Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Humboldt's Enigma
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- The question of where biodiversity is concentrated has intrigued explorers and naturalists for centuries. Humboldt has tried to answer this question.
Humboldt’s Insights
- Alexander von Humboldt: A polymath of the 18th century, Humboldt recorded diverse natural observations, proposing a relationship between temperature, altitude, humidity, and species distribution.
- Mountain Exploration: During his exploration of South America, Humboldt studied plant distribution on mountains, noting variations with elevation.
- Chimborazo Mountain: Humboldt used Chimborazo Mountain in Ecuador as an example, illustrating the concept of mountain diversity.
What is Humboldt’s Enigma?
- Sun’s Energy: Tropical areas receive more solar energy, fostering greater primary productivity and biodiversity due to the availability of ecological niches.
- Mountain Exception: Mountains, despite being outside the tropics, have been an exception to the rule, posing Humboldt’s enigma.
Biodiversity Drivers
- Earth’s History, Geography, and Climate: These factors are the primary drivers of mountain diversity.
- Geological Processes: Mountains serve as ‘cradles’ for new species due to geological processes like uplifts, creating new habitats.
- Climatic Stability: Climatologically stable mountains act as ‘museums,’ preserving species over time.
- Coastal Tropical Sky Islands: Examples like the Shola Sky Islands in the Western Ghats exhibit both cradle and museum characteristics.
Eastern Himalaya: An Anomaly
- Diversity Beyond Tropics: Eastern Himalaya boasts exceptional diversity, challenging the conventional tropical biodiversity paradigm.
- Multiple Factors: Climate dissimilarity and geological heterogeneity contribute to high biodiversity.
- Climate Variability: Different temperature and rainfall levels on the same mountain support diverse biomes.
Unresolved Questions
- Complexity of Biodiversity: Numerous factors drive diversification and Humboldt’s enigma in different regions, leading to over a hundred hypotheses.
- Data Limitations: Fine-scale species occurrence data are lacking, hindering precise explanations.
- Call for Research: India’s under-studied areas need more extensive research, including the use of genetics, to understand true biodiversity.
- National Initiatives: Programs like the National Mission on Himalayan Studies and Biodiversity need strengthening to support basic research.
Conclusion
- Humboldt’s enigma represents one facet of mountain biodiversity, offering opportunities for study and insights into global climate and landscape change issues.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lab-Grown Fish
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), headquartered in Kochi, collaborated with Neat Meatt Biotech, a private-sector start-up specializing in lab-grown meat technology.
- This Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) marks the first initiative of its kind in India.
Understanding Lab-Grown Fish
- Lab-Grown Fish Definition: Lab-grown fish, a type of cultivated or cultured meat, is seafood produced in a laboratory setting without the need to raise and slaughter animals.
- Production Process: Specific fish cells are isolated and grown in a controlled laboratory environment using animal-free media. The goal is to replicate the taste, texture, and nutritional qualities of traditional fish meat.
Roles of CMFRI and Neat Meatt
- CMFRI’s Responsibilities: Under the MoU, CMFRI will focus on genetic, biochemical, and analytical aspects of the project. Its cell culture lab will research early cell line development for high-value marine fish species, including pomfret, kingfish, and seerfish.
- Neat Meatt’s Expertise: Neat Meatt, with expertise in cell culture technology, will lead in optimizing cell growth media, developing scaffolds or microcarriers for cell attachment, and scaling up production via bioreactors. The company will also provide consumables, manpower, and additional equipment.
Addressing the Need for Lab-Grown Fish
- Growing Demand: The demand for seafood is increasing, creating pressure on wild resources.
- Overfishing Consequences: Overfishing has led to population declines in certain species and negatively impacted marine ecosystems.
- Environmental Benefits: Lab-grown fish meat can reduce the reliance on traditional fishing, offering antibiotic-free, contamination-free, and pollution-free alternatives.
Global Pioneers in Lab-Grown Fish
- Leading Nations: Several countries are advancing lab-grown fish technology. Israel is a frontrunner, followed by Singapore, the United States, and China.
- Recent Developments: Israel-based Forsea Foods successfully produced lab-grown freshwater eel meat. Israel’s Steakholder Foods, in collaboration with Umami Meats in Singapore, 3D printed the first-ever ready-to-cook fish fillet from laboratory-grown animal cells.
Bridging India’s Gap
- Accelerating Development: The CMFRI-Neat Meatt partnership aims to expedite India’s progress in lab-grown seafood to ensure it doesn’t lag behind countries like Singapore, Israel, and the USA.
- Leveraging Expertise: CMFRI’s marine research and Neat Meatt’s technological prowess form a collaboration that promises a sustainable future for seafood production in India.
- Timeline Expectation: Dr. Sandeep Sharma of Neat Meatt anticipates establishing the project’s proof of concept within a few months.
Expanding Lab-Grown Meat
- Wide Range: Beyond fish, lab-grown meat development encompasses chicken, pork, lamb, beef, and more.
- Global Industry Growth: The lab-grown meat industry has expanded to over 150 companies across six continents, with $2.6 billion in investments.
- US Regulatory Clearance: In June 2023, the US Department of Agriculture approved the sale of lab-grown chicken meat, allowing companies like Good Meat and Upside Foods to supply it to restaurants and supermarkets.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Deep Learning in Antibiotic Discovery
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The year 1944 witnessed the simultaneous emergence of artificial neural networks, laying the foundation for deep learning, and the discovery of streptomycin, the first aminoglycoside antibiotic.
- This historical synchrony ultimately connects deep learning and antibiotics.
Why in news?
- In December 2023, scientists introduced a groundbreaking alliance between deep learning and antibiotics by leveraging deep learning techniques to discover a new class of antibiotics, addressing a multi-decade gap in antibiotic development.
Deep Learning in Antibiotic Discovery
- Different Approach: Unlike previous applications of deep learning in drug discovery, this study focused on identifying chemical motifs or substructures used by the deep learning model to evaluate compounds for antibiotic potential, rendering the model “explainable”.
- Proven Efficacy: The research successfully demonstrated the effectiveness of two compounds from the newfound antibiotic class against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections, a major cause of human fatalities in 2019.
- Recognition and Expansion: Experts praised the study for its contributions to antibiotic research and its potential to enhance drug development strategies.
Understanding Deep Learning and Explainability
- Neural Networks: Deep learning relies on artificial neural networks, comprising layers of artificial “neurons” that process inputs and yield outputs through training and testing phases.
- Training and Testing: Deep learning networks are trained on large datasets with annotated inputs to learn specific tasks. During testing, they classify novel inputs based on their learned knowledge.
- The Black Box Issue: Most deep learning models lack transparency in explaining how they arrive at their conclusions, remaining “black boxes.”
- Explainable Deep Learning: In contrast, the study’s model was designed to be explainable, allowing it to not only predict antibiotic potential but also elucidate the substructures contributing to this property.
Journey to Novel Antibiotics
- Experimental Screening: The research began by screening over 39,000 compounds to inhibit S. aureus growth, shortlisting 512 active compounds.
- Graph Neural Network (GNN): A GNN was trained on the dataset, representing atoms as nodes and bonds as edges on a mathematical graph.
- Selecting Non-Toxic Compounds: To ensure safety, 306 compounds were identified that didn’t harm human cells, and other GNNs were trained to identify cytotoxic compounds.
- Identifying Potential Antibiotics: The GNNs evaluated a database of over 1.2 crore compounds, identifying 3,646 potential antibiotics based on substructures.
- Substructure Rationales: The study introduced “rationales” to explain the substructures that conferred antibiotic properties to molecules.
- Efficacy Against MRSA and VRE: Certain compounds, including N-[2-(2-chlorophenoxy)ethyl]aniline, exhibited inhibition of MRSA and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE).
- Mouse Models: One compound effectively reduced MRSA-related skin and thigh infections in mouse models.
Significance and Ongoing Challenges
- Transparency in Drug Discovery: The study’s significance lies in rendering deep learning approaches to drug discovery more transparent and reproducible across drug categories.
- Future Exploration: Researchers are applying substructure rationales to design new antibiotics and explore applications in drugs targeting age-related disorders.
- Addressing a Lacuna: An identified shortcoming is that explainability analysis occurred after predicting antibiotic properties. Implicitly incorporating explainability in deep learning models is proposed as a more robust approach.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Modified PKC-ERCP Project
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Rajasthan and MP have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Union Ministry of Jal Shakti to execute the Modified Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal-ERCP (Modified PKC-ERCP) Link Project.
About Modified PKC-ERCP Project
- Inter-link: The Modified PKC-ERCP is an inter-state river linking project, with preparations underway for a Detailed Project Report (DPR).
- Integration Purpose: This project aims to integrate the long-pending PKC river link project with the Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP) under the national perspective plan of the interlinking of rivers (ILR) program initiated by the Government of India.
- Update: This MoU will cover aspects such as water sharing, cost-benefit sharing, water exchange, and implementation mechanisms in the Chambal basin.
Understanding PKC Link Project
- Inclusion in National Plan: The Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal (PKC) link project is one of the 30 links listed in the National Perspectives Plan, established by the former Union Ministry of Irrigation (now Ministry of Water Resources) and the Central Water Commission in 1980.
- Historical Progress: The preliminary feasibility report for the Kalisindh-Chambal link canal project was prepared in 1991. It proposed diverting water from river Newaj and Kalisindh to the river Chambal, either at the Rana Pratap Sagar dam or the Gandhi Sagar dam.
- ERCP Proposal: Rajasthan introduced the Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP) in 2019, aiming to optimize water resources.
- Merging of projects: Subsequently, the Task Force for Interlinking of Rivers (TFILR) explored merging the ERCP with the PKC link project, an integration approved by the Special Committee for Interlinking of Rivers in December 2022.
Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP)
- Project Objective: The ERCP targets intra-basin water transfer within the Chambal basin. It utilizes surplus monsoon water from subbasins like Kalisindh, Parvati, Mej, and Chakan, diverting it to water-deficient sub-basins such as Banas, Gambhiri, Banganga, and Parbati.
- Beneficiary Regions: The ERCP provides drinking and industrial water to 13 districts in eastern Rajasthan, including Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli, Sawai-Madhopur, Dausa, Jaipur, Ajmer, Tonk, Bundi, Kota, Baran, and Jhalawar.
Benefits of Modified Project
- Drinking and Industrial Water: The Modified PKC-ERCP project aims to provide drinking and industrial water to 13 eastern Rajasthan districts, Malwa, and Chambal regions of Madhya Pradesh.
- Irrigation: It also supports irrigation across a significant area in both states, totalling 5.6 lakh hectares or more.
Need for the MoU
- Dependable Yield Norms: The project’s planning was initially based on 50% dependable yield, contrary to the prevailing norm of 75% dependable yield for inter-state river projects.
- Integration Proposal: In November 2019, the Task Force on Interlinking of Rivers proposed exploring the integration of ERCP with the PKC Link Canal Project, following deliberations and consensus between both states.
- Modified PKC Link Proposal: As a result of these discussions, a proposal for the Modified PKC link project was formulated, combining components from the Government of MP and ERCP, designed for 75% dependable water availability.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rajya Sabha Elections
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- The Election Commission notified elections to 56 Rajya Sabha seats that will be held on February 27.
Uniqueness of Rajya Sabha Elections
- Retirement Cycle: One-third of Rajya Sabha members from each State retire every two years, necessitating elections to fill vacancies.
- Eligible Voters: Only elected members of State Legislative Assemblies are eligible to vote in Rajya Sabha elections.
- Six-Year Term: Newly elected members serve a six-year term, with vacancies arising due to resignation, death, or disqualification filled through by-polls.
Election of Rajya Sabha Members
- Blocs and Elections: A group of MPs from one or more parties can elect a member if they possess the required numbers.
- Avoiding Majority Rule: This approach ensures that ruling party candidates do not monopolize elections.
- Union Territories Representation: Delhi and Puducherry Assemblies elect members to Rajya Sabha to represent the respective Union Territories.
Electoral Process
- Polling Condition: A Rajya Sabha election requires polling only when the number of candidates surpasses the available vacancies.
- Predictable Strength: Parties estimate their potential seats based on their strength in the Assembly.
- Contesting Candidates: Parties field candidates based on their strength; additional candidates trigger a contest.
- Candidate Nomination: Political party candidates must be proposed by at least 10 Assembly members or 10% of the party’s House strength, whichever is lower.
- Independent Candidates: Independents require 10 proposers, all Assembly members.
Voting Procedure
- Single Transferable Vote: Rajya Sabha elections employ the single transferable vote system, based on proportional representation.
- Preferences Voting: Electors can vote for multiple candidates in order of preference.
- Winning Requirement: Candidates need a specific number of first preference votes to win, with each first choice vote valued at 100 in the initial round.
- Qualification: To qualify, a candidate must secure one point more than the quotient obtained by dividing the total value of seats available in the election plus one.
Transparency in RS Elections
- Open Ballot System: Rajya Sabha elections employ an open ballot system with limited transparency.
- Preventing Cross-Voting: Showing marked ballots to the party’s authorized agent (Whip) is mandatory; not following this rule renders the vote invalid.
- Secrecy for Independents: Independent candidates are prohibited from showing their ballots to anyone.
- NOTA in Rajya Sabha: Initially, Rajya Sabha members had the option to use the NOTA (None of the Above) button during elections, as per circulars issued by the Election Commission.
- Supreme Court Ruling: However, in 2018, the Supreme Court ruled that NOTA is only applicable in general elections and cannot be used in indirect elections based on proportional representation.
Consequences of Cross-Voting
- Supreme Court’s Stand: The Supreme Court clarified that not voting for the party candidate in Rajya Sabha elections does not trigger disqualification under the anti-defection law.
- Legislators’ Freedom: MLAs retain the freedom to vote for a candidate of their choice.
- Party Action: Parties are free to take disciplinary action against legislators who vote against their candidate.
Voting Eligibility before Taking Oath
- Voting Without Oath: The Supreme Court ruled that members can participate in Rajya Sabha elections even before taking the oath as legislators.
- Non-Legislative Activity: Rajya Sabha voting is considered a non-legislative activity, allowing members to vote without taking the oath.
- Membership Status: A person becomes a member as soon as the Election Commission notifies the list of elected members.
- Proposal Rights: Members can also propose a candidate before taking the oath of office.
Other facts
- Limited Union Territories (UTs): Only two Union Territories participate in Rajya Sabha elections, not all of them.
- Conditional Polling: Polling occurs only if the number of candidates exceeds the available vacancies.
- Independent Members: Independent candidates can also be elected to Rajya Sabha.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CAA
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA), 2019: Key Provisions
- Basic idea: CAA, 2019, aims to amend the Citizenship Act, 1955, to grant Indian citizenship to specific categories of illegal migrants.
- Eligible Religions: CAA targets Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian illegal migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, making them eligible for Indian citizenship.
- Objective: The primary objective is to facilitate citizenship for non-Muslim immigrants from India’s three Muslim-majority neighboring countries.
- Residence Requirement: The Citizenship Act, 1955, normally requires 11 of the previous 14 years of residence in India as a condition for naturalization.
- Amendment: CAA reduces this requirement to 6 years for applicants belonging to the specified religions and countries.
- Exemption from Criminal Cases: Members of the designated communities are exempted from criminal cases under the Foreigners Act, 1946, and the Passport Act, 1920, if they entered India before December 31, 2014.
Defining Illegal Migrants
- Status Under Present Laws: Existing laws prohibit illegal migrants from acquiring Indian citizenship.
- CAA’s Definition: CAA classifies an illegal migrant as a foreigner who enters India without valid travel documents (passport and visa) or overstays beyond the allowed period.
- Penalties: Illegal migrants can face imprisonment or deportation under the Foreigners Act, 1946, and The Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920.
Exceptions under CAA
- Conditions for Exemption: CAA outlines four conditions that, if met, exempt certain individuals from being treated as illegal migrants:
- They belong to the specified religions (Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, or Christian).
- They hail from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, or Pakistan.
- They entered India on or before December 31, 2014.
- They are not in certain tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, or Tripura (Sixth Schedule) or “Inner Line” permit areas (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Nagaland).
Controversies Surrounding CAA
- Country of Origin: CAA categorizes migrants based on their country of origin, specifically Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
- Religious Exclusivity: It raises questions about why only six specified religious minorities have been considered in the Act.
- Omission of Rohingya: The Act doesn’t address the Rohingya Muslims from Myanmar, who have faced persecution.
- Entry Date Differentiation: The differential treatment of migrants based on their entry date, i.e., before or after December 31, 2014, has generated debate.
- Secularism Concerns: Critics argue that granting citizenship based on religion contradicts the secular principles of India’s Constitution, considered part of the unalterable basic structure.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Supreme Court of India
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Prime Minister inaugurated the diamond jubilee year celebrations of the Supreme Court, marking an important milestone in India’s judicial history.
About Supreme Court of India
- Apex Judicial Body: The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority as per the Constitution of India.
- Constitutional Mandate: Article 124 of the Constitution stipulates the establishment of the Supreme Court.
- Birth of the Supreme Court: The Supreme Court came into being on January 26, 1950, coinciding with the commencement of the Indian Constitution.
- Inauguration: Two days after India became a Sovereign Democratic Republic, the Supreme Court was officially inaugurated on January 28, 1950.
- Initial Location: Initially, the Supreme Court operated from the old Parliament House until it relocated to its present site on Tilak Marg, New Delhi, in 1958.
- Inaugural Event: The inaugural ceremony of the current Supreme Court building was presided over by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, on August 4, 1958.
Evolution of Judicial Bench Strength
- Changing Dynamics: The original 1950 Constitution envisioned a Supreme Court comprising a Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges, allowing Parliament to alter this number.
- Progressive Growth: Over the years, the number of Judges increased to accommodate the growing workload: 8 in 1950, 11 in 1956, 14 in 1960, 18 in 1978, 26 in 1986, 31 in 2009, and the current strength of 34 Judges.
- Judicial Structure: Judges sit in panels of two or three and convene in larger benches of 5 or more, known as Constitution Benches, to resolve conflicting decisions between different Supreme Court benches or address significant constitutional interpretations.
- Official Language: Proceedings in the Supreme Court are conducted exclusively in English.
Powers and Jurisdiction
- Multifaceted Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court possesses original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction.
- Final Arbiter: It serves as the ultimate court of appeal and the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution.
- Original Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court’s original jurisdiction extends to disputes involving the Government of India and one or more States, inter-State disputes, and issues related to Fundamental Rights.
- Writ Jurisdiction: Article 32 of the Constitution empowers the Supreme Court with extensive original jurisdiction to enforce Fundamental Rights by issuing writs like habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari.
- Inter-High Court Cases: The Supreme Court can direct the transfer of civil or criminal cases between High Courts.
- International Commercial Arbitration: Under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, the Supreme Court can initiate International Commercial Arbitration.
- Appellate Authority: High Courts can grant certificates for appeals to the Supreme Court under Article 132(1), 133(1), or 134 in cases with substantial questions of constitutional interpretation.
- Certified Appeals: In civil cases, High Courts may certify that a case involves a significant question of general importance, warranting Supreme Court adjudication.
- Criminal Appeals: In criminal cases, appeals lie to the Supreme Court if the High Court has reversed an acquittal, sentenced an accused to death, imprisonment for life, or imprisonment for over 10 years, or if the High Court certifies the case’s suitability for Supreme Court appeal.
- Parliamentary Empowerment: Parliament can confer additional powers on the Supreme Court to hear appeals from High Courts in criminal proceedings.
- Special Leave to Appeal: Under Article 136, the Supreme Court may, at its discretion, grant special leave to appeal from any judgment, decree, or order passed by any Court or Tribunal in India.
- Advisory Role: The Supreme Court exercises advisory jurisdiction under Article 143, wherein the President of India can refer specific matters to the Court.
- Election Petitions: Part III of the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, allows direct filing of election petitions in the Supreme Court.
- Contempt Powers: Articles 129 and 142 empower the Supreme Court to punish for contempt of Court, including self-contempt.
- Curative Petitions: After dismissing a review petition, the Supreme Court can reconsider its final judgment through a curative petition on limited grounds.
- Binding Authority: As India’s highest court, its judgments are binding on all other courts in the country.
Location of the Supreme Court
- Article 130: Article 130 of the Constitution grants the Chief Justice of India the authority to choose the location of the Supreme Court, which can be in Delhi or any other place.
- CJI’s Discretion: The Article vests exclusive discretionary powers with the Chief Justice of India regarding the Supreme Court’s location.
- No External Compulsion: No external authority can compel the Chief Justice to act in a particular manner under this Article.
Advocating for Circuit Benches
- Law Commission Recommendation: The Law Commission’s 229th Report suggested establishing a Constitution Bench in New Delhi and four other benches in different regions of India.
- Diverging Views: However, this proposal did not garner favor among Supreme Court Judges.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: VIP Security
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- The Union Home Ministry has provided a Z+ category security cordon manned by Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) troopers around Kerala Governor Arif Mohammad Khan.
VIP Security Provisions in India
- In India, security is provided to high-risk individuals by the police and local government.
- The level of security needed by any individual is decided by the Ministry of Home Affairs, based on inputs received from intelligence agencies which include the IB and R&AW.
- Individuals such as PM, home minister, and other officials such as the National Security Advisor generally get security cover because of the positions they occupy.
- In addition to this, persons who are believed to be under threat also receive security cover.
What is Z+ Category Security?
In India, the category covers are X, Y, Y-plus, Z, Z-plus, and SPG (Special Protection Group).
- X Category: The protectee gets one gunman. Protectees in the Y category have one gunman for mobile security and one (plus four on rotation) for static security.
- Y Plus category: It receives the cover of two gunmen (plus four on rotation) for mobile security, and one (plus four on rotation) for residence security,
- Z Category: It has six gunmen for mobile security and two (plus 8) for residence security. They get 10 security personnel for mobile security, and two (plus 8) for residence security.
- Z Plus Category: It is provided by National Security Guard commandos whereas the other category of security is provided by the Delhi police or the ITBP or CRPF personnel.
What about Special Protection Group (SPG) Cover?
- The SPG cover is meant only for the PM and his immediate family.
- After Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her own security guards in 1984, the Rajiv Gandhi government decided to create a special cadre of security personnel for the PM.
- In March 1985, following the recommendations of a committee set up by the Home Ministry, a special unit was created for this purpose under the Cabinet Secretariat.
- This unit, initially called the Special Protection Unit, was renamed as Special Protection Group in April 1985.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ECOWAS
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The military regimes in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger announced their immediate withdrawal from the West African bloc ECOWAS.
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
|
Details |
| Establishment |
Regional intergovernmental organization established in 1975. |
| Objectives |
Aims to foster economic integration, cooperation, and development among West African nations. |
| Headquarters |
Secretariat headquartered in Abuja, Nigeria. |
| Member States |
15 member states: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d’ Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Senegal, and Togo. |
| Primary Goals & Objectives |
- Promoting economic integration among member states.
- Facilitating the free movement of people, goods, and services.
- Enhancing regional cooperation in various sectors.
- Fostering a borderless region governed by democratic principles and good governance.
- Addressing security and political challenges through collaboration and conflict resolution.
|
| Achievements & Initiatives |
- Establishment of ECOMOG peacekeeping force for conflict resolution.
- Launching the ECOWAS Single Currency Initiative for economic integration.
- Supporting efforts to combat terrorism, human trafficking, and organized crime.
|
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sovereign 'Guarantee'
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- A working group constituted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has presented key recommendations to address challenges related to guarantees extended by State governments.
Understanding ‘Guarantee’
- A ‘guarantee’ involves a legal obligation for a State to make payments on behalf of a borrower, safeguarding investors/lenders from default risks.
- As defined by the Indian Contracts Act (1872), it is a contract involving three parties: the principal debtor, creditor, and surety (State government).
- The ‘guarantee’ acts as a safety net, ensuring payment in case of default by the borrower.
Purpose of ‘Guarantee’ at the State Level
- Sovereign Guarantee: Facilitates concessional loans from bilateral or multilateral agencies to public sector enterprises.
- Project Viability: Enhances project viability for activities with significant social and economic benefits.
- Resource Mobilization: Enables public sector enterprises to secure resources at favorable terms, contributing to lower interest charges.
Fiscal Risks and Working Group Recommendations
- Cash Outflows and Debt: While guarantees may not require upfront cash payments, they pose fiscal risks, leading to unanticipated cash outflows and increased debt during challenging times.
- Complex Estimation: Estimating the quantum and timing of potential costs/cash outflows is challenging due to triggers associated with guarantees.
Recommendations on ‘Guarantee’ Definition and Guidelines
- Broadened Definition: The term ‘guarantee’ should encompass all instruments creating obligations for the guarantor (State) to make future payments on behalf of the borrower.
- Guidelines for Accordance: Government guarantees should not substitute budgetary resources and should adhere to Government of India guidelines.
- Preconditions: Specify preconditions, including the period of guarantee, guarantee fee, government representation on the management board, and audit rights.
Risk Determination, Fee, and Ceiling
- Risk Weight Assignment: States should assign risk weights (high, medium, low) before extending guarantees, considering past defaults.
- Ceiling on Guarantees: A desirable ceiling for incremental guarantees during a year, limiting stress on state governments.
- Guarantee Fee Structure: Reflective of borrower’s project riskiness and activities, with a base fee of at least 2.5% per annum.
Disclosures and Honouring Commitments
- Credit Disclosure: Banks/NBFCs should disclose credit extended to State-owned entities backed by State guarantees for improved credibility.
- Database Establishment: Set up a state-level unit to track and consolidate all guarantees, ensuring proper data compilation.
- Timely Honouring: States must honor guarantees without delay, recognizing the reputational and legal risks associated with defaults.
Conclusion
- The RBI working group’s recommendations aim to fortify fiscal management by introducing standardized practices, enhancing risk assessment, and ensuring transparent disclosures.
- These measures, if implemented, can contribute to better fiscal discipline and mitigate potential risks associated with state government guarantees.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Encryption
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- In today’s digital age, information is invaluable, and encryption serves as a crucial means to protect it.
- Specifically, end-to-end (E2E) encryption has transformed how human rights organizations, law enforcement, and technology companies handle sensitive information.
What is Encryption?
- Encryption Definition: Encryption involves transforming consumable information into an unconsumable form based on specific rules. Different encryption methods exist, providing varying levels of security.
- Example of DES: The Data Encryption Standard (DES) encrypts text like “ice cream” to a garbled form with a specified key, such as “kite” or “motorcycle.”
- Key Importance: A key serves as the means to unlock (decrypt) encrypted text, ensuring that only authorized individuals can access the original information.
What is End-to-End Encryption (E2E)?
- E2E Encryption Defined: E2E encryption focuses on specific locations through which information travels. In a messaging app, for instance, E2E encryption ensures that messages are encrypted both during transmission and storage, only decrypted when received by the intended recipient.
- Protection in Transit and at Rest: E2E encryption safeguards information during transmission and while stored on servers, providing comprehensive protection.
Mechanisms of Information Encryption
(A) Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Encryption:
- Symmetric Encryption: The same key is used for both encryption and decryption. Examples include DES and Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).
- Asymmetric Encryption: Different keys are used for encryption and decryption. Public and private key pairs, such as Curve25519, exemplify asymmetric encryption.
(B) Hash Functions:
- Hash Function Properties: Hash functions encrypt messages with properties like non-reversibility, fixed-length output, and uniqueness for unique inputs.
- Example of DES Hash Function: DES uses a complex process, including S-boxes, to encrypt messages.
Can E2E Encryption Be ‘Cracked’?
- MITM Attacks: A man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack involves intercepting messages by acquiring encryption keys. Countermeasures include fingerprint comparison to detect tampering.
- Complacency Risks: Users may become complacent, assuming total security. However, malware and backdoors can compromise device security, allowing unauthorized access.
- Metadata Surveillance: While E2E encryption secures message content, surveillance can occur through metadata analysis, revealing information about message timing, recipients, and locations.
- Backdoor Risks: Companies implementing E2E encryption may install backdoors, enabling access for legal or illicit purposes. Examples, like the Snowden affair, highlight potential misuse.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Radioactive wastes mentioned
Mains level: Nuclear Pollution
Introduction
- A recent study conducted by researchers at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, analyzed 20 years of radiological data (2000-2020) from six nuclear power plants in India.
- The findings highlight the minimal impact of radioactive discharges from these plants on the environment.
- The study aims to reinforce India’s commitment to its nuclear power program, challenging unfounded beliefs and influencing public and policy perspectives.
Radiological Analysis and Plant Selection
- Twenty-Year Data: The analysis covered radiological data from 2000 to 2020 from seven nuclear power plants.
- Focus on Fission Products: The study focused on concentrations of fission products and neutron-activated nuclides within a 5 km radius of each nuclear plant, considering samples collected up to a maximum radius of 30 km.
Gaseous and Liquid Discharges
- Components of Gaseous Waste: The gaseous waste released into the atmosphere included fission product noble gases, Argon-41, radioiodine, and particulate radionuclides (cobalt-60, strontium-90, caesium-137, and tritium).
- Liquid Discharge Components: Liquid discharge consisted of fission product radionuclides (radioiodine, tritium, strontium-90, caesium-137) and activation products like cobalt-60.
- Strict Regulatory Compliance: The discharges underwent dilution and dispersion, adhering to strict radiological and environmental regulatory regimes.
Radiological Measurements and Concentrations
- Air Particulates: Average gross alpha activity in air particulates across all seven nuclear plants remained below 0.1 megabecquerel (mBq) per cubic meter.
- Specific Markers: Concentrations of iodine-131, caesium-137, and strontium-90 in air particulates were below 1 mBq per cubic meter for iodine-131, with caesium-137 and strontium-90 concentrations three orders lower and below 10 microbecquerel per cubic meter.
Water Bodies and Sediments
- Rivers, Lakes, and Sea Water: Caesium-137 and strontium-90 concentrations in rivers and lakes were below 5 mBq per liter, and sea water near the nuclear plants registered less than 50 megabecquerel per liter.
- Sediment Analysis: Sediment analysis revealed that caesium-137 concentration was highest at the Rajasthan Atomic Power Station, while strontium-90 concentration peaked at the Narora Atomic Power Station.
Tritium Detection and Total Doses
- Tritium Presence: Tritium was detectable at all sites except the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Station, where it was not detected during the study period.
- Total Doses: Though total doses remained below regulatory limits, Rajasthan, Madras, and Tarapur power plants showed relatively higher total doses. Efforts are being made to further limit doses at these sites to keep them as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
Conclusion
- The BARC study’s comprehensive analysis concludes that the environmental impact of Indian nuclear power plants, based on 20 years of radiological data, has been minimal.
- The findings not only emphasize the safe operation of these plants but also contribute to dispelling unwarranted beliefs, supporting India’s commitment to advancing its nuclear power program.
- The study’s insights are poised to shape public and policy perspectives on nuclear energy in the country.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Republic Day
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- On January 26, India celebrates Republic Day, marking the day when its Constitution came into effect in 1950.
- However, the roots of this celebration trace back to January 26, 1930, when India made the historic “Poorna Swaraj” declaration, signifying its quest for complete independence from British rule.
Context of the 1920s
- Non-Cooperation Movement: The 1920s witnessed the aftermath of the Non Cooperation Movement and the Chauri Chaura incident, which prompted Mahatma Gandhi to temporarily halt non-violent protests.
- Rise of Leaders: This period saw the emergence of notable leaders like Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Vallabhai Patel, and C. Rajagopalachari, setting the stage for India’s future freedom struggle.
Simon Commission and Nehru Report
- Simon Commission: In 1927, British authorities appointed the Simon Commission to discuss political reforms in India, sparking nationwide protests with slogans like “Simon Go Back.”
- Nehru Report: In response, the Indian National Congress (INC) established its own commission under Motilal Nehru, advocating dominion status for India within the British Empire.
Internal Disagreements: Dominion or Republic?
- Dominion Status Debate: While the Nehru Report called for dominion status, leaders like Subhash Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru favored complete independence, fearing that dominion status would align India with colonial exploitation in the British Empire.
- Change in Gandhi’s Views: Initially supporting dominion status, Mahatma Gandhi’s stance evolved as he began advocating for complete independence.
Irwin Declaration and Backtracking
- Irwin Declaration: In 1929, Viceroy Irwin vaguely promised dominion status for India, which sparked hope among Indians but faced opposition in Britain.
- Backtracking: Under pressure from Britain, Irwin retracted his promise during a meeting with Indian leaders, leading to growing unity within the INC for complete independence.
Declaration of Poorna Swaraj
- Lahore Session of INC: In December 1929, during the Lahore Session of the INC, the “Poorna Swaraj” resolution was passed, calling for complete independence from British rule.
- Official Promulgation: On January 26, 1930, this declaration of independence was officially announced, marking a pivotal moment in India’s freedom struggle.
- Nonviolent Protest: The resolution also affirmed the Gandhian principles of nonviolent protest, which became integral to the subsequent struggle for independence.
Republic Day in Post-Independence India
- Celebrating Independence: From 1930 until India’s independence in 1947, January 26 was celebrated as “Independence Day” or “Poorna Swaraj Day,” symbolizing India’s commitment to sovereignty.
- Constitution Adoption: When India adopted its Constitution, leaders chose January 26 for Republic Day, as it held historical significance and aligned with the ideals of complete independence as articulated in the “Poorna Swaraj” declaration.
- Symbolism: Today, Republic Day commemorates India’s journey to self-rule and reflects the principles enshrined in its Constitution.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Padma Awards
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Former Vice-President M. Venkaiah Naidu, actors Chiranjeevi and Vyjayanthimala Bali, and Bharatanatyam dancer Padma Subrahmanyam will be conferred with Padma Vibhushan, the country’s second-highest civilian award, the Central government announced on the eve of Republic Day.
- Bindeshwar Pathak, founder of Sulabh International, will be conferred with the award posthumously.
About Padma Award
- The Padma Awards are among India’s most prestigious civilian honors, announced annually on Republic Day’s eve, following the Bharat Ratna.
- These awards are designed to recognize outstanding achievements across various fields and disciplines, particularly those involving public service.
- The Government of India introduced the Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan in 1954.
- Initially, the Padma Vibhushan had three classes: Pahela Varg, Dusra Varg, and Tisra Varg, which were renamed in 1955 as Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri, respectively.
Award Categories
There are three categories of Padma Awards:
- Padma Vibhushan: This is awarded for ‘exceptional and distinguished service.’
- Padma Bhushan: This is for ‘distinguished service of a high order.’
- Padma Shri: This is given for ‘distinguished service.’
Eligibility Criteria
- The awards are open to all individuals regardless of race, occupation, position, or gender.
- Government employees, except doctors and scientists, are generally ineligible.
- The awards are usually not given posthumously, but exceptions can be made in extraordinary cases.
- A recipient can be considered for a higher category of Padma award only if at least five years have passed since their previous Padma honor. However, exceptions can be made for exceptionally deserving cases.
Nomination Process
- Nominations are reviewed by the Padma Awards Committee, formed annually by the Prime Minister.
- The Committee, led by the Cabinet Secretary, includes the Home Secretary, Secretary to the President, and 4-6 distinguished members.
- The Committee’s recommendations are forwarded to the Prime Minister and the President for final approval.
Limitations
- The awards are not titles and cannot be used as prefixes or suffixes to the awardees’ names.
- The number of awards given annually (excluding posthumous awards and those to NRIs/foreigners/OCIs) is capped at 120.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian Constitution and its drafting
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Indian Constitution, renowned as the world’s lengthiest written Constitution, is not just a legal document but a treasure trove of artistic richness.
- It features intricate hand-painted images and elaborate borders across all its 22 parts, making it the most visually appealing Constitution globally.
Narrative Scheme of Paintings
- Historical Representation: The paintings within the Constitution depict various periods in Indian history, from the Indus Valley civilization to the freedom struggle. Additionally, scenes from the epic tales of Ramayana and Mahabharata are featured.
- Geographical Diversity: These illustrations also capture India’s diverse geography, from the desert with marching camels to the grandeur of the Himalayas.
The Appointment of Artists
- Selection of Nandalal Bose: Nandalal Bose, a renowned artist and close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, was entrusted with the task of illustrating the Constitution in October 1949, just before the final session of the Constituent Assembly.
- Collaborative Effort: Bose collaborated with family members, students, and fellow artists, including Kripal Singh Shekhawat, A Perumal, and Direndrakrishna Deb Burman.
- Calligraphy: While the Constitution itself was handwritten by calligrapher Prem Behari Narain Raizada in a flowing italic style, the Hindi version’s calligraphy was masterfully crafted by Vasant Krishan Vaidya.
Notable Artistic Contributions
- Preamble and National Emblem: The Preamble page features intricate patterns sketched by Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and bears his signature, while Dinanath Bhargava sketched the National Emblem, the Lion Capital of Ashoka.
- Payment for Artists: Records suggest that the artists who painted the historical scenes were paid Rs 25 for each page.
Ideation of Artwork
- No Direct Correlation: Nandalal Bose’s artwork in the Constitution does not have a direct correlation with the text, as he did not illustrate the content of the Constitution itself. Instead, he crafted a visual narrative of India’s history as he envisioned it.
- Changes and Adjustments: A preliminary plan was drawn up for the artwork, which underwent changes with additions and deletions. For instance, a scene featuring ‘portraits of Akbar and Shahjahan with Mughal architecture’ was replaced with an image of Akbar.
Borrowing from History and Religion
- Diverse Representations: The artwork includes depictions of the Bull Seal from the Indus Valley region, scenes from the lives of hermits and ascetics, Buddha in meditation, Mahavir, sculptures from Mahabalipuram, and the descent of the Ganga to Earth.
- Incorporating Epics: Scenes from the Mahabharata and Ramayana are featured in the artwork, symbolizing India’s rich mythological heritage.
- Homage to Tagore: Three landscapes within the Constitution pay tribute to Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore and his composition of the National Anthem, celebrating India’s diverse geographical landscapes.
Celebrating Monarchs and Freedom Fighters
- Emperor Ashoka: Part VII features Emperor Ashoka seated on an elephant, propagating Buddhism.
- King Vikramaditya and Tipu Sultan: Part IX showcases a scene from King Vikramaditya’s court, while Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi shares the page with Tipu Sultan in Part XVI.
- Gandhi and Freedom Fighters: Mahatma Gandhi appears twice, leading the Dandi March and visiting Noakhali in Bangladesh. Subhas Chandra Bose is depicted saluting the flag with members of the Azad Hind Fauj.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sapinda Marriages
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Delhi High Court recently dismissed a challenge to the constitutionality of Section 5(v) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA), which prohibits sapinda marriages among Hindus unless custom permits.
- The court’s decision affirms the legal restrictions on such marriages and emphasizes the importance of regulating marital choices.
For Aspirants with Sociology Optional, this article is of immense importance under: “Systems of Kinship- Family, household, marriage” in both Paper I and Paper II.
Understanding Sapinda Marriages
- Definition: Sapinda marriages involve individuals closely related within specified degrees, as per Section 3(f)(ii) of the HMA.
- Prohibition: The HMA prohibits sapinda marriages within a certain range of lineal ascent, ensuring that marriages do not occur between individuals with a common lineal ascendant within the defined limits.
Legal Framework
- Void Marriages: Sapinda marriages that violate Section 5(v) and lack an established custom permitting them are declared void, meaning they are considered invalid from the outset.
- Customary Exception: The sole exception to this prohibition arises when both parties’ customs permit sapinda marriages, as defined in Section 3(a) of the HMA.
- Custom Criteria: To qualify as a custom, it must be continuously observed, uniform, reasonable, and not opposed to public policy, gaining legitimacy among Hindus in a particular area or community.
Grounds for Challenging the Law
- Constitutional Challenge: The petitioner contended that Section 5(v) violated the right to equality under Article 14 of the Constitution by requiring proof of custom for sapinda marriages.
- Lack of Proof: The woman argued that sapinda marriages exist even without documented custom, and the consent of both families validated the marriage.
High Court’s Decision
- No Established Custom: The Delhi HC found no stringent proof of an established custom supporting sapinda marriages, which is crucial under the law.
- Regulation of Marriages: The court upheld the idea that the choice of a marriage partner can be subject to regulation.
- No Violation of Equality: The petitioner failed to provide compelling legal grounds to challenge the prohibition against sapinda marriages on grounds of violating the right to equality.
International Perspectives
- European Laws: In several European countries, laws related to incestuous relationships are less stringent compared to India, allowing marriages between consenting adults.
- Examples: France, Belgium, Portugal, and Italy have different laws regarding incestuous relationships and marriages.
- US Laws: In the United States, incestuous marriages are banned in all 50 states, but some states allow incestuous relationships between consenting adults.
Conclusion
- The Delhi HC decision reaffirms the legal framework regulating sapinda marriages in India and emphasizes the importance of established customs in permitting such unions.
- It also highlights the differing legal approaches to incestuous relationships and marriages in various countries.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gyanvapi
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Gyanvapi Structure sin Varanasi has been the center of a longstanding controversy regarding its historical origin and the existence of a Hindu temple preceding its construction.
- The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has recently concluded that a Hindu temple indeed existed at the site before the mosque’s construction, relying on scientific studies, textual evidence, and historical accounts.
Gyanvapi: Historical Background
- Temple’s Existence: The ASI’s findings suggest that a substantial Hindu temple once stood adjacent to the Kashi Vishwanath temple, which is believed to have been demolished during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
- Persian Chronicles: The primary source for this claim is Saqi Mustaid Khan’s Maasir-i-Alamgiri, a Persian chronicle written shortly after Aurangzeb died in 1707. It mentions Aurangzeb’s orders to destroy temples and schools of the “infidels.”
- Aurangzeb’s Policy: Historians interpret this as part of Aurangzeb’s broader policy against Hinduism, marked by the destruction of temples and discriminatory measures, such as customs duties.
Historical Interpretations
- Selective Targeting: Some historians argue that the 1669 decree was not a blanket order to destroy all temples but targeted institutions where certain teachings took place, especially in Benares (now Varanasi).
- Conflict with Shivaji: It is suggested that Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of the Kashi temple as retribution following Chhatrapati Shivaji’s escape from Mughal custody.
- Religious Cloth: The Gyanvapi Mosque incorporates a part of the ruined temple’s wall, possibly serving as a religious statement of the consequences of opposing Mughal authority.
Expert Opinions and Legal Implications
- ASI Report: The ASI’s extensive report provides expert evidence but can be contested in court during the ongoing legal battle.
- Witnesses and Cross-Examination: The civil suit involves witnesses from various fields, including historians, archaeologists, and religious experts, who will be cross-examined.
- Court Determination: The courts will decide whether the ASI report can be conclusively relied upon and assess the significance of the existence of a Hindu temple in determining the mosque’s religious character.
Legal and Constitutional Aspects
- Maintainability Issue: The preliminary issue of whether the suit can be filed depends on the fate of the Places of Worship Act, 1991, which aims to maintain the religious character of places of worship as of August 15, 1947.
- Relevance of ASI Report: The relevance of the ASI report could change significantly if the 1991 law is altered or struck down. Currently, the law is considered a fundamental feature of the Constitution, safeguarding secularism.
- Secularism and Non-Retrogression: The Places of Worship Act is seen as essential in upholding the principles of secularism and non-retrogression, core elements of India’s Constitution.
Conclusion
- The controversy surrounding the Gyanvapi Mosque underscores the complexities of historical interpretation and legal implications.
- The ASI’s findings, while significant, are part of an ongoing legal process, and the final determination will have far-reaching consequences on the historical narrative and religious character of the site.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: New Leprosy Treatment Regimen
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Central government of India has given its approval for a new treatment regimen aimed at hastening the eradication of leprosy in the country.
- The move, based on the latest global scientific research and endorsed by the World Health Organization (WHO), seeks to transition from a two-drug regimen to a three-drug regimen for Pauci-Bacillary (PB) leprosy cases.
New Leprosy Treatment Regimen
- Objective: The primary goal is to halt the transmission of leprosy at the sub-national level by 2027, aligning with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, three years ahead of schedule.
- Transition from Two to Three Drugs: The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has approved a shift from the existing two-drug regimen for six months to a three-drug regimen for Pauci-Bacillary (PB) cases.
- Scientific Basis: This decision is grounded in the latest globally accepted scientific research studies and evidence-based practices.
- WHO Endorsement: The World Health Organization (WHO) has committed to supply the revised drug regimen starting April 1, 2025, signifying international recognition and support for this approach.
Key Implementation Steps
- Three-Drug Regimen: The WHO-recommended treatment regimen includes dapsone, rifampicin, and clofazimine, collectively referred to as MDT. MDT is highly effective in killing the pathogen and curing the patient.
- Advance Requisitions: All States and Union Territories are instructed to submit their requisitions for anti-leprosy drugs a full year in advance to ensure a smooth transition.
- Unified Implementation Date: The revised classification of leprosy and the treatment regimen for both Pauci-Bacillary (PB) and multi-bacillary (MB) cases in India will come into effect simultaneously on April 1, 2025.
Understanding Leprosy
- Leprosy Overview: Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium leprae bacteria, primarily affecting the skin and peripheral nerves.
- Transmission: It spreads through droplets from the nose and mouth during close contact with untreated cases.
- Curability: Leprosy is curable with multi-drug therapy (MDT).
Distinction between PB and MB Cases
- PB Cases: These individuals have fewer visible bacteria and show no signs of advanced disease in biopsies.
- MB Cases: They have visible bacteria and may exhibit more advanced disease in biopsies.
Significance of the New Regimen
- Eradication Target: The adoption of this new treatment regimen is expected to accelerate India’s progress towards leprosy eradication by 2027, reinforcing the country’s commitment to combat this disease.
- Previous Funding: The WHO has been providing free MDT, initially funded by the Nippon Foundation and later through an agreement with Novartis. This regimen is known as ‘Uniform MDT,’ simplifying administration and manufacturing processes.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Operation Sarvashakti
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- The Indian Army has initiated Operation Sarvashakti in the Rajouri-Poonch sector of Jammu and Kashmir to combat rising terrorist threats targeting security forces.
- This article explores Operation Sarpvinash, a similar military operation conducted in the same region over two decades ago, shedding light on its objectives, significance, and historical context.
Operation Sarvashakti: The Need for Action
- Escalating Threats: Recent years have witnessed three major terrorist attacks in the area, resulting in the loss of 20 soldiers.
- Foreign Terrorist Presence: The region is known for hosting foreign terrorists, making it a significant security concern.
- Enhancing Troop Presence: Operation Sarvashakti involves deploying additional troops to increase the density, thereby improving the chances of encounters with terrorists.
Reflecting on Operation Sarpvinash
- Counter-Insurgency in 2003: Operation Sarpvinash was conducted by Indian forces in response to the growing insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir.
- Extensive Troop Deployment: Over about three months, around 10,000 troops from the 15 Corps and 16 Corps participated in the operation.
- Aerial Support: Mi-17 helicopters facilitated troop transport to Hilkaka, a village seized by terrorists, while Lancer attack helicopters neutralized concrete bunkers built by infiltrators.
- Decisive Outcomes: The operation led to the elimination of nearly 100 terrorists, significant arms and ammunition seizures, including explosives, and the dismantling of 40-50 terrorist hideouts.
Origins of Operation Sarpvinash
- Post-Kargil War Scenario: With the Kargil war of 1999 fresh in memory and the aftermath of the December 2001 Parliament attack, Operation Parakram involved a substantial military mobilization along the Pakistan border.
- Preparation in 2003: Operation Sarpvinash preparations began after intelligence reports indicated the presence of over 300 foreign terrorists who had infiltrated the Line of Control (LoC) and established secure camps in Surankote and Hilkaka.
- Terrorist Control: These terrorists, affiliated with various Pakistan-based outfits, had created a demilitarized zone and asserted dominance, including the establishment of multiple hideouts and bunkers.
Strategic Significance
- Crucial Location: The areas south of Mendhar leading to the Pir Panjal range through Hilkaka offer the shortest infiltration route from across the LoC into the Kashmir valley.
- Infiltration Potential: Controlling this region provides a potential conduit for personnel during a Pakistani military operation and facilitates terrorist infiltration.
- Natural Cover: Dense forests and steep mountain slopes offer natural concealment, allowing terrorists to evade Indian forces during searches and engage them strategically.
Post-Sarpvinash Scenario
- Period of Peace: Following Operation Sarpvinash, the region experienced relative peace until 2017-18, despite ongoing terrorist incidents in the Kashmir valley.
- Recent Escalations: However, since 2021, this area has witnessed a resurgence of high-intensity attacks on security forces.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BSF's Jurisdiction
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- In October 2021, the Ministry of Home Affairs made a significant move by extending the jurisdiction of the Border Security Force (BSF) in certain states, leading to a legal dispute between the central government and the affected states.
- This article examines the recent developments and the key issues surrounding the expansion of BSF’s jurisdiction.
Expansion of BSF Jurisdiction
- Border Security Force (BSF): The BSF is India’s border guarding organization, tasked with securing the borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh. It operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
- Notification: The Ministry of Home Affairs issued a notification in October 2021, expanding the BSF’s jurisdiction in specific states.
- Changes in Jurisdiction:
-
- In Punjab, West Bengal, and Assam, the BSF’s jurisdiction was extended from 15 km to 50 km inland from the border.
- In Gujarat, the jurisdiction was reduced from 80 km to 50 km.
- Rajasthan’s jurisdiction remained unchanged at 50 km.
Legal Frameworks
- Border Security Force Act: The Ministry of Home Affairs invoked the Border Security Force Act of 1968 to delineate the BSF’s jurisdiction.
- Powers Exercised: The BSF’s jurisdiction extension applies only to specific powers granted under the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC), Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920, and Passport Act, 1967.
Rationale behind BSF’s Jurisdiction Expansion
- Historical Context: The BSF was established in 1965 to secure India’s borders. At that time, border regions were sparsely populated, and police stations were scarce.
- Trans-Border Crimes: To combat trans-border crimes effectively, the BSF was empowered to arrest and search individuals within its jurisdiction.
- Manpower Constraints: Despite the establishment of police stations near the border, staffing remained inadequate.
Issues Surrounding Border Regions
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- Encroachment
- Illegal incursion
- Drug and cattle smuggling
- Complementary Role: Expanding BSF’s jurisdiction was intended to complement the efforts of local police, enhancing cooperative measures rather than displacing state police authority.
Criticisms and Legal Challenges
- Federalism Concerns: States argued that the extension of BSF’s jurisdiction encroached upon their powers related to police and public order, asserting their rights under the Constitution.
- Lack of Consultation: The states also contended that the central government issued the notification without consulting the affected states.
- Original Suit: The state of Punjab filed an ‘original suit’ against the central government in the Supreme Court under Article 131 of the Constitution, which grants the Supreme Court exclusive jurisdiction over disputes between the central government and states.
- Approach: Punjab argued that the expansion compromised its legislative authority on policing matters and public order, emphasizing that a significant portion of its cities and towns would now fall within the 50-kilometre jurisdiction.
Ongoing Legal Battle
- Exclusive Challenge: While West Bengal initially expressed opposition to the notification, currently, only Punjab’s challenge is tagged with the Supreme Court.
- Key Considerations: The Supreme Court will assess the validity of the notification, examining whether it was arbitrary or backed by legitimate reasons. It will also weigh the impact on states’ powers under the Constitution and determine if uniformity is required in setting local limits for BSF’s jurisdiction.
Conclusion
- The legal battle between the central government and the states over the expansion of BSF’s jurisdiction highlights the complex interplay between federalism, national security, and law enforcement.
- The Supreme Court’s decision will have far-reaching implications for the distribution of powers between the center and the states in matters related to border security and policing.
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