Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pusa-2090
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- In response to stubble burning challenge, the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) has developed Pusa-2090, an improved version of Pusa-44, offering similar yields but with a shorter maturity period.
About Pusa-2090
- Development: IARI developed Pusa-2090 by crossing Pusa-44 with CB-501, an early-maturing Japonica rice line known for stronger stems and higher grain production.
- Advantages: Pusa-2090 offers the same high yields as Pusa-44 but matures in just 120-125 days, addressing the stubble-burning issue.
- Field Testing: The variety has undergone successful trials in Delhi and Odisha, and Punjab farmers have reported promising results.
- Economic Benefits: Pusa-2090’s potential to match Pusa-44’s yields with a shorter duration makes it an attractive option for farmers.
Replacing Pusa-44
- Pusa-44 in Punjab: In the current kharif season, Punjab has planted 5.48 lakh hectares with Pusa-44, accounting for over 17% of the state’s total paddy area.
- Long Maturation Period: Pusa-44 takes 155-160 days to mature, delaying the availability of fields for the next wheat crop.
- Stubble Burning: To prepare fields for the next crop, farmers resort to burning the remaining stubble after harvesting Pusa-44, contributing to air pollution.
- Alternative Varieties: While there are alternative varieties like PR-126 with a shorter maturation period, their yields are lower than Pusa-44, impacting farmers’ income.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hypertension
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- An analysis of recent National Family Health Survey data, as published in the journal JAMA, has revealed substantial disparities in the prevalence, diagnosis, treatment, and control of hypertension within Indian states and districts.
- These disparities underscore the need for targeted and decentralized solutions to address the complexities of hypertension care across the nation.
What is Hypertension?
- Hypertension, commonly known as high blood pressure, is a medical condition in which the force of blood against the walls of the arteries is consistently too high.
- Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg) and is expressed as two numbers: systolic pressure over diastolic pressure.
- The systolic pressure represents the force when the heart contracts, while the diastolic pressure represents the force when the heart is at rest between beats.
- Normal blood pressure is typically around 120/80 mm Hg. Hypertension is diagnosed when blood pressure consistently measures at or above 130/80 mm Hg.
- However, different organizations may have slightly different guidelines for defining hypertension.
Key Findings of the Study
- National-Level Observations: The national-level data reveals a common trend – a significant proportion of individuals with hypertension remain undiagnosed, and even among those diagnosed, many do not initiate treatment. Moreover, among those who commence treatment, few achieve adequate blood pressure control.
- Inter-State Variation: The study notes that while the prevalence of hypertension is comparable in southern states, it is notably higher than the national average, with 29.9% of the population in these states affected compared to 26.8% nationally.
- District-Level Disparities: The study highlights substantial variations within states. For instance, in Meghalaya, the prevalence of hypertension differs significantly across Garo Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Khasi Hills districts, affecting the diagnosis rates. A similar scenario is observed in Karnataka’s Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Udupi, and Chitradurga districts.
Impact of Demographics and Education
- Gender and Age: Despite hypertension being more prevalent in men, the data surprisingly reveals that women are more likely to be diagnosed, receive treatment, and achieve blood pressure control.
- Socio-Economic Status: Individuals in the wealthiest quintile demonstrate higher rates of prevalence, diagnosis, treatment initiation, and control.
- Education Level: Completion of schooling correlates with better rates of diagnosis, treatment, and control compared to those with no schooling or up to Class 11.
Significance of Inter-State and Inter-District Variability
- Resource Allocation: District-level data can guide state governments in allocating resources efficiently. It helps identify districts with a high prevalence of hypertension that may require increased screening and diagnostic facilities or better accessibility to medicines.
- Continuum of Care: Managing chronic conditions like hypertension requires a distinct healthcare approach. Ensuring regular availability of medicines, digitization of records for follow-ups, and the establishment of accessible treatment centers are critical components of an effective continuum of care.
Controlling Hypertension in India
- WHO’s Call to Action: The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes the potential to avert nearly 4.6 million deaths in India by 2040 if half of hypertensive individuals can control their blood pressure.
- Government Initiative: India launched a comprehensive initiative in 2023 to treat 75 million people with hypertension or diabetes by 2025. This endeavor extends beyond infrastructure expansion to active screening, treatment initiation, medication accessibility, and follow-up mechanisms.
Conclusion
- India’s quest to bridge the gaps in hypertension care demands a multifaceted approach.
- The district-level insights offered by this study can guide policymakers in crafting targeted solutions, ultimately enhancing the continuum of care for hypertension and contributing to better public health outcomes.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Silk, often hailed as the queen of fibers, boasts a rich and diverse history, with roots stretching back over 5,000 years to ancient China.
- Its story encompasses the transition from the wild silk moth (Bombyx mandarina) to the domesticated silk moth (Bombyx mori), offering a fascinating glimpse into human ingenuity and nature’s adaptability.
Silk Moth Domestication
- Ancient Beginnings: Humans began domesticating silk moths from the wild Bombyx mandarina in China, marking the dawn of sericulture.
- Global Reach: The domesticated Bombyx mori moth, significantly larger than its wild ancestor, now thrives worldwide, including in India.
- Silk Powerhouse: India’s prowess in silk production makes it the second-largest raw silk producer globally, after China.
Silkworms and Mulberry Leaves
- Exclusive Diet: Caterpillars, known as silkworms, feed solely on the leaves of mulberry plants (genus Morus).
- Cocoon Construction: The domesticated silk moth extrudes silk fibers of remarkable length, up to 900 meters, to construct larger cocoons. These caterpillars have lost the ability to fly and their pigmentation, adapting to human care.
Diversity in Silk
- Wild Silk Varieties: “Wild” silks, including muga, tasar, and eri, are derived from various moth species such as Antheraea assama, Antheraea mylitta, and Samia cynthia ricini.
- Contrasting Characteristics: Non-mulberry silks differ significantly from mulberry silks, featuring shorter, coarser, and harder threads.
The Enigmatic Cocoon Colors
- Natural Variations: Domesticated silk moth cocoons come in a stunning array of colors, including yellow-red, gold, flesh, pink, pale green, deep green, and white.
- Human Influence: Selective breeding for differently colored cocoons aimed to create colored silks, but these pigments are water-soluble, eventually fading. Acid dyes are used to achieve colored silks in the market.
- Origins of Pigments: Pigments in cocoons are derived from carotenoids and flavonoids produced by mulberry leaves. Silkworms ingest these chemicals, which are then bound to silk proteins and spun into a single fiber.
Mutant Strains and Genetic Insights
- Valuable Resource: Mutant strains of silk moths have emerged due to mutations in genes governing pigment uptake, transport, and modification.
- Diversity from Domestication: Silk domestication’s molecular basis has been primarily explored in China and Japan, with notable contributions from Indian scientists.
Decoding Cocoon Colors: A Model Emerges
- Genetic Factors: Researchers at Southwest University in Chongqing, China, proposed a model explaining how different mutations create diverse cocoon colors.
- Key Genes: Genes like Y, C, F, Rc, and Pk play roles in pigment transportation and absorption, leading to variations in cocoon colors.
- Green Cocoon Mystery: Mutations in the Y gene result in green cocoons when carotenoids are not absorbed, but flavonoids are. The intensity of green depends on other genes’ mutations, affecting flavonoid uptake.
- Flavonoid Cluster: A cluster of closely related genes influences flavonoid uptake in cocoons.
Gene Manipulation and Domestication
- Hybrid Offspring: Researchers have created hybrid moths by interbreeding domesticated and ancestral silk moths.
- Apontic-like Gene: Mutations in the apontic-like gene revealed differences in melanin production between domesticated and wild silk moths.
- Regulatory Sequences: Variations in gene regulation sequences dictate when and where genes are activated or deactivated.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Power transmission
Central Idea
- In 1954, India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, referred to dams as “the temples of modern India” during a visit to the Bhakra Nangal Dam site.
- This statement emphasized the critical role of electricity in the nation’s development and its transmission as the cornerstone of economic progress.
This article offers a simplified introduction to the world of electric power transmission.
Three Components of Power Supply
- Generation: Electricity is generated at power plants, including renewable energy installations.
- Transmission: It involves the distribution of electricity through a network comprising substations, switches, overhead and underground cables, transformers, and more.
- Distribution: The final step is delivering electricity to consumers, tailored to the requirements of various machines and applications.
Key Principles of Electric Power Transmission
- Efficiency and Voltage: Lower current and higher voltage enhance transmission efficiency. Transformers play a crucial role in voltage manipulation, stepping it up before transmission and reducing it for consumers.
- Resistance and Cable Thickness: Transmission cables exhibit resistance, leading to energy loss. Thicker cables minimize losses but also increase costs.
- Distance and Transmission Cost: Longer transmission distances result in lower costs.
- Alternating Current (AC): AC power transmission is predominant due to its adaptability and higher efficiency compared to direct current (DC). However, higher AC frequencies result in increased resistance.
Understanding AC Power
- Three-Phase AC: AC power transmission commonly utilizes three-phase AC, where voltage periodically changes polarity.
- Phases in AC: In a three-phase AC circuit, three wires carry AC current in different phases, typically at 120°, 240°, and 360°.
- AC in Household Appliances: Consumers receive three-phase AC power, which is used in household appliances for ease of control.
Transmission Process
- Voltage Stepping: Voltage is stepped up at power plants using transformers before being transmitted.
- Transmission Lines: Suspended from transmission towers, transmission lines carry the electricity across long distances.
- Safety Measures: Insulators, circuit-breakers, grounding, arresters, and dampers ensure safe and stable transmission.
- Switches: Used to control current availability and to redirect currents between lines.
- Substations: Different types of substations perform tasks like power collection, frequency modification, voltage reduction for distribution, and diagnostics.
Operation of Power Grids
- National Grids: A national grid encompasses generation, transmission, and distribution. It must accommodate various power sources, production locations, and consumption patterns.
- Storage Facilities: Grids include storage systems to manage surplus and deficit power supply.
- Flexible Sources: Gas turbines and automated systems respond to fluctuating consumer demand or emergencies.
- Grid Management: Grids maintain synchronized frequencies, manage demand, control voltage, and improve power factor.
- Wide-Area Synchronous Grids: Such grids, where all generators produce AC at the same frequency, result in lower costs but require measures to prevent cascading failures.
Key agencies in Power Transmission
India’s power transmission sector relies on key agencies to manage and enhance the electricity grid. These include:
- State Transmission Utilities (STUs): Managing intrastate power transmission within each state.
- National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC): Maintaining national power balance and grid security.
- Regional Load Despatch Centres (RLDCs): Overseeing regional power operations and grid stability.
- Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC): Regulating tariffs and power transmission at the national level.
- State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs): Regulating power transmission within individual states.
- Private Transmission Companies: Collaborating with government agencies for grid expansion and modernization.
Conclusion
- Electric power transmission is a complex but vital aspect of modern civilization, serving as the backbone of economic development.
- Understanding its basic principles sheds light on the intricate network that powers our lives and fuels progress.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mubarak Manzil Palace
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Hidden amidst the ruins of Punjab’s Malerkotla town lies the 19th-century Mubarak Manzil Palace, a poignant symbol of the state’s indifference towards its rich heritage.
- Beyond its architectural significance, this palace holds a deep cultural and emotional connection for both Sikhs and Muslims alike.
- However, despite its historical value, the restoration of this magnificent structure has languished in bureaucratic inertia.
About Mubarak Manzil Palace
- Historical Significance: The Mubarak Manzil Palace dates back to the 19th century and stands as a testament to the region’s historical heritage.
- Cultural Significance: Beyond architecture, the palace holds immense cultural and emotional importance for Sikhs and Muslims, serving as a shared legacy.
- Unfulfilled Hope: Begum Munawwar-ul-Nisa, the last surviving member of Malerkotla’s royal family, passed away recently, with her desire to witness the palace’s restoration remaining unfulfilled.
Delayed Restoration Efforts
- Congress Government’s Approval: In 2021, the previous Congress government granted approval for the acquisition and preservation of the palace, kindling hopes for its revival.
- Family Disputes and Financial Constraints: The palace had fallen into disrepair due to family disputes and financial limitations. Begum Nisa, after resolving the disputes, appealed to the State government to take over and restore the palace.
- Unfulfilled Promises: Although Begum Nisa and her family entrusted 29 rooms of the palace to the government’s care, the restoration work has yet to commence. Despite expert assessments in 2022, progress has been stalled, leaving the heritage in disrepair.
Cultural Significance
- Guru Gobind Singh’s Blessing: Malerkotla holds a significant place in Sikh history as it was Nawab Sher Mohammed Khan who protested against the execution of Guru Gobind Singh’s younger sons, Sahibzada Zorawar Singh and Sahibzada Fateh Singh, in 1705. Guru Gobind Singh blessed the town to live in peace.
- Sikh Reverence: Sikhs deeply respect Malerkotla’s royal family for their historical role. The restoration of the palace is considered a fitting tribute to their legacy.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: TCAS-Kavach
Mains level: Rail mishaps prevention
Central Idea
- The tragic train collision in Vizianagaram district, Andhra Pradesh, resulting in 14 fatalities and 50 injuries, highlights the critical importance of implementing Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS).
- In this case, the indigenous TCAS known as ‘Kavach’ was not in place on the route where the collision occurred, emphasizing the need for enhanced railway safety measures.
What is TCAS-Kavach?
- Cab Signalling System: Kavach serves as a cab signalling train control system with anti-collision capabilities, acting as a vigilant guardian of the existing signalling infrastructure.
- Development: Developed over a decade, starting in 2012, by the Indian Railways Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO).
- Warning Mechanism: Kavach is designed to alert the locomotive pilot if they fail to notice a ‘red signal’ and continue at a speed that would surpass the signal. If the pilot does not slow down below 15 kilometres per hour, Kavach automatically applies the brakes, bringing the train to a halt.
Deployment of Kavach
- Components: The Kavach setup involves three key components: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology in the tracks, RFID readers, computers, and brake interface equipment in locomotives, and radio infrastructure including towers and modems at railway stations.
- Intercommunication: These components communicate with each other, enabling real-time monitoring of train movements and the transmission of signals to locomotives. Visual interferences, such as hilly terrain or haze, do not affect their functionality.
- Antenna Communication: Locomotives are equipped with antennas that communicate with towers at railway stations and display warnings to the driver on their monitor.
Preventing Accidents with Kavach
- Testimonial Evidence: Union Railway Minister test ride of Kavach demonstrated its effectiveness in averting accidents. Two trains moving towards each other on the same track at high speed were stopped 400 meters short of collision as Kavach applied automatic brakes.
- Human Error: The Andhra Pradesh train accident was attributed to the deceased loco pilot’s ‘human error.’ Had Kavach been in place, it could have warned the pilot about overshooting the red signal and applied emergency brakes, potentially avoiding the accident.
Cost and Implementation Challenges
- Deployment Cost: Implementing Kavach costs ₹50 lakh per kilometer for the Indian Railways.
- Coverage: Currently, Kavach covers only 1,500 kilometers of rail routes, a small fraction of the total 68,000-kilometer network. Expanding its coverage, particularly on high-density routes, remains a formidable challenge.
- Budget Allocation: The Indian Railways has allocated ₹4,000 crore under the Signalling and Telecom budget, including ₹2,000 crore from the Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK) fund for Kavach implementation.
- Slower pace: However, the limited allocation may result in gradual progress, with only about 2,500 to 3,000 kilometers of installation expected during the year.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: H. pylori
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Indian researchers have developed a groundbreaking two-step PCR-based assay for detecting Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection, determining clarithromycin resistance, and distinguishing drug-sensitive strains.
- This molecular diagnostic tool reduces the detection time from weeks to just six-seven hours and exhibits remarkable accuracy, boasting 100% sensitivity and specificity.
About H. Pylori Detection
- Helicobacter pylori, often abbreviated as H. pylori, is a type of bacteria that can infect the stomach and the upper part of the small intestine.
- It is a common bacterial infection associated with various gastrointestinal conditions, including gastritis (inflammation of the stomach lining) and peptic ulcers (sores or lesions in the lining of the stomach or the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine).
Why discuss this?
- Increasing Resistance: India faces a growing challenge of clarithromycin-resistant H. pylori strains, resulting in decreased treatment efficacy.
- Asymptomatic Infections: While most H. pylori infections are asymptomatic, 10–15% of cases lead to peptic ulcer disorders or stomach cancer.
- Prevalence in India: H. pylori infections affect 60-70% of the Indian population, acquired in childhood and persisting if not treated.
- Gastric Cancer Risk: H. pylori infection is a significant risk factor for gastric cancer.
Understanding Drug Resistance Mechanism in H. Pylori
- Genome Sequencing: Researchers identified a point mutation (A to G mutation at position 2143) in the 23S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene as the cause of clarithromycin resistance.
- Confirmation: They isolated and transferred the 617 base pairs containing the mutation to drug-sensitive bacteria, which became resistant, confirming the mutation’s role.
- Published Findings: The study’s results were published in the journal Gut Pathogens.
- Exploring Binding Affinity: Bioinformatics analysis revealed that drug-resistant strains had weaker binding affinity to clarithromycin compared to drug-sensitive strains.
- Impact of Weak Binding: Weaker binding limits the drug’s penetration into bacteria, rendering it ineffective against resistant strains.
Development of the PCR-Based Assay
- Biopsy Samples: The DNA template used for the assay was prepared by amplifying a small segment containing the point mutation directly from biopsy samples.
- Validation: DNA templates from cultured bacteria were compared with those from biopsy samples to validate their accuracy.
- Two-Step PCR: The assay employs a two-step PCR approach to detect H. pylori infection and differentiate resistant from sensitive isolates.
- Allele-Specific Primers: Resistant-specific and sensitive-specific primers exploit the point mutation for selective amplification.
- High Accuracy: Evaluation against conventional methods and sequencing analysis demonstrated 100% sensitivity and specificity.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Enemy Property, Butler Palace
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Lucknow’s iconic Butler Palace, an Enemy Property on the banks of the Gomti River, is set to undergo a remarkable transformation after decades of abandonment and obscurity.
About Butler Palace
- Official Residence: Butler Palace was originally commissioned in 1915 as the official residence of the Avadh Commissioner, Harcourt Butler.
- Ownership by the Raja: It later came under the ownership of the rajas of Mahmudabad, a family with roots tracing back to the 13th century and a history of allegiance to the Mughals.
- Partition and Dispute: After India’s partition, Raja Mohammed Amir Ahmad Khan migrated to Pakistan, while his son, Mohammad Amir Mohammad Khan, stayed in India. Legal disputes over properties, including Butler Palace, ensued.
Genesis of Enemy Property
- Post-War Migration: The origins of enemy property can be traced back to the aftermath of the India-Pakistan wars in 1965 and 1971, which led to the migration of people from India to Pakistan.
- Defence of India Rules: Framed under The Defence of India Act, 1962, these rules empowered the Indian government to assume control of properties and companies owned by individuals opting for Pakistani nationality.
- Custodian of Enemy Property: The central government vested these “enemy properties” in the Custodian of Enemy Property for India (CEPI).
- Similar Instances: A parallel situation emerged concerning property left behind by individuals who relocated to China after the 1962 Sino-Indian war.
- Tashkent Declaration: A pivotal development occurred with the Tashkent Declaration in 1966, where India and Pakistan agreed to discuss the return of properties and assets seized by either side during the conflicts.
- Pakistan’s Disposition: Notably, the Government of Pakistan disposed of all such properties within its territory in 1971.
Legal Framework for Handling Enemy Property
- Enemy Property Act, 1968: Enacted in 1968, this legislation established the continuous vesting of enemy property in the Custodian of Enemy Property for India (CEPI) under the Home Ministry.
- Scope of Properties: The CEPI, acting on behalf of the central government, oversees a range of enemy properties spread across multiple states. This includes both immovable and movable assets, such as shares and gold.
- Amendment in 2017: Parliament passed The Enemy Property (Amendment and Validation) Bill, 2016, which introduced amendments to The Enemy Property Act, 1968, and The Public Premises (Eviction of Unauthorised Occupants) Act, 1971.
Scale and Geographic Distribution
- Vast Inventory: India currently hosts a significant inventory of 12,611 enemy properties, collectively estimated to be worth over ₹1 lakh crore.
- Revenue Generation: The government has generated revenue exceeding ₹3,400 crore by disposing of enemy properties, predominantly involving movable assets like shares and gold.
- Immovable Properties: Interestingly, no immovable enemy properties have been sold to date.
- Origin Breakdown: Out of the 12,611 properties under CEPI’s purview, 12,485 were associated with Pakistani nationals, while 126 were linked to Chinese citizens.
- Regional Distribution: Uttar Pradesh leads with the highest number of enemy properties (6,255), followed by states like West Bengal, Delhi, Goa, Maharashtra, and others. Notably, several states across India have a share of enemy properties, underscoring the broad geographical scope.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Direct Listing, IPO
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- In a landmark move, the Indian government has opened doors for select Indian companies to directly list on designated foreign stock exchanges.
- This strategic decision aims to provide these companies with access to global capital markets and boost capital outflows, marking a significant step in India’s financial evolution.
Direct Listing vs. Initial Public Offers (IPO)
|
IPO |
Direct Listing |
| Share Issuance |
New shares are created and sold. |
No new shares are created or sold. |
| Underwriters |
Typically involves underwriters. |
No underwriters involved. |
| Price Determination |
Price determined through negotiations. |
Market-driven pricing at launch. |
| Lock-Up Period |
Common for insiders post-IPO. |
Typically no lock-up period. |
| Regulatory Compliance |
Extensive financial disclosures. |
Regulatory requirements met. |
| Capital Raising |
Primary goal is to raise capital. |
Provides liquidity to shareholders. |
Implementation of Companies (Amendment) Act, 2020
- Government Notification: The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) recently issued a notification, effectively putting into action the provisions outlined in the Companies (Amendment) Act, 2020.
- Key Enabler: This allows both listed and unlisted domestic companies to directly list their equity shares on the International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) in Ahmedabad.
- Empowering Provision: Section 5 grants the central government the authority to permit specific classes of public companies to list specified classes of securities on foreign stock exchanges, including GIFT IFSC, Ahmedabad.
- Streamlined Procedures: The government retains the flexibility to exempt such listings from certain procedural requirements, such as prospectus, share capital, beneficial ownership, and dividend distribution.
Current Listing Mechanism for Foreign Bourses
- Depository Receipts: Previously, Indian companies desiring overseas listings relied on depository receipts, such as American Depository Receipts (ADR) or Global Depository Receipts (GDR). These receipts were issued to foreign investors through Indian custodians.
- Past Utilization: Between 2008 and 2018, 109 companies successfully raised Rs 51,847.72 crore via the ADRs/GDRs route. However, after 2018, no Indian company pursued overseas listings.
Advantages of Direct Foreign Listing
- Enhanced Fundraising: Direct foreign listing empowers domestic companies to access foreign markets for fundraising, offering improved valuations and exposure to foreign currencies like the US dollar.
- Startup and Unicorn Growth: This initiative may prove particularly beneficial for startups and unicorns, providing an additional avenue for capital raising and heightened global visibility.
- Boosting Forex Reserves: The move contributes to India’s foreign exchange reserves, strengthening the nation’s economic stability.
- Simplified Accounting: Indian Accounting Standards (IndAS) closely align with global accounting norms, reducing the need for extensive and costly accounting preparations following US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) or International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).
Challenges in Direct Foreign Listing
- Valuation Discrepancies: A key challenge lies in whether global investors will assign similar valuations as Indian markets. Assessing the commercial advantages of foreign listings will be a crucial consideration for Indian companies.
- Clarity and Details: More detailed information is essential. This includes clarity on eligible company classes, types of listed securities, permitted foreign jurisdictions and stock exchanges, and exemptions related to procedural compliance.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Graded Response Action Plan
Mains level: Air Quality Issues in Major Cities
Central Idea
- As Delhi-NCR and its environs grapple with worsening air pollution, the Air Quality Index (AQI) has gained prominence as a critical measure of air quality.
Understanding Air Quality Index (AQI)
- AQI measures how safe the air around you is for breathing. Organizations that report AQI measure the density of various pollutants in the air (such as PM2.5, PM10, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, etc) at different monitoring stations.
- The widely-used National Air Quality Index (NAQI) given by the Central Pollution Control Board is a 24-hour average.
- Its unit is micrograms per cubic meter.
- A particular amount of one pollutant may not be as harmful as the same amount of another pollutant.
- So, each pollutant’s quantity in the air is adjusted to a common scale (say, 0 to 500) that works for all pollutants.
- Finally, the pollutant with the worst sub-index determines the AQI for that time and location.
Air Pollutants covered:
- Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
- Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
- Particulate Matter (size less than 10 µm) or PM 10
- Particulate Matter (size less than 2.5 µm) or PM2.5
- Ozone (O3)
- Carbon Monoxide (CO)
- Ammonia (NH3)
(Pollutants that most of us NEVER heard of-)
- Lead
- Benzene (C6H6)
- Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP)
- Arsenic(As)
- Nickel (Ni)
Influence on Government Policy
- Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): AQI plays a pivotal role in shaping government policies to combat air pollution. When AQI levels in areas like Delhi-NCR deteriorate, emergency measures, such as Stage 3 of GRAP, are activated.
- Immediate Action: For instance, the recent dip in AQI to the ‘severe’ category prompted immediate actions. Diesel four-wheelers not meeting BS-VI compliance were prohibited, and truck entry into Delhi was restricted. Petrol cars continued to operate under regular conditions.
About Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)
- The GRAP was conceived as a response to the alarming findings of a WHO study in 2014, which ranked Delhi as the most polluted city globally.
- In 2016, the Supreme Court (M. C. Mehta vs. Union of India Case) approved GRAP after multiple expert consultations.
- First GRAP was notified in January 2017 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
Implementation
- Starting in 2021, the Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR & Adjoining Areas (CAQM) has taken over the responsibility of implementing GRAP.
- Prior to 2021, the Supreme Court-appointed EPCA would instruct states to enforce GRAP measures.
- In 2020, the EPCA was disbanded and substituted with the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM).
- The CAQM recommendations depend on the Air Quality Index (AQI) and meteorological predictions provided by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
Revised measure implemented
| Air Quality Stage |
Range |
Measures to be implemented |
| Stage I (Poor) |
201-300 |
Enforce NGT/Supreme Court’s order on over-aged diesel/petrol vehicles. |
| Stage II (Very Poor) |
301-400 |
Implement rigorous actions to combat air pollution at identified hotspots. |
| Stage III (Severe) |
401-450 |
Impose strict restrictions on BS III petrol and BS IV diesel vehicles. Suspend physical classes in schools for primary grade children up to Class 5 in certain areas. |
| Stage IV (Severe Plus) |
>450 |
Prohibit the entry of four-wheelers registered outside Delhi, except for electric vehicles, CNG vehicles, and BS-VI diesel vehicles. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: White Hydrogen
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists searching for fossil fuels beneath northeastern France stumbled upon a vast reservoir of hydrogen.
- Initial calculations suggest that this deposit of “white hydrogen” is among the largest ever found, estimated to range from 6 million to 250 million metric tons, holding immense promise for clean energy applications.
Understanding White Hydrogen
- White hydrogen is a naturally occurring gas found within the Earth’s crust.
- While hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, it typically combines with other molecules.
- Hydrogen is hailed as a promising clean energy source for industries such as aviation, shipping, and steel production.
- Its combustion produces only water, making it a highly eco-friendly energy option compared to solar or wind energy.
Other types of Hydrogen
|
Obtained from |
Production Method |
Carbon Emissions |
| Green Hydrogen |
Water and renewable energy sources |
Electrolysis with renewables |
Very low to zero |
| Blue Hydrogen |
Natural gas |
Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) |
Reduced, but captured |
| Gray Hydrogen |
Natural gas |
Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) without CCS |
High |
Significance of the Discovery
- Shifting Paradigm: Historically, scientists believed that large-scale hydrogen production required lab-based processes. Hydrogen was categorized into different types based on their origin, such as gray, brown, blue, and green.
- Untapped Potential: White hydrogen, as a naturally occurring and abundant resource, offers a significant source of clean-burning energy.
- Natural and Cost-Effective: Unlike energy-intensive production methods, white hydrogen is naturally occurring and more cost-effective. Estimated costs for white hydrogen production are approximately $1 per kilogram, while green hydrogen costs around $6 per kilogram.
Back2Basics: Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) Process
SMR is the most widely used method for industrial hydrogen production, accounting for the majority of global hydrogen production.
- Feedstock: It uses methane (CH4) from natural gas as its primary feedstock, making it a cost-effective and readily available source of hydrogen.
- Reaction: SMR involves the reaction of methane with high-temperature steam (H2O) in the presence of a catalyst. The primary chemical reactions produce hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
- Endothermic Process: The reactions in SMR are highly endothermic, meaning they absorb a significant amount of heat energy, typically supplied through external heating.
- By-products: In addition to hydrogen and carbon monoxide, SMR also produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and unreacted methane.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Isthmus of Kra
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Thailand, with its distinctive geography resembling a plume of smoke rising from the sea, is considering a bold and historic project – the creation of an Isthmus of Kra Land Bridge.
- This project aims to revolutionize global trade routes and significantly impact Thailand’s economy.
About the Isthmus of Kra
|
Details |
| Location |
Southern Thailand, separating the Malay Peninsula |
| Width |
Approximately 44 km |
| Geographic Features |
Connects Andaman Sea (west) to South China Sea (east) |
| Strategic Importance |
Historical trade route; potential shortcut for maritime trade |
The Land Bridge Project: A Historical Dream
- Centuries-Old Idea: The dream of connecting Thailand’s two coasts across the Isthmus of Kra dates back to King Narai the Great of the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1677.
- Early Efforts: British and French colonial interests led to surveys and studies in the 19th century to create a maritime channel through the isthmus.
- Modern Proposal: In 2021, Thailand introduced a new proposal, envisioning a land bridge instead of a canal.
Current Vision
- Reducing Shipping Distance: Thai PM envisions a 90-kmland bridge with road and rail networks, connecting deep-sea ports on both coasts.
- Strait of Malacca Alternative: This project could offer a shorter, safer, and cost-effective route, saving approximately 1,200 km and 2 to 3 days of travel compared to the congested Strait of Malacca.
- Economic Benefits: It aims to stimulate economic growth, create jobs, and reduce transport time, benefiting Thailand’s economy and its position in Southeast Asia.
Conclusion
- Thailand’s proposal to create an Isthmus of Kra Land Bridge reflects its ambition to redefine global trade routes, boost its economy, and strengthen its role in Southeast Asia.
- While financial, geopolitical, and environmental challenges loom large, this project symbolizes Thailand’s determination to shape its future on the world stage.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UNESCO Creative Cities Network
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Gwalior and Kozhikode from India are among the 55 new cities which have joined the UNESCO Creative Cities Network.
- Earlier, Srinagar was designated the creative city in the field of Crafts and Folk Arts.
Inclusion in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network
[A] Gwalior’s Musical Heritage
- Category: Gwalior, located in Madhya Pradesh, earned its spot in the ‘Music’ category, showcasing its rich musical heritage.
- Cultural Significance: Gwalior, home to the Gwalior Gharana and synonymous with musicians like Baiju Bawra and Tansen was acknowledged for being a popular destination for learning Indian classical music from musicians in the Guru-Shishya Parampara.
[B] Kozhikode’s Literary Excellence
- Category: Kozhikode, situated in Kerala, made its mark in the ‘Literature’ category, highlighting its literary achievements.
- Literary Legacy: Kozhikode carried the distinction of of being home to over 500 libraries.
About UNESCO Creative Cities Network
| Purpose |
To promote cooperation among cities for cultural and creative industries development |
| Initiation |
Established by UNESCO in 2004 |
| Seven Categories |
Design, Film, Gastronomy, Literature, Media Arts, Music, and Crafts & Folk Art |
| Member Cities |
Over 250 cities from around the world |
| Objectives |
Foster innovation, cultural diversity, and sustainable urban development |
| Activities |
Collaborative projects, cultural events, and initiatives |
| Selection Process |
Cities apply and are designated by UNESCO based on criteria related to creativity |
| Network Coordination |
UNESCO provides coordination and support |
| Impact |
Enhances cities’ cultural identity, economy, and international visibility |
| Other Indian Cities in UCCN |
- Srinagar- Crafts and Folk Arts (2022)
- Jaipur- Crafts and Folk Arts (2015)
- Varanasi- Creative city of Music (2015)
- Chennai- Creative city of Music (2017)
- Mumbai- Film (2019)
- Hyderabad- Gastronomy/Food (2019)
|
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CAR-T Cell Therapy
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- India has achieved a significant milestone in the field of cancer treatment with the approval of NexCAR19, its first indigenous CAR-T Cell Therapy, by the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO).
- Developed by ImmunoACT, an incubated company of IIT Bombay, NexCAR19 is set to transform cancer treatment in India and make it more affordable.
What is CAR-T Cell Therapy?
- Revolutionary Approach: CAR-T cell therapy involves modifying T-cells, a type of white blood cell, into potent cancer-fighting cells.
- Targeting Cancer: These genetically enhanced cells are reintroduced into the patient’s body, where they identify and eliminate cancer cells, particularly effective against blood cancers like leukemia and lymphomas.
- Game-Changer: Unlike chemotherapy or immunotherapy, CAR-T therapy offers the potential for a cure and lifelong benefits, making it a transformative treatment option.
NexCAR19: India’s Indigenously Developed CAR-T Therapy
- NexCAR19 is designed to target cancer cells carrying the CD19 protein, a marker on cancer cells, enhancing precision in treatment.
- India joins a select group of nations with its own CAR-T and gene therapy platform, reducing dependence on imports.
- Initially approved for patients aged 15 and above with B-cell lymphomas who did not respond to standard treatments, leading to relapse or recurrence.
Effectiveness and Unique Features
- Approximately 70% of patients respond to NexCAR19 treatment, with some achieving complete remission.
- Lab and animal studies indicate lower drug-related toxicities, including reduced neurotoxicity and Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS).
- Trials for paediatric patients are underway at Tata Memorial Hospital, ensuring broader applicability.
Availability and Affordability
- ImmunoACT is in the process of securing licenses and partnering with hospitals, including Tata Memorial, Nanavati, Fortis, and Jaslok, across multiple cities.
- CAR-T therapy is expected to be available in a matter of weeks to a few months, pending final government approvals.
- Initially priced at Rs 30-40 lakh, ImmunoACT aims to eventually reduce the cost to Rs 10-20 lakh, making the therapy more accessible.
- Approval by regulatory agencies like CDSCO should lead to insurance coverage, but the extent may vary, and discussions with insurers and the government are ongoing.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Haemoglobin , RBCs
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- A groundbreaking study published in Nature has unveiled an unexpected revelation: haemoglobin is not exclusive to RBCs.
- Scientists from China have discovered that chondrocytes, the cells responsible for cartilage production, also produce haemoglobin, which appears vital for their survival.
- For decades, textbooks have taught that haemoglobin resides solely in red blood cells (RBCs), responsible for making blood red and transporting oxygen.
| Cartilage: A tough, flexible connective tissue found throughout the human body, providing structural support and reducing friction between bones. |
About Haemoglobin
| Fact |
Description |
| Definition |
A protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues and organs. |
| Molecular Structure |
Composed of four subunits: two alpha-globin chains and two beta-globin chains. |
| Iron-Binding |
Each subunit contains an iron atom that binds to oxygen, forming oxy-hemoglobin. |
| Oxygen Transport |
Carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and releases oxygen for cellular respiration. |
| Color |
Gives red blood cells their red color when oxygenated and appears bluish when deoxygenated. |
| Carbon Dioxide Transport |
Aids in transporting carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions from tissues back to the lungs for exhalation. |
| Hemoglobin Variants |
Different types of hemoglobin, with HbA being the most common. Variants can result from genetic mutations. |
| Hemoglobin Levels |
Vary by individual and are measured in grams per deciliter (g/dL). Normal levels range from 12 to 18 g/dL. |
| Hemoglobin Disorders |
Genetic disorders like sickle cell disease and thalassemia are characterized by abnormal hemoglobin production. |
| Iron Metabolism |
Adequate iron levels are essential for hemoglobin synthesis. Iron is a key component of heme in hemoglobin. |
| Fetal Hemoglobin |
Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) has a higher oxygen affinity and aids in oxygen transfer from mother to fetus. |
| Hemoglobin Tests |
Used for diagnosing anemia, assessing health, and monitoring medical conditions. |
| Oxygen Saturation |
Measured as the percentage of hemoglobin molecules bound to oxygen, often using a pulse oximeter. |
New Breakthrough: Haemoglobin Bodies (Hedy)
- Pathologists in China researching bone development, stumbled upon spherical structures resembling RBCs within chondrocytes.
- These structures, termed “haemoglobin bodies” or Hedy, contained haemoglobin and formed large, membraneless blobs, akin to phase separation in oil and water.
Functionality of Hedy
- Essential for Survival: Experiments on genetically modified mice revealed that chondrocytes without haemoglobin experienced cell death, emphasizing Hedy’s vital role.
- Oxygen Transport: Similar to RBCs, haemoglobin in chondrocytes likely serves as an oxygen store and supplier, preventing hypoxic stress (low-oxygen conditions) in cartilage cells.
Haemoglobin’s Broader Implications
- New Research Avenues: The discovery bridges gaps between haematology and skeletal biology, paving the way for further exploration into the relationship between haemoglobin and stem cell fate in growth plates.
- Potential for Joint Disease Insights: Functional haemoglobin in cartilage raises possibilities of its involvement in joint diseases and bone deformities, offering fresh insights into disease mechanisms.
Try this PYQ:
Excessive release of the pollutant carbon monoxide (CO) into the air may produce a condition in which oxygen supply in the human body decrease. What causes this condition?
(a) When inhaled into the human body, CO is converted into CO2
(b) The inhaled CO has much higher affinity for haemoglobin as compared to oxygen
(c) The inhaled CO destroys the chemical structure of hemoglobin
(d) The inhaled CO adversely affects the respiratory center in the brain
Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Akhaura-Agartala Rail Link
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Akhaura-Agartala rail connection has been launched. After nearly seven and a half decades, Bangladesh and northeastern India are set to re-establish rail connectivity through Tripura.
Akhaura-Agartala Rail Link
- This rail link stretches over 12.24 km, with a 6.78 km dual gauge rail line in Bangladesh and 5.46 km in Tripura.
- Akhaura junction, located in Bangladesh’s Brahmanbaria district, has historical ties with India’s northeastern region, dating back to the colonial era.
- The connection was originally constructed in the late 19th century to cater to Assam’s tea industry’s demand for access to the Chittagong port.
- The project gained momentum in 2010 when then-PM Manmohan Singh signed an agreement to rebuild the rail link during PM Sheikh Hasina’s visit to Delhi.
Significance of the project
- Multilevel connectivity: Akhaura is currently well-connected by rail, river, and road to several industrial areas in Bangladesh, including Dhaka, Chittagong, and Sylhet.
- NE connectivity: The rail link to Agartala is expected to enhance connections between India’s northeast and Chittagong, facilitating the transportation of goods.
- Shortened Routes: The Akhaura link has the potential to significantly reduce travel time and distance for trains travelling to Tripura, southern Assam, Mizoram, Kolkata, and the rest of India, compared to the longer route via Guwahati and Jalpaiguri stations.
- Unique Event: This event is unique as it marks the first direct rail connection between Akhaura and Agartala, with the first trains anticipated to run between Nishchintapur and Gangasagar stations.
Commercial benefits
- Trade Expansion: The rail link is expected to boost India-Bangladesh trade in various sectors, including agriculture products, tea, sugar, construction items, iron and steel, and consumer goods, while also fostering people-to-people relationships.
- Expanded Connectivity: The Akhaura-Agartala rail route is seen as a significant initiative to enhance India’s connectivity with Southeast Asian regions, holding potential for regional economic growth.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mozambique LNG Project
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Union Minister for Petroleum and Natural Gas recently undertook a significant diplomatic mission to review the $20 billion liquefied natural gas (LNG) project in Mozambique.
- This project, situated in the northern Cabo Delgado province, holds immense strategic importance for India’s quest for energy self-sufficiency.
Mozambique LNG Project
- Discovery in 2010: The project originated in 2010 with the discovery of substantial natural gas reserves off the northern Mozambique coast.
- Resource Abundance: The Area 1 block holds around 75 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of recoverable gas, promising a resource life of about 120 years with an initial production rate of 12.88 million tonnes of LNG per year.
- Indian Involvement: Three Indian public sector undertakings (PSUs) hold a 30% stake in the Mozambique LNG project.
- Strategic Location: Mozambique’s geographical proximity to India’s west coast, with numerous LNG terminals, enhances its significance as a preferred source for LNG supply.
- Meeting Indian Demand: India aims to increase the share of natural gas in its energy mix, with LNG imports playing a crucial role. India currently imports approximately 50% of its natural gas needs.
Challenges and Recent Developments
- Operational Halt: TotalEnergies suspended project operations due to security concerns in April 2021.
- Humanitarian Assessment: A humanitarian mission was conducted by Jean-Christophe Rufin in December 2022, recommending actions to address local issues.
- Indian Diplomatic Efforts: India has actively sought to engage project partners and restart the project since May 2023.
- Geopolitical Significance: India’s reliance on Qatar as a major LNG supplier faces challenges, making the Mozambique LNG project strategically important.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Moon's Age
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- For years, the moon’s age was believed to be around 4.42 billion years, but recent research challenges this notion.
- A study has used advanced technology called atom probe tomography (APT) to evaluate lunar sample 72255, which contained 4.2 billion-year-old zircon crystals.
Unveiling the Moon’s True Age
- Zircon’s Significance: Zircon is not only the oldest mineral on Earth but also holds crucial information about the formation of our planet.
- Lead Clustering Analysis: Using nanoscale spatial resolution, the scientists analyzed the clustering of lead within the samples, a common method to estimate the age of zircon in rocks.
- Revised Age: The study concludes that the moon likely formed approximately 4.46 billion years ago, within the first 110 million years of the solar system’s existence.
- Comparing Earth’s Age: Earth is estimated to be between 4.5 and 4.6 billion years old, making the moon slightly younger at approximately 4.46 billion years old.
Implications of Zircon and Lunar Formation
- Giant Impact Hypothesis: The researchers propose the giant impact hypothesis, suggesting that a celestial body named Theia, possibly Mars-sized, collided with Earth during its formation. This collision ejected debris, which coalesced to form the moon.
- Lunar Magma Ocean: This collision led to the formation of the Lunar Magma Ocean, influencing the moon’s interior composition.
- Preserved Zircon: Subsequent lunar surface bombardments reworked the earliest crust, leaving some zircon crystals modified and others preserved. Identifying these preserved zircon crystals provided insights into the moon’s age.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nanostructured Hard-Carbon Florets (NCF)
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Scientists at IIT Bombay have achieved a groundbreaking development by creating a material known as Nanostructured Hard-Carbon Florets (NCF).
- This innovative material boasts an unparalleled solar-thermal conversion efficiency, surpassing 87%.
What is Nanostructured Hard-Carbon Florets (NCF)?
- NCF Development: It is a material capable of absorbing and storing an exceptional amount of heat energy.
- Stunning Efficiency: It exhibits an extraordinary solar-thermal conversion efficiency of over 87%, absorbing more than 97% of sunlight’s ultraviolet, visible, and infrared components.
- NCF Manufacturing: The material is manufactured through chemical vapor deposition, making it easily scalable and suitable for large-scale production.
Science behind NCF’s Efficiency
- NCF’s success lies in its unique structure, resembling interconnected carbon cones.
- This structure combines high photon thermalization (efficiently converting light into heat) with low phonon thermal conductivity (retaining heat without loss).
Applications of NCF
- Wide Range: NCF can be applied to diverse surfaces, including paper, elastomer, metal, and terracotta clay, making it adaptable for various contexts.
- Versatility: The generated heat can be efficiently transferred to air or water, making NCF ideal for smoke-free space heating, particularly beneficial in cold regions like Leh and Ladakh.
- Eco-Friendly and Cost-Effective: Unlike conventional coatings based on heavy metals like chromium (Cr) or nickel (Ni), NCF coatings do not harm the environment
Beyond Solar Thermal Conversion
- Heating Rooms and Spaces: Hollow copper tubes coated with NCF can heat air to over 72 degrees Celsius, demonstrating potential applications in space heating.
- Efficient Water Vapor Conversion: NCFs have achieved an astonishing water vapor conversion efficiency of 186%, surpassing commercial solar stills.
- Sustainable Energy Solution: This groundbreaking technology provides a green solution to the global energy crisis, supporting the transition to sustainable energy sources.
- Commercialization and Recognition: The project is on the path to commercialization through the establishment of a company at IIT Bombay’s Society for Innovation and Entrepreneurship. It has received accolades and support, highlighting its potential to revolutionize the solar-thermal energy market in India and contribute to decarbonization.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kathaprasangam
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Kathaprasangam began as a medium to narrate stories of oppression, untouchability, and human resilience.
- Today, it finds a place of relevance and renewal in the digital age, captivating audiences, both young and old.
Kathaprasangam
- Kathaprasangam is a stage art form of Kerala, which was popular in the mid-twentieth century.
- Kathaprasangam owes its inception to Kumaranasan (1873-1924), a Malayalam poet who aimed to educate and inspire underprivileged sections of society.
- He sought to propagate the principles of Sree Narayana Guru and his poems.
- It started a century ago, touching on themes of oppression, untouchability, and human triumphs.
- It uses a blend of prose and song, accompanied by a harmonium and tabla, to retell stories.
- Young performers compete in this art form, earning marks that influence their promotions.
- It is celebrated for its ability to communicate with urgency and directness, addressing societal issues.
Relevance in Modern Context
- Kathaprasangam, born out of the fight against casteism and superstitions, holds even more significance today as religious identities are asserted with violence, posing a threat to societal harmony.
- While newer forms of entertainment have gained popularity, they still attract young audiences eager to learn and share stories using new media platforms.
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