital flow.
(c) It is the investment which involves debt-servicing.
(d) It is the investment foreign institutional investors make in Government securities.
The Spices Board has proactively engaged with CODEX, the international food standards authority, to address the pressing issue of ethylene oxide (ETO) contamination in spices.
This initiative follows recent recalls of certain branded spices exported from India to Hong Kong and Singapore due to concerns regarding ETO contamination.
Concerns over spice quality have also been raised by countries like the US, New Zealand, and Australia, prompting ongoing evaluations of Indian Spice Imports.
Back2Basics: Spices Board of India
The merger of the erstwhile Cardamom Board and Spices Export Promotion Council on 26th February 1987, under the Spices Board Act 1986 led to the formation of the Spice Board of India.
The Board functions as an International link between the Indian exporters and the importers abroad with a Nodal Ministry of Commerce & Industry.
Headquartered in Kochi, it has regional laboratories in Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Tuticorin, Kandla and Guntur.
Main Functions:
It promotes organic production, processing, and certification of spices.
Responsible for the overall development of Cardamom.
Focuses on post-harvest improvement programs for improving the quality of the 52 scheduled spices for export.
These programs are included under the head ‘Export Oriented Production’.
About CODEX
The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is an inter-governmental food standards body established jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in May 1963.
Objective: Protecting consumer’s health and ensuring fair practices in food trade.
The Agreement on Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) recognizes Codex standards, guidelines, and recommendations as reference standards.
Members:
Currently, the CAC has 189 Codex Members made up of 188 Member Countries and the EU.
India became a member in 1964.
CODEX Committee on Spices and Culinary Herbs
CODEX committee (CCSCH) was formed in 2013 with the support of more than a hundred countries with India as the host country and the Spices Board as the Secretariat for organizing the committee sessions.
Objectives:
To consult with other International Organisations for the standards development process in the spice market.
To develop and expand worldwide standards.
Since its inception, the CODEX Committee has been on a positive path in developing harmonized global standards for worldly herbs and spices.
India’s push for Permissible ETO Limits
Advocacy for Limits: India has advocated for the establishment of limits for ETO usage, recognizing the variance in regulations across different countries.
CODEX, thus far, has not prescribed any limit for ETO usage, and India has submitted a proposal for standardizing ETO testing protocols.
Focus on Safety: While acknowledging the carcinogenic nature of ETO when used excessively, efforts to prevent contamination have been intensified.
Notably, India’s sample failure rate in spices exports is less than 1% in major markets, underscoring the industry’s commitment to quality and safety standards.
Spice Market of India:
Production:
Major producing states: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
The production of different spices has been growing rapidly over the last few years. During 2022-23, the export of spices from India stood at US$ 3.73 billion from US$ 3.46 billion in 2021-22.
India produces about 75 of the 109 varieties which are listed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Major Produced and Exported Spices by India: Pepper, cardamom, chili, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, celery, fennel, fenugreek, garlic, nutmeg & mace, curry powder, spice oils, and oleoresins.
Out of these spices, chili, cumin, turmeric, ginger, and coriander make up about 76% of the total production.
Export: In 2023-24, India’s spice exports totaled $4.25 billion, accounting for a 12% share of the global spice exports. (till February 2024 data).
India exported spices and spice products to 159 destinations worldwide as of 2023-24. The top destinations among them were China, the USA, Bangladesh, the UAE, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the UK, and Sri Lanka. (which comprises more than 70% of the total exports).
PYQ:
[2019] Among the agricultural commodities imported by India, which one of the following accounts for the highest imports in terms of value in the last five years?
