Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Remission
Why in the News?
In a historic judgment, the Supreme Court of India has ruled that prisoners eligible for remission under state policies must be considered for release even if they do not apply for it.
This decision comes as part of the suo motu case “In Re: Policy Strategy for Grant of Bail”, initiated in 2021 to address prison overcrowding.
Supreme Court’s Ruling: Key Takeaways
- The SC overruled its earlier stance in:
- Sangeet v. State of Haryana (2013) – Held that remission was not automatic and required a convict’s application.
- Mohinder Singh v. State of Punjab (2013) – Ruled that courts cannot grant remission suo motu.
- The new ruling recognizes the existence of remission policies in states and holds that:
- Prison superintendents must initiate remission proceedings for eligible convicts.
- Failure to consider eligible prisoners for remission violates Article 14 (Right to Equality).
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What is Remission?
- Remission refers to the reduction of a prison sentence without altering the conviction.
- It is different from pardon or commutation, which may involve modifying or canceling the sentence entirely.
Legal Provisions on Remission
- The power of remission is governed by:
- Section 473 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023 (formerly Section 432 of CrPC) – Grants state governments the power to remit sentences at any time under specific conditions.
- Section 475 of BNSS (formerly Section 433A of CrPC) – Prevents remission for life convicts guilty of crimes punishable by death until they serve at least 14 years.
- Articles 72 & 161 of the Constitution – Provide remission powers to the President and Governors at the Union and State levels.
- Earlier, remission was initiated only when a prisoner applied for it, but the new ruling removes this necessity if states already have structured remission policies.
Impact of the Ruling on Prison Reforms
- India’s prison population far exceeds capacity, with a 131.4% occupancy rate (2022 NCRB data).
- Over 75% of prisoners are undertrials—this ruling may not directly help them, but it could ease congestion by enabling timely release of eligible convicts.
- The new ruling ensures all eligible prisoners get equal consideration, preventing biases in prison administration.
- International standards (like UN Nelson Mandela Rules) emphasize prisoner rights and rehabilitation.
- The judgment upholds fairness and reintegration into society.
PYQ:
[2014] Instances of the President’s delay in commuting death sentences has come under public debate as denial of justice. Should there be a time specified for the President to accept/reject such petitions? Analyse. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Major and Minor Minerals
Why in the News?
The Ministry of Mines has reclassified Barytes, Felspar, Mica, and Quartz as major minerals, aligning with the National Critical Mineral Mission to boost India’s industrial growth.
Major and Minor Minerals in India
What are Major Minerals?
- Major minerals are those with high economic value, used in industrial applications, energy production, and metallurgy.
- Regulation: Controlled by the Central Government under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act).
- Examples:
- Metallic Minerals: Iron ore, Copper, Bauxite, Gold, Manganese, Zinc, Lead.
- Energy Minerals: Coal, Lignite, Uranium.
- Industrial Minerals: Limestone, Rare Earth Elements, Graphite, Gypsum.
What are Minor Minerals?
- Minor minerals have lower economic value and are mainly used in construction, local industries, and ornamental purposes.
- Regulation: Controlled by State Governments under the MMDR Act, which gives them the power to grant leases and regulate mining activities.
- Examples:
- Building Materials: Sand, Gravel, Stone, Marble.
- Non-Metallic Minerals: Dolomite, Mica, Quartz, Felspar, Clay (until reclassified as major minerals).
Key Reasons for Reclassification:
- Extraction of Critical Minerals: These minerals are found with Lithium, Beryl, Niobium, Tin, and Tantalum, essential for energy transition, space, and healthcare industries.
- Industrial & Strategic Importance: Barytes is used in oil drilling, electronics, radiation shielding, while Quartz, Felspar, and Mica are crucial for ceramics, glass, and semiconductor industries.
- Improved Regulation & Transparency: Reclassification ensures scientific mining, reporting, and compliance under Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), reducing illegal extraction and enhancing exploration.
- No Impact on Existing Leases: Current leases remain valid for 50 years, allowing miners to adapt to new rules without disruption, with revenue continuing to benefit State Governments.
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following minerals:
- Bentonite
- Chromite
- Kyanite
- Sillimanite
In India, which of the above is/are officially designated as major minerals?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bathou Faith and its Philosophy
Why in the News?
The Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) government in Assam has officially included ‘Bathouism’ as an option in the religion column of key application forms, including admission forms, birth and death certificates.
What is Bathouism?
- Bathouism is the traditional faith of the Bodo people, primarily practiced in Assam and the foothills of Bhutan.
- It is a nature-centric religion that worships Bathoubwrai, the supreme deity believed to govern the universe.
- The central symbol of Bathouism is the Sijou plant (Euphorbia antiquorum), representing Bathoubwrai and planted in sacred enclosures (Bathou Thansali).
- Bathou Puja is performed to seek divine blessings for prosperity, health, and well-being.
- The Assam government has recently recognized Bathouism as a distinct faith, allowing its inclusion in official documents.
Philosophy of Bathouism
- Bathouism is based on five fundamental elements, known as Ba (five) Thou (deep thought), representing natural forces:
- Bar (Air) – Symbolizes breath, movement, and life force.
- San (Sun) – Represents light, energy, and warmth.
- Ha (Earth) – Stands for stability, fertility, and sustenance.
- Or (Fire) – Denotes transformation and purification.
- Okhrang (Sky) – Represents infinite wisdom and cosmic balance.
- Bathoubwrai (Sibwrai) is considered almighty, omniscient, and eternal, beyond time and space. He is indestructible—fire cannot burn him, water cannot moisten him, air cannot dry him, and weapons cannot pierce him.
- Bathouism promotes:
- Truthfulness, honesty, and righteousness.
- Respect for elders, ancestors, and nature.
- Peaceful coexistence and non-violence.
- Gratitude through rituals and pujas.
- Bathou rituals involve five bamboo sticks symbolizing the five elements, with offerings of rice beer, milk, flowers, and incense.
- Ancestral veneration and community harmony are integral aspects of the faith.
PYQ:
[2014] Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
(a) Mimamsa and Vedanta
(b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
(c) Lokayata and Kapalika
(d) Sankhya and Yoga |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SOUL Conclave
Why in the News?
Prime Minister inaugurated the first edition of the School of Ultimate Leadership (SOUL) Leadership Conclave at Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi.
Bhutan’s PM Tshering Tobgay was the keynote speaker, emphasizing India’s leadership role in shaping governance and public service.
What is the SOUL Leadership Conclave?
- The SOUL Leadership Conclave (School of Ultimate Leadership Conclave) is a premier leadership summit inaugurated by PM Modi.
- It is aimed at cultivating transformational leaders beyond traditional political hierarchies.
- The event is designed to bring together leaders from diverse sectors, including politics, business, sports, media, spirituality, and public policy, to share their insights and experiences on leadership.
- The conclave serves as the foundation for the upcoming SOUL Leadership Institution, an exclusive leadership training academy in Gandhinagar, Gujarat.
Key Features of SOUL Conclave:
- Multi-Sector Leadership: Brings together leaders from various fields to promote cross-sector collaboration and knowledge-sharing.
- Training & Development: Focuses on nurturing ethical and globally competent leaders, beyond traditional political dynasties.
- SOUL Leadership Institute: A 22-acre, ₹150 crore campus is being developed in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, for formal leadership training.
- Global Leadership Insights: Discusses policymaking, governance, and leadership challenges with national and international leaders.
- Strengthening India’s Leadership Pipeline: Aims to train future leaders in governance, economics, diplomacy, and innovation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 101(4)
Why in the News?
Amritpal Singh’s detention has raised concerns over his parliamentary position, as Article 101(4) states that an MP’s seat can be vacated after 60 consecutive absences without permission. He has missed 46 sittings so far.
About Article 101(4) and its Feature
- Article 101(4) states that if a Member of Parliament (MP) is absent from all meetings of the House for a period of 60 days, their seat may be declared vacant.
- The 60-day period is counted continuously (excluding adjournments but including recess).
- If the MP remains absent without prior permission from the House, the seat can be vacated under Article 101(4).
- No MP has ever lost a seat under Article 101(4) in practice.
- The House may grant condonation (excuse the absence) if a valid reason is provided.
- This provision ensures active participation of MPs and prevents prolonged absenteeism.
- If an MP does not attend any session of Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha for 60 days without permission, the House can initiate proceedings to declare the seat vacant.
Legal Options
- Like past MPs, Amritpal can formally request permission to remain absent due to his incarceration.
- Former MP from Uttar Pradesh Atul Rai received similar permission in 2023 while in jail.
- The Lok Sabha must formally vote to declare his seat vacant, making disqualification unlikely unless actively pursued.
PYQ:
[2012] Regarding the office of the Lok Sabha speaker, consider the following statements:
- He/She holds the office during the pleasure of the President.
- He/She need not be a member of the House at the time of his/her election but has to become a member of the House within six months from the date of his/her election.
- If he/she intends to resign, the letter of his/her resignation has to be addressed to the Deputy Speaker.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Consumer Helpline (NCH)
Why in the News?
The National Consumer Helpline (NCH) has seen a 300% rise in complaints in Arunachal Pradesh, reflecting increased awareness and trust in consumer grievance redressal.
What is National Consumer Helpline (NCH)?
- NCH is an initiative of the Department of Consumer Affairs, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution to provide a nationwide grievance redressal system for consumers.
- It offers advice, guidance, and assistance to consumers facing issues with products, services, and unfair trade practices.
-
- Toll-Free Consumer Helpline: 1800-11-4000 / 1915 (Available from 9:30 AM – 5:30 PM, except national holidays).
- Multi-Channel Complaint Registration: Website, mobile app, email, WhatsApp, and SMS-based complaint filing.
- Covers a Wide Range of Sectors: E-commerce, telecom, banking, insurance, transport, healthcare, digital payments, etc.
- Operated under: The Centre for Consumer Studies at the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA).
How has the NCH succeeded in Northeast India?
- Complaints rose from 9,162 in 2020 to 36,609 in 2024, with Arunachal Pradesh seeing a 50-fold rise in consumer grievances.
- 517% increase in online complaint registrations; introduction of regional language assistance to enhance accessibility.
- Workshops, SHG partnerships, and NGO collaborations helped rural and tribal communities understand consumer rights.
- “Jago Grahak Jago” initiatives, grants to NE states, and Panchayat training programs increased consumer participation.
- Consumers experienced faster redressal in cases like e-commerce refunds, delayed product deliveries, and service-related issues.
PYQ:
[2012] With reference to consumers rights/privileges under the provisions of law in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Consumers are empowered to take samples for food testing.
2. When a consumer files a complaint in any consumer forum, no fee is required to be paid.
3. In case of death of a consumer, his/her legal heir can file a complaint in the consumer forum on his/her behalf.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip
Why in the News?
Microsoft has unveiled Majorana 1, a groundbreaking quantum chip that introduces a more stable and scalable approach to quantum computing.
What is Microsoft’s Majorana 1 Chip?
- Majorana 1 is Microsoft’s latest quantum processor that introduces a new type of stable and scalable qubit based on Majorana fermions.
- Microsoft believes that this breakthrough could enable practical quantum computing by 2027-29.
- Majorana Fermions:
- First theorized by Ettore Majorana in 1937.
- Exotic particles that act as their own antiparticles.
- Microsoft engineered them using topological conductors, making qubits more stable and resistant to errors.
Features of Majorana 1 Chip:
- Uses topological qubits, which require less error correction compared to traditional superconducting qubits.
- More scalable, allowing the quantum chip to reach up to 1 million qubits in the future.
- Built from indium arsenide-aluminum topo-conductors, unlike conventional silicon-based quantum chips.
- Operates at near absolute zero temperature, tuned with magnetic fields to create a stable quantum environment.
- Currently an 8-qubit chip, but designed with an architecture that supports significant expansion.
What is Quantum Computing?
- Quantum computing is a new approach to computation based on the principles of quantum mechanics that allows computers to process information exponentially faster than classical computers.
- Unlike classical computers that use binary bits (0 or 1), quantum computers use qubits, which can exist in both 0 and 1 simultaneously (superposition).
- Key Principles of Quantum Computing:
- Superposition: Qubits exist in multiple states at once.
- Entanglement: –Qubits can be linked, meaning a change in one affects the other instantly.
- Quantum Tunneling: Qubits can pass through energy barriers.
- Quantum Interference: Enhances correct probabilities while canceling out incorrect ones.
- Quantum computers solve complex problems that are impossible for classical computers, such as simulating molecules, optimizing logistics, and advancing AI.
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PYQ:
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services
(b) Quantum Computing
(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies
(d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BOD
Why in the News?
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has raised concerns over the water quality of the Ganga at Triveni Sangam in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. The river is failing to meet bathing standards due to high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and faecal coliform contamination.
Key Findings of the Ganga Water Quality Assessment at Triveni Sangam:
- Water is unsafe for bathing as per Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) standards.
- BOD levels exceeded the permissible limit of 3 mg/L on multiple days in January 2025.
- Government releasing 10,000-11,000 cusecs of fresh water to improve quality.
- Faecal coliform levels (E. coli) far exceed safe limits due to sewage contamination.
- Safe limit: 2,500 MPN/100 ml; Detected levels: 49,000 MPN/100 ml (Ganga) and 33,000 MPN/100 ml (Yamuna).
What is Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)?
- BOD measures the amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down organic matter in water.
- Higher BOD levels indicate higher organic pollution, which can lead to oxygen depletion and aquatic life destruction.
- Safe limit for bathing water is below 3 mg/L.
- Excessive BOD levels suggest sewage, industrial waste, or decomposing organic matter contamination.
- BOD levels above safe limits can cause waterborne diseases and disrupt aquatic ecosystems.
PYQ:
[2017] Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for:
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
Why in the News?
The latest edition of PLFS report (October-December 2024) has highlighted key labour market indicators.
About Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
- The PLFS is conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) to assess employment and unemployment trends in India.
- Launched in April 2017, PLFS provides quarterly estimates for urban areas and annual estimates for both rural and urban areas.
- Key Indicators:
- Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): Percentage of people working or seeking jobs.
- Worker Population Ratio (WPR): Percentage of people employed.
- Unemployment Rate (UR): Percentage of job seekers unable to find employment.
- Current Weekly Status (CWS): Employment status based on work done in the last 7 days.
- Survey Methodology:
- Urban Areas: Rotational Panel Sampling (each household surveyed four times).
- Data Collected (Oct-Dec 2024): 5,742 urban units surveyed, covering 1,70,487 individuals across 45,074 households.
- Publication: Quarterly Bulletins for urban areas, Annual Reports for rural and urban regions.
Key Highlights of PLFS (Oct-Dec 2024)
- Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): 50.4% (↑ from 49.9% in 2023).
- Male LFPR: 75.4% (↑ from 74.1% in 2023).
- Female LFPR: 25.2% (↑ from 25.0% in 2023).
- Worker Population Ratio (WPR): 47.2% (↑ from 46.6% in 2023).
- Male WPR: 70.9% (↑ from 69.8% in 2023).
- Female WPR: 23.2% (↑ from 22.9% in 2023).
- Unemployment Rate (UR): 6.4% (↓ from 6.5% in 2023).
- Male UR: 5.8% (unchanged).
- Female UR: 8.1% (↓ from 8.6% in 2023).
PYQ:
[2023] Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements.
[2013] Disguised unemployment generally means:
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
(b) alternative employment is not available
(c) marginal productivity of labour is zero
(d) productivity of workers is low |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Saturn’s Rings
Why in the News?
A new study has challenged previous assumptions, suggesting that Saturn’s rings could be as old as the Solar System (~4.5 billion years old).
About Saturn and Its Rings
- Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, is famous for its iconic ring system, made up of billions of ice and rock particles ranging in size from tiny grains to massive chunks.
- It is primarily composed of water ice (95%), with some dust and rocky debris.
- The rings are divided into seven main sections (A to G), with gaps like the Cassini Division.
- Scientists have debated whether the rings formed with Saturn (~4.5 billion years ago) or if they are only 100-400 million years old.
- Over time, tiny space rocks should darken the rings, yet they remain surprisingly bright.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Earlier estimates, based on Cassini data, suggested the rings were 100-400 million years old because they looked clean and bright.
- The new study suggests that micrometeoroid collisions remove dust efficiently, preventing the rings from darkening over time.
- High-speed micrometeoroid impacts (~108,000 km/h) cause dust to vaporize, rather than accumulate.
- The vaporized dust either escapes Saturn’s gravity, falls into the planet’s atmosphere, or gets ejected into space, keeping the rings pristine.
- 100 million years ago, the Solar System was stable, making ring formation unlikely.
- 4 billion years ago, the Solar System was chaotic, increasing the chances of violent planetary collisions that could have formed Saturn’s rings.
Various Missions to Saturn
Saturn has been explored by multiple spacecraft, each providing valuable insights into its rings, atmosphere, and moons.
1. Pioneer 11 (1979)
- First spacecraft to fly past Saturn, capturing basic images.
2. Voyager 1 & Voyager 2 (1980-1981)
- Discovered new moons and ring structures.
- Provided detailed images of Saturn’s rings.
3. Cassini-Huygens (1997-2017)
- A NASA-ESA-ASI mission that orbited Saturn for 13 years.
- Key discoveries:
-
- Confirmed liquid oceans on Enceladus.
- Found methane lakes on Titan.
- Observed Saturn’s rings losing material into the planet’s atmosphere.
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PYQ:
[2009] Which one of the following planets has largest number of natural satellites or moons?
(a) Jupiter
(b) Mars
(c) Saturn
(d) Venus |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Iron Age; Important Sites
Why in the News?
Tamil Nadu CM recently proclaimed that the Iron Age began on Tamil soil over 5,300 years ago (4th millennium BCE), based on findings from Mayiladumparai, Sivagalai, Adichanallur, and Kilnamandi.
Iron Age in India
- The Iron Age in India was initially thought to have begun around 700-600 BCE.
- Radiocarbon dating pushed the timeline back to 1800 BCE, with evidence of iron smelting found in Central Ganga Plain and Eastern Vindhyas.
- Recent discoveries in Tamil Nadu suggest that iron metallurgy was established in South India as early as 3300 BCE.
Notable Iron Age Sites in India:
- Central and Northern India
- Raja Nala-ka-tila (UP): Iron tools and slag found in pre-NBP (Northern Black Polished) deposits (1400–800 BCE).
- Malhar (Chandauli, UP): Furnaces and iron slag indicate a major iron metallurgy center (1200 BCE).
- Dadupur (UP): Large-scale iron smelting evidence dating back to 1000 BCE.
- Hastinapur (UP): Iron tools associated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture (1000 BCE).
- Takshashila (Punjab, Pakistan): Iron tools found in Gandhara settlements (800 BCE).
- Western and Central India
- Ahar (Rajasthan): Chalcolithic culture (2500–1700 BCE) showed early evidence of iron artifacts.
- Naikund (Vidarbha, Maharashtra): Discovery of an iron smelting furnace (1000 BCE).
- Mahurjhari (Nagpur, Maharashtra): Horse ornaments made of copper with iron knobs (800 BCE).
- South India
- Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu): Large-scale iron smelting and slag deposits (1200 BCE).
- Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu): Iron tools and burial urns linked to Megalithic culture (1000 BCE).
- Mayiladumparai (Tamil Nadu): Recent findings date iron usage to 3300 BCE, making it one of the oldest sites of iron metallurgy in India.
- Sivagalai (Tamil Nadu): Iron artifacts and slag deposits, indicating early smelting practices (1100 BCE).
Iron Age in Tamil Nadu: New Discoveries
- Earlier studies in Mayiladumparai Excavation (2022) suggested that the Iron Age began 4,200 years ago (3rd millennium BCE).
- This timeline coincides with the Copper/Bronze Age in North India, indicating a technological divergence between the regions.
- The latest State Archaeology Department’s report, “Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu”, confirms that Iron smelting began as early as 3,345 BCE – 2,953 BCE.
- Limited availability of copper ores in South India might have led to the early adoption of iron technology.
- Excavations in Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Kilnamandi, and Mayiladumparai indicate that the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu predates much of North India.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
- Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
- Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Polarized Moonlight
Why in the News?
Scientists at Macquarie University, Sydney, have discovered that two species of nocturnal bull ants (Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia midas) rely on polarised moonlight for navigation.
What is Polarised Moonlight?
- Polarised moonlight refers to moonlight that has undergone scattering in Earth’s atmosphere, causing its waves to oscillate in a specific direction.
- Unlike direct moonlight, which is unpolarised, the light that scatters in the sky becomes linearly polarised, meaning its electric field aligns in a fixed plane.
- The moon emits unpolarised light, but when it interacts with air molecules and dust particles in the atmosphere, it scatters and becomes polarised.
- The intensity of polarised moonlight is much lower than polarised sunlight, making it harder for most animals to detect.
- The pattern of polarisation in moonlight remains stable, allowing nocturnal animals to use it as a reliable navigation tool.
- Why is it Important for Navigation?
- Many nocturnal animals, including bull ants (Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia midas), rely on celestial cues to orient themselves.
- Unlike the moon’s direct position, which changes with phases and cloud cover, the polarisation pattern remains detectable throughout the night.
- This enables ants to navigate effectively even under crescent or waning moons, where light intensity is significantly lower.
E-Vector Pattern and Ant Navigation
- Polarised moonlight forms a distinct pattern in the sky, known as the E-vector pattern.
- This pattern shifts based on the moon’s position, but its orientation remains stable, allowing insects like ants to use it as a natural compass.
- The E-vector pattern aligns at 90° to the moon’s direct light, creating a predictable navigation reference.
- How do Bull Ants use it?
- Ants detect the E-vector pattern in the night sky using their specialised compound eyes, which are sensitive to polarised light.
- Even in dim conditions, they adjust their movements according to the orientation of polarised moonlight.
- Researchers found that when the E-vector was artificially rotated, the ants changed their paths accordingly, confirming that they rely on this pattern.
- When the moonlight disappeared (during a new moon phase), the ants struggled to navigate, further proving their dependence on polarised lunar light.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Deposit Insurance
Why in the News?
The Centre is actively considering increasing the deposit insurance cover beyond the current ₹5 lakh limit, as confirmed by Financial Services Secretary.
What is Deposit Insurance?
- Deposit Insurance is a financial protection mechanism for depositors if a bank fails or faces restrictions imposed by the RBI.
- It ensures compensation up to a set limit, even if the bank cannot return the money.
- It is provided by Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC), a subsidiary of RBI.
- Coverage & Exclusions:
- Covers: Savings accounts, fixed deposits (FDs), recurring deposits (RDs), current accounts (both principal & interest).
- Does NOT cover: Deposits from foreign governments, central/state governments, inter-bank deposits, and primary cooperative societies.
History of Deposit Insurance in India:
- 1962: First in Asia to introduce Deposit Insurance Corporation (DIC), covering ₹1,500 per depositor.
- 1978: Merged with the Credit Guarantee Corporation to form DICGC.
- 1993: Deposit limit raised to ₹1 lakh.
- 2020: After the PMC Bank crisis in Pune, the limit was increased from ₹1 lakh to ₹5 lakh.
- 2021: Law amended to ensure insured payouts within 90 days of a bank facing restrictions.
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About DICGC & Its Functions
- DICGC was established in 1961, a wholly-owned RBI subsidiary under the DICGC Act, 1961.
- It covers all commercial banks, regional rural banks, foreign banks in India, and cooperative banks.
- Banks pay the insurance premium; depositors do not pay any charges.
- It ensures timely compensation within 90 days of a bank’s collapse.
How does Deposit Insurance work?
- DICGC insures deposits up to ₹5 lakh per depositor per bank.
- The ₹5 lakh limit includes both principal and interest amounts.
- If a bank is facing financial distress or RBI-imposed restrictions, depositors are eligible to claim insurance under Section 18A of the DICGC Act, 1961.
- Payout Timeline:
- Within 45 days: The troubled bank must submit a list of depositors to DICGC.
- Within 90 days: DICGC processes and pays depositors up to ₹5 lakh.
- If a bank goes into liquidation, DICGC pays the insured amount within two months of receiving a claim list from the bank’s liquidator.
- When RBI restricts withdrawals from a bank, depositors are eligible to receive their insured deposits.
PYQ:
[2013] Which of the following grants/grant direct credit assistance to rural households? (2013)
- Regional Rural Banks
- National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
- Land Development Banks
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Dharma Guardian
Why in the News?
India and Japan are set to commence the 6th edition of the Dharma Guardian military exercise at Mount Fuji.
Other India-Japan Military Exercises
- JIMEX (Japan-India Maritime Exercise): Naval cooperation between the Indian Navy and Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF).
- Veer Guardian: Joint air force exercise between the Indian Air Force (IAF) and Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF).
- Malabar Exercise: Japan participates along with India, the US, and Australia (Quad nations) in this high-level naval exercise.
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About Exercise Dharma Guardian
- It is an annual joint military exercise between the Indian Army and Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), conducted alternatively in India and Japan.
- It was commenced in 2018
- The 6th edition will be held from February 25 to March 9, 2025, at Mount Fuji, Japan.
- 120 Indian soldiers from the Madras Regiment will participate, focusing on urban warfare and counter-terrorism operations.
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- Joint Counter-Terrorism Training: Focus on urban and semi-desert warfare.
- Advanced Tactical Drills: Close-quarters combat, live fire, and battlefield medical evacuation.
- 48-hour Validation Exercise: Tests real-time combat coordination.
- Cultural and Professional Exchange: Strengthens India-Japan military ties.
Significance:
- Strengthens Strategic Ties: Expands India-Japan defence cooperation under the Indo-Pacific framework.
- Enhances Regional Security: Aligns with Quad nations’ vision (India, Japan, US, Australia).
- Boosts Defence Technology Collaboration: Includes co-development of Unicorn Stealth Antenna System.
- Improves Military Readiness: Supports joint UN peacekeeping and disaster response operations.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Delhi Earthquake and its causes
Why in the News?
A magnitude 4 earthquake struck New Delhi with epicentre near Dhaula Kuan. The quake was shallow (5 km depth), highlighting Delhi’s seismic vulnerability due to its location in Zone IV of India’s earthquake hazard map.
Possible Causes of the Earthquake
- Tectonic Activity along the Delhi-Hardwar Ridge:
- Delhi sits on the Delhi-Hardwar Ridge, an active seismic fault.
- Continuous collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates builds tectonic stress, leading to earthquakes when stress is released.
- Groundwater Extraction as a Seismic Trigger: Excessive exploitation alters rock pressure, potentially inducing fault movements.
- Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Activity:
- Urbanization, metro construction, and large-scale infrastructure projects alter subsurface stress.
- Vibrations from construction activities can contribute to localized seismic instability.
About the Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt
- The Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt is a major geological formation that extends from southern Rajasthan to Haryana and Delhi.
- It consists of ancient folded rock formations that have undergone millions of years of geological transformation.
- This region has several pre-existing faults, meaning seismic activity can occur without direct tectonic subduction.
- Although historically more active, tectonic movements in the belt have slowed over time.
- These earthquakes occur due to fault reactivation and local stress accumulation rather than large-scale tectonic shifts.
- Himalayan earthquakes are caused by subduction, where the Indian plate moves under the Eurasian plate.
PYQ:
[2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.
[2015] The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Aravalli Range
Why in the News?
The Haryana government has proposed an ambitious 3,858-hectare Aravalli Safari Park spread across Gurugram and Nuh, which aims to be the world’s largest safari park.
About the Aravalli Range
- The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, dating back to the Proterozoic era.
- It stretches 692 km from Gujarat to Delhi, passing through Rajasthan and Haryana.
- The range acts as a natural green barrier, preventing the expansion of the Thar Desert into eastern Rajasthan and the Gangetic plains.
- Highest Peak: Guru Shikhar (1,722 meters) in Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
- Rivers originating from the Aravalli Range:
- Banas and Sahibi Rivers (tributaries of the Yamuna).
- Luni River, which flows into the Rann of Kutch.
- Rich in mineral resources, including copper, zinc, lead, and marble.
- The Aravalli hills play a critical role in groundwater recharge, acting as natural aquifers.
- 80% of the range is in Rajasthan, while the rest is in Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat.
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What is the Aravalli Safari Park Project?
- The Haryana government has proposed a 3,858-hectare Aravalli Safari Park, intended to be the world’s largest.
- The project covers 2,574 hectares in Gurugram and 1,284 hectares in Nuh.
- It will include animal enclosures, botanical gardens, aquariums, cable cars, hotels, and an animal hospital.
- Initially managed by the Tourism Department, the project is now under the Forest Department, with an expert committee overseeing its execution.
Why is there Opposition?
- Ecological Concerns: The Aravallis prevent desertification, and large-scale construction could disrupt groundwater recharge and biodiversity.
- Threat to Water Security: The region acts as an aquifer, and excessive tourism, vehicular traffic, and construction could worsen Gurugram and Nuh’s water crisis, already classified as “over-exploited” by the Central Ground Water Board.
- Legal Violations: The project falls under protected forest areas, governed by:
- Forest Conservation Act, 1980.
- Punjab Land Preservation Act (PLPA), 1900, restricting deforestation.
- T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad Judgment (1996), which extends legal protection to non-notified forest land.
PYQ:
[2011] The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diversity. Which one among the following is the most appropriate reason for this Phenomenon?
(a) It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant vegetative growth
(b) It is a confluence of different bio-geographical zones.
(c) Exotic and invasive species have not been introduced in this region.
(d) It has less human interference. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Matsya-6000
Why in the news?
India’s 4th generation deep-ocean submersible Matsya-6000 has successfully completed wet testing at Chennai harbor, paving the way for shallow-water demonstrations at depths of up to 500 meters by 2025.
![[pib] Matsya-6000](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mats.jpg)
About Matsya-6000
- Made of titanium alloy to withstand extreme oceanic pressure.
- Built with a 2.1-meter diameter sphere to accommodate three crew members.
- Moves at speed of 5.5 km/hr using multidirectional thrusters.
- Uses GPS, underwater acoustic positioning, and joystick-controlled maneuverability.
- Operates for 12 hours, with an emergency endurance of 96 hours.
- Includes emergency buoyancy modules and high–pressure-resistant escape hatches.
- Features robotic arms for sample collection.
- Uses high–resolution imaging and oceanographic sensors for deep-sea research.
- Future Trials:
- Shallow-water tests up to 500m planned by late 2025.
- Full deep-sea trials at 6,000m scheduled for 2026.
What is Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)?
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- The DOM launched by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) in 2021, aims to enhance India’s deep-sea exploration capabilities while supporting the Blue Economy policy.
- It focuses on resource utilization, climate monitoring, and marine biodiversity conservation.
- Develop advanced technologies for ocean mining, biodiversity assessment, and deep-sea surveillance.
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- Enable climate change research through real-time ocean data collection.
- Establish a Marine Station for Ocean Biology for research on marine ecosystems and pharmaceuticals.
- Support the Samudrayaan Mission, which includes the development of Matsya-6000, India’s first deep-ocean human submersible.
- Structural Mandate of DOM:
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- Deep-ocean survey and identification of polymetallic nodule and sulfide deposits.
- Harnessing ocean energy through wave, tidal, and thermal sources.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Project NAKSHA
Why in the News?
Union Minister of Rural Development has inaugurated the National Geospatial Knowledge-based Land Survey of Urban Habitations (NAKSHA) in 152 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) across 26 States and 3 Union Territories (UTs).
What is Project NAKSHA?
- It is an AI-driven urban land survey and digitization initiative launched by the Department of Land Resources under the Ministry of Rural Development.
- Announced in the Union Budget 2024-25, the project aims to modernize urban land records through geospatial mapping, drone technology, and AI.
- Launched in February 2025, the initiative will digitize and update land records in 152 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) across 26 States and 3 Union Territories (UTs) in its pilot phase.
- Survey of India is the technical partner, conducting aerial mapping and high-resolution imaging to create accurate, tamper-proof property records.
- The Madhya Pradesh State Electronic Development Corporation (MPSEDC) is developing an end-to-end web-GIS platform.
- National Informatics Centre Services Inc. (NICSI) will provide storage and data security.
- The Survey of India will provide orthorectified imagery for accurate mapping.
- Project NAKSHA builds on:
- Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) for digitizing rural land records.
- SVAMITVA Scheme, using drone technology to map village properties.
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- Pilot phase funding: ₹194 crore, fully financed by the Government of India.
- Overall Phase 1 budget: ₹5,000 crore for nationwide expansion.
Aims and Objectives of Project NAKSHA:
- Standardizing urban property ownership details to eliminate land disputes.
- Ensuring fraud-proof, legally valid land documentation.
- Drone surveys and satellite imagery for precision mapping.
- Detecting encroachments, illegal constructions, and land use changes.
- Providing spatial data for urban expansion and infrastructure projects.
- Digital land records enable seamless property transactions and ownership transfers.
Features and Provisions:
- 150+ cities covered in the first year, with full urban coverage in five years.
- AI-enabled classification to identify disputed, encroached, or illegal land parcels.
- Web-GIS Platform for Land Record Management to be developed by MPSEDC, ensuring real-time data access and updates.
- States and UTs to conduct field surveys and ground verification.
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to land reforms in independent India, which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) The ceiling laws were aimed at family holdings and not individual holdings.
(b) The major aim of land reforms was providing agricultural land to all the landless.
(c) It resulted in cultivation of cash crops as a predominant form of cultivation.
(d) Land reforms permitted no exemptions to the ceiling limits. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Similipal Tiger Reserve
Why in the News?
The Similipal Tiger Reserve in Odisha has witnessed a significant reduction in poaching incidents following the installation of TrailGuard AI, an AI-powered early alert system that detects intruders in the forest.
About Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR)
- Located in Mayurbhanj District, Northern Odisha, characterized by hilly and undulating terrain with open grasslands and dense forests.
- Twin peaks: Khairiburu and Meghashini, reaching 1,515 meters above sea level.
- Inhabited by tribal communities such as Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Gondas, Khadia, Mankadia, and Sahara.
- Declared a Tiger Reserve in 1956 and brought under Project Tiger in 1973.
- Recognized as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 2009.
- Flora:
- 1,078 species of plants, including 94 species of orchids.
- Sal (Shorea robusta) is the dominant tree species.
- Fauna:
- Rich in wildlife, including Leopards, Elephants, Gaurs, Langurs, Barking Deer, Sloth Bears, Sambar, Pythons, Pangolins, and Flying Squirrels.
- Diverse birdlife, including migratory species like Bar-Headed Geese and Brahmini Ducks.
- Home to freshwater snails (Radix genus) in its water bodies.
Melanistic Tigers of Similipal:
- Similipal is the only place in the world where pseudo-melanistic tigers are found in the wild.
- 27 of Odisha’s 30 tigers (AOTE-2023-24) live in Similipal, including 13 pseudo-melanistic tigers.
- The unique black-striped pattern in these tigers is due to a mutation in the Taqpep gene.
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PYQ:
[2011] Two important rivers – one with its source in Jharkhand (and known by a different name in Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha – merge at a place only a short distance from the coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an important site of wildlife and biodiversity and a protected area.
Which one of the following could be this?
(a) Bhitarkanika
(b) Chandipur-on-sea
(c) Gopalpur-on-sea
(d) Simlipal |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Loggerhead Turtles
Why in the News?
A new study in Nature reveals that loggerhead turtles can learn and remember the magnetic signature of an area, using Earth’s geomagnetic field for navigation during long migrations.
About Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta)
- Loggerhead Sea Turtles belong to the Cheloniidae family, widely distributed across the world’s oceans.
- They are commonly found in Atlantic, Pacific, Indian Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea.
- They Spends most of its life in saltwater and estuarine habitats, coming ashore only to nest.
- They are omnivorous, feeding primarily on bottom-dwelling invertebrates.
- It is listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
- International trade banned under CITES Appendix I.
Significance of the study
- Loggerhead turtles travel thousands of kilometers across oceans and return to the same feeding and nesting sites.
- Their ability to store magnetic memories helps them navigate vast distances, reinforcing the hypothesis that other migratory species may also rely on Earth’s magnetic field.
PYQ:
[2019] Consider the following statements:
- Some species of turtles are herbivores.
- Some species of fish are herbivores.
- Some species of marine mammals are herbivores.
- Some species of snakes are viviparous.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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