From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
An exhibition, heritage walk, and talk will be held in Kolkata to commemorate the bicentenary year of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the last king of Awadh.
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
Mirza Wajid Ali Shah (30 July 1822 – 1 September 1887) was the eleventh and final King of Awadh, reigning from 13 February 1847 to 11 February 1856.
He is remembered as a poet, playwright, dancer, and patron of the arts who made significant contributions during his rule.
Reign and fall
Ascension to the Throne: Wajid Ali Shah became the King of Awadh in February 1847, assuming the position during a period of decline for the kingdom.
British Annexation: The British East India Company annexed Awadh on 11 February 1856, just two days before the ninth anniversary of Wajid Ali Shah’s coronation. He was subsequently exiled to Garden Reach in Metiabruz, near Kolkata, living on a pension.
Patron of the Arts
Contributions to Music: Wajid Ali Shah was a generous patron of music and a talented composer. He nurtured the Lucknow Gharana of Kathak dance and enriched the light classical form of thumri. He composed ghazals and introduced new ragas, leaving a lasting impact on Hindustani music.
Kathak Dance: Wajid Ali Shah’s patronage elevated Kathak dance in Lucknow. He emphasized artistic expression, incorporating drama, emotion, and literature. The king popularized Kathak as a court dance and made it accessible to the common people.
Hindustani Theatre: The king established the Jogia Jashan, a grand pageant, and staged Rahas (dance-dramas) filled with poetry, lyrical compositions, and Kathak performances. His contributions laid the foundation for the development of Hindustani theatre.
Literary Pursuits
Prose and Poetry: Wajid Ali Shah was a prolific writer in both Persian and Urdu. His works covered various subjects, including history, literature, and personal reflections. Notable works include “Huzn-i-Akhtar,” an autobiographical piece, and “Bani,” a treatise on music and dance.
Patronage of Writers: The king patronized numerous poets and writers in his court, including Mirza Ghalib. He granted pensions to renowned literary figures and encouraged the production of works that reflected the culture and life of the era.
Exile Years and Legacy (1856-1887)
Exile in Metiabruz: After losing his kingdom, Wajid Ali Shah settled in Metiabruz near Kolkata. He created a miniature version of Lucknow and maintained his lavish lifestyle. Matiya Burj, a magnificent complex, served as a reminder of his beloved city.
Enduring Impact: Wajid Ali Shah’s compositions, including his famous thumri “Babul Mora Naihar Chhooto Jaay,” remain influential and have been performed by various artists. His contributions to music, dance, literature, and theatre continue to shape the cultural landscape, preserving his legacy.
Conclusion
Mirza Wajid Ali Shah, the last King of Awadh, reigned from 1847 to 1856 before being exiled.
His patronage of the arts, including music, dance, theatre, and literature, left an indelible mark on the cultural heritage of Awadh.
Despite the challenges he faced and the loss of his kingdom, Wajid Ali Shah’s artistic endeavors and enduring legacy continue to inspire and enrich the region’s cultural identity.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rafale fighter jets
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
DAC Approval for Rafale: The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) cleared proposals to procure 26 Rafale Marine fighter jets and three Scorpene submarines for the Indian Navy.
Rafale Marine Fighter Jets
Naval Variant: Rafale Marine fighters are the naval version of the Rafale jets, with the Indian Air Force operating 36 of them.
Advanced Multirole Fighters: Manufactured by Dassault Aviation, the Rafales are advanced twin-engine, multirole fighter jets equipped with modern sensors, radar, and the latest weapon systems.
India-Specific Enhancements: The jets feature India-specific enhancements and have the capability to carry out various missions.
Differences in Marine Version: The naval variant has foldable wings, a longer airframe for carrier landings, a tail hook for arrested landing, and reinforced landing gear suitable for aircraft carriers’ conditions.
Expanded Weapon Capabilities: Rafale Marine jets can carry a wider range of weapons, including anti-ship and air-to-surface missiles, and have specialized radar for maritime operations.
Current Fleet and Need for Additional Fighters
MiG-29Ks: The Indian Navy currently operates MiG-29Ks from INS Vikramaditya aircraft carrier, which are carrier-based multirole fighter aircraft.
Procurement Requirement: With some MiG-29Ks expected to retire in a decade and the Navy having two operational carriers, additional deck-based fighters were needed to meet operational requirements until the indigenous Twin Engine Deck-Based Fighter (TEDBF) is developed.
Criteria and Selection: Only Boeing’s F/A-18 E/F Super Hornet and Dassault Aviation’s Rafale-M met the Navy’s criteria, with Rafale-M having an advantage due to common spares and support with the Indian Air Force’s Rafale jets.
Export and Usage of Rafale Jets
Importance for France: The Rafale is a key component of France’s nuclear deterrence capabilities.
Orders and Deliveries: France has ordered a total of 192 Rafales, with 153 already delivered by the end of 2022.
Future Orders: Plans for a further order of 30 fighters and additional Rafales to offset those sold to Greece and Croatia are in the pipeline.
Flight and Operational Hours: The aircraft has accumulated a total of 405,000 flight hours, including 63,500 operational hours flown by French pilots since 2007.
Conclusion
The Rafale Marine jets, with their advanced features and expanded weapon capabilities, will strengthen the Navy’s deck-based fighter fleet.
This procurement decision marks another step towards bolstering India’s defense preparedness and self-reliance in defense manufacturing.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AT-1 Bond
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Subscription Disappointment: State Bank of India (SBI)’s additional tier-1 (AT-1) bond issue saw a very low response from investors, raising ₹3,101 crore against an issue size of ₹10,000 crore.
Market Sentiment Impact: The lackluster response is expected to dampen market sentiment and make fundraising more challenging for other PSU banks, potentially leading to delays in their fundraising plans.
What are AT1 Bonds?
Definition: AT-1 bonds, or Additional Tier-1 bonds, are unsecured, perpetual bonds issued by banks to strengthen their core capital base in compliance with Basel-III norms.
Complex Hybrid Instruments: AT-1 bonds are complex instruments suited for institutions and knowledgeable investors who can analyze their terms and determine if the higher rates compensate for the higher risks involved.
Face Value: Each AT-1 bond typically carries a face value of ₹10 lakh.
Acquisition Routes: Retail investors can acquire these bonds through initial private placement offers by banks or by purchasing already-traded AT-1 bonds in the secondary market based on broker recommendations.
Key Features and Importance of AT1 Bonds
Perpetual Nature: AT-1 bonds do not have a maturity date. Instead, they include call options that allow banks to redeem them after a specific period, usually five or ten years. Banks can choose to pay only interest indefinitely without redeeming the bonds.
Flexibility in Interest Payments: Banks issuing AT-1 bonds can skip interest payouts or even reduce the bonds’ face value if their capital ratios fall below certain thresholds specified in the offer terms.
Regulatory Intervention: If a bank faces financial distress, the RBI has the authority to ask the bank to cancel its outstanding AT-1 bonds without consulting the investors.
Back2Basics: Basel Norms
Basel is a city in Switzerland and the headquarters of the Bureau of International Settlement (BIS).
The BIS fosters cooperation among central banks to achieve financial stability and common standards of banking regulations.
Basel guidelines are broad supervisory standards formulated by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS).
The Basel accord is a set of agreements by the BCBS that primarily focuses on risks to banks and the financial system.
The purpose of the Basel accord is to ensure that financial institutions maintain sufficient capital to meet obligations and absorb unexpected losses.
India has accepted the Basel accords for its banking system.
Basel I
Basel II
Basel III
Year Introduced
1988
2004
2010
Focus
Credit Risk
Credit, Market, Operational Risks
Capital, Leverage, Funding, Liquidity
Capital Requirement
Fixed at 8% of Risk-Weighted Assets (RWA)
Minimum Capital Adequacy Requirement of 8% of Risk Assets
Strengthening capital requirements
Pillars
–
1. Capital Adequacy Requirements 2. Supervisory Review 3. Market Discipline
–
Objective
Define capital and risk weights for banks
Encourage better risk management and disclosure
Promote a more resilient banking system
Implementation in India
Adopted in 1999
Yet to be fully implemented
March 2019 (postponed to March 2020 due to COVID-19)
Key Parameters
–
–
Capital: 12.9% capital adequacy ratio, Tier 1 and Tier 2 capital ratios, capital conservation buffer, and counter-cyclical buffer; Leverage: minimum 3% leverage rate; Funding and Liquidity: LCR and NSFR ratios
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Project-75, Scorpene Submarines
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Procurement Announcement: The three additional Scorpene submarines will be procured under the Buy (Indian) category. The Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL) in Mumbai will build the submarines.
Scorpene Submarines and Project-75
Project-75: MDL is already building six Scorpene class submarines under Project-75, with technology transfer from the French defense firm.
Commissioned Submarines: Five out of the six Scorpene submarines have been commissioned, with the final one expected to be commissioned early next year.
Delays and Challenges: Project-75 faced significant delays, as the first submarine was originally scheduled for delivery in 2012.
Need for Additional Submarines
Addressing Delays and Fleet Strength: The procurement of three additional submarines is necessary to compensate for the delayed deliveries under Project-75 and strengthen India’s submarine fleet.
Current Fleet Status: The Indian Navy currently operates 16 conventional submarines, but it needs a minimum of 18 submarines to carry out its full spectrum of operations.
Refit Challenges: Around 30% of submarines are under refit at any given time, further reducing the number of operational submarines.
Employment Opportunities: Procuring additional submarines with higher indigenous content will create employment opportunities and enhance MDL’s submarine construction capabilities.
Capabilities of Scorpene Submarines
Attack Submarines: Scorpene submarines are designed as conventional attack submarines to target and sink enemy naval vessels.
Weapons and Surveillance: They can launch a variety of torpedoes and missiles, equipped with surveillance and intelligence-gathering systems.
Specifications: Scorpene submarines are approximately 220 feet long, with a height of about 40 feet. They have a top speed of 11 knots when surfaced and 20 knots when submerged.
Diesel-Electric Propulsion: These submarines use diesel-electric propulsion systems, providing an endurance of around 50 days.
Comparison with Nuclear Submarines
India’s Current Nuclear Submarines: India currently operates two nuclear-powered submarines (SSBMs) of the Arihant class.
Endurance and Speed: Nuclear submarines have theoretically unlimited endurance and can operate for up to 30 years without refuelling. They can also achieve higher speeds.
Cost and Expertise: Nuclear submarines are expensive and require specialized expertise to operate.
Advancements in Conventional Submarines: Diesel-electric technology has significantly improved the range and stealth of conventional submarines.
Air Independent Propulsion (AIP): Retrofitting Scorpene submarines with AIP systems will enhance their endurance and stealth capabilities.
Conclusion
India’s decision to procure three additional Scorpene submarines enhances its naval capabilities and strengthens the indigenous manufacturing sector.
The addition of these submarines will help meet the requirements of a growing fleet and improve operational readiness.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD)
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Researchers in India are collaborating to develop an affordable treatment for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), a rare and incurable genetic disorder.
The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Jodhpur, is collaborating to develop affordable therapeutics for DMD.
What is DMD?
DMD is a progressive muscle degeneration disorder caused by alterations in the dystrophin protein.
It is the most common and fatal type of muscular dystrophy, primarily affecting boys.
It leads to progressive muscle degeneration, weakness, and eventually wheelchair dependency, assisted ventilation, and premature death.
Symptoms and Impact of DMD
Muscle Weakness: Muscle weakness is the primary symptom of DMD, initially affecting proximal muscles and later distal limb muscles. Difficulties in jumping, running, and walking are common.
Other Symptoms: Enlargement of calves, a waddling gait, lumbar lordosis (inward curve of the spine), and later heart and respiratory muscle involvement. Pulmonary function impairment and respiratory failure may occur.
Current Challenges
Costly treatment: Current therapeutic options for DMD are minimal and expensive, with costs reaching up to Rs 2-3 crore per child per year.
Limited Treatment Options: The treatments are predominantly imported, making them financially unattainable for most families.
The IIT Jodhpur researchers are working on enhancing the efficacy of AON-based therapeutics.
AONs can mask specific exons in a gene sequence, addressing the challenges faced in DMD patients.
Personalized medicine is necessary due to the variations in mutations among DMD patients.
[B] Clinical Trials and Molecular Tags
The research team has received approval from the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI) to conduct multi-centric clinical trials on AON-based exon skipping in DMD patients.
They are also working on reducing the therapeutic dose of AON through new molecular tags.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Siachen Glacier
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
NJ 9842 vs. 5Q 131 05 084: Exploring India-Pakistan’s last demarcated point and the Siachen glacier’s assigned number by the Geological Survey of India (GSI).
Lack of recognition: Despite the historical importance, the first Siachen survey remains overlooked by scholars and mountaineers.
About Siachen
Location: Siachen Glacier is located in the eastern Karakoram range in the Himalayas, just northeast of the point where the Line of Control between India and Pakistan ends.
Significance: As the second-longest glacier in the world’s non-polar areas, Siachen Glacier stretches for 76 km, holding historical and strategic importance.
Geographical and Political Context
Border dispute: Both India and Pakistan claim sovereignty over the entire Siachen region, leading to intermittent conflict since 1984.
Military presence: The region houses the highest battleground on Earth, with permanent military outposts at altitudes above 6,000 m (20,000 ft).
International recognition: Efforts to establish a transboundary peace park and nominate the region for the World Heritage List have been made.
Why discuss Siachen?
Human casualties: Harsh weather conditions have claimed more lives than combat, with both India and Pakistan sustaining significant losses.
Failed demilitarization attempts: Despite the desire to disengage from the costly military outposts, the lack of official recognition of the current line of control has hindered progress.
Mountaineering expeditions and awareness: Limited expeditions have been allowed to showcase the dominance of Indian troops and raise awareness about the region.
The First Siachen Survey
V.K. Raina’s leadership: In June 1958, V.K. Raina, an Indian geologist, conducted the inaugural Siachen survey.
Unforeseen conflict: The peaceful region surveyed in 1958 became a disputed area between India and Pakistan, leading to Operation Meghdoot in 1984.
Geologists’ Himalayan Exploration
Previous expeditions: Raina’s involvement in the Saser Kangri expedition and the geological survey of the Leh-Manali Highway.
International Geophysical Year: The significance of 1958 as a year of geological studies worldwide.
GSI’s limited resources: GSI’s plan to study the Himalayan glacier systems, assigning Raina the responsibility of surveying five glaciers in Ladakh.
Raina’s Journey and Findings
Expedition details: Raina’s team’s journey from Calcutta to Siachen, traveling by train, bus, and foot.
Glacier characteristics: Raina’s observations of the Siachen glacier, including the appearance of ice caves and the Nubra River’s flow.
Survey procedures: Mapping the snout region, establishing reference points, and capturing photographs for future analysis.
Pakistan’s Response
No objections raised: Despite the expedition’s significance and publicity, Pakistan did not lodge any protests or objections against India’s presence on the glacier during the survey.
Reasons for indifference: The lack of objections can be attributed to the mutual demarcation under the Karachi ceasefire agreement and the absence of perceived threats or intentions of occupation.
Challenging Pakistan’s Claims
Significance of the expedition: The 1958 GSI survey holds immense historical and geostrategic importance as it contradicts Pakistan’s early claims to the Siachen glacier.
Pakistan’s delayed claim: It was only 25 years later, in 1983, that Pakistan formally extended the Line of Control, staking its claim to the region, violating the Simla Agreement.
India’s response: India pre-empted Pakistan’s actions by occupying the strategic Saltoro Heights in April 1984, in response to Pakistan’s attempts to claim the Siachen glacier.
Conclusion
Debunking myths: The survey establishes India’s early presence on the glacier and counters Pakistan’s claims.
Understanding the geostrategic implications: The survey’s role in shaping subsequent events in the Siachen conflict is vital to comprehend the significance of this expedition.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chandrayaan-3
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is set to launch the Chandrayaan 3 mission on July 14 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
This mission follows the Chandrayaan 2, which encountered technical issues and crash-landed on the moon in September 2019.
Chandrayaan-3: Mission Details and Landing
Launch Vehicle: Chandrayaan 3 will be launched aboard the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III) rocket.
Landing Site: The spacecraft is expected to land near the moon’s South Pole.
Operational Duration: Chandrayaan 3 will operate on the lunar surface for one lunar day, equivalent to 14 Earth days.
Significance of the Lunar South Pole
Scientific Interest: The lunar South Pole is a compelling location due to the presence of towering massifs and permanently shadowed craters that may contain volatile compounds and water-ice deposits.
Planetary Formation Insights: Studying the South Pole-Aitken Basin’s age and impact melt could provide insights into planetary formation.
Valuable Resource: Volatile deposits at the South Pole could serve as a valuable resource for future exploration and astrobiology investigations.
Solar Power Potential: Some mountain peaks near the pole receive extended periods of sunlight, making them potential sites for continuous solar power supply.
Fossil Record: Craters at the South Pole may contain a fossil record of the early Solar System, providing valuable scientific data.
Choosing the South Pole over the North Pole
Permanent Darkness: The larger shadowy region at the lunar South Pole, which remains in permanent darkness, makes it suitable for studying unilluminated areas.
Aitken Basin Edge: The South Pole is located at the edge of the Aitken Basin, the largest impact basin in the Solar System.
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter: NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter collects data over the South Pole region, enhancing the scientific understanding of the area.
Longer Lunar Day-Night Cycle: The Moon’s longer rotation cycle (around 30 days) results in extended periods of day and night, making the South Pole more accessible.
Trajectory and Landing Procedure
Similar to Chandrayaan 2: Chandrayaan 3 will follow a trajectory similar to Chandrayaan 2, utilizing a propulsion module to orbit Earth before heading to the moon.
Lunar Orbit and Landing: Once within the moon’s gravitational pull, the module will lower itself to a 100 x 100 km circular orbit. The lander will then detach and descend to the lunar surface.
Scientific Payloads
The Lander: The lander, named ‘Vikram,’ will deploy four scientific payloads to study the moon’s surface temperature and subterranean characteristics.
The Rover: The rover, named ‘Pragyan,’ will conduct chemical and visual tests as it roves around the lunar surface.
Objectives of Chandrayaan 3
Safe Landing Demonstration: Chandrayaan 3 aims to demonstrate safe and soft landing on the lunar surface.
Rover Roving Capability: The mission will showcase the capability of the rover to traverse the lunar surface.
In-situ Scientific Experiments: Chandrayaan 3 will conduct in-situ scientific experiments on the moon.
Development and Delay
Development Phase: The development phase for Chandrayaan 3 began in January 2020, with scientists and engineers working on the spacecraft’s design and assembly.
Manufacturing Delays: The COVID-19 pandemic caused delays in the manufacturing and testing of the propulsion systems.
Launch Schedule: The launch, initially planned for early 2021, was postponed due to the pandemic. The spacecraft is now set to launch in July 2023.
Importance of Chandrayaan 3
India’s Third Lunar Mission: Chandrayaan 3 is India’s third lunar mission and the second attempt at a soft landing on the moon.
Renewed Interest in Lunar Exploration: In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in exploring the moon following Chandrayaan-1’s discovery of water on the lunar surface.
Conclusion
Chandrayaan 3 represents India’s continuous efforts to explore the moon and achieve a soft landing.
The mission’s success will contribute to scientific advancements and further our understanding of the lunar surface.
As space agencies around the world plan future lunar missions, humanity’s return to the moon seems imminent after more than five decades.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Anthropocene Epoch
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
AWG’s Proposal: The Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) proposes a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene.
Reference Point: The unique reference point for the Anthropocene is Crawford Lake near Toronto in Canada’s Ontario Province.
Understanding the Anthropocene Epoch
Coined Term: The Anthropocene epoch was first coined by Nobel Prize-winning chemist Paul Crutzen and biology professor Eugene Stoermer in 2000.
Human Impact: The Anthropocene represents the geological time interval characterized by radical changes in the Earth’s ecosystem due to human impact, particularly since the onset of the Industrial Revolution.
Environmental Changes: Numerous phenomena associated with the Anthropocene include global warming, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, mass-scale soil erosion, deadly heat waves, and environmental deterioration.
Geological Strata: The AWG’s website states that these changes are reflected in a distinctive body of geological strata, with the potential to be preserved into the far future.
Evidence from Crawford Lake
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Selected Site: Crawford Lake in Canada’s Ontario Province was chosen by geologists for examination over 11 other potential sites.
Preserved Sediments: The lake’s layers of sediment have preserved the annual impact of human activities on the Earth’s soil, atmosphere, and biology.
Shift in Mid-20th Century: The analysis of Crawford Lake’s bottom sediments reveals a clear shift from the mid-20th century, surpassing the bounds of the previous Holocene epoch.
Captured Fallout: Over the years, the lake’s sediments have captured the fallouts of large-scale burning of fossil fuels, explosion of nuclear weapons, and dumping of plastic and fertilizers on land and in water bodies.
Debate and Disagreements
Scientific Community Disagreements: Not all geologists agree on the reality of the Anthropocene epoch.
Debate Points: Disagreements revolve around the precise start of the epoch, whether it has already begun, and the sufficiency of evidence to prove its advent.
The Geological Time Scale
Divisions and Categories: The Earth’s geological time scale is divided into five broad categories: eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
Fossil-Based Boundaries: Boundaries on the geological time scale correspond to the origination or extinction of specific types of fossils.
Current Classification: Currently, we are in the Phanerozoic eon, Cenozoic era, Quaternary period, Holocene epoch, and Meghalayan age.
AWG’s Findings and Next Steps
Selection of Crawford Lake: Crawford Lake was chosen due to its preserved sediment layers that provide an annual record of human impact.
Overwhelming Effects: Distinct and multiple signals in the lake’s sediments starting around 1950 demonstrate that the effects of human activity overwhelm the Earth system.
Unique Global ‘Fingerprint’: The presence of plutonium resulting from nuclear weapon detonations serves as a stark indicator of humanity’s dominant influence on the planet.
Approval Process: The AWG plans to present a proposal to the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) and the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) for approval.
Final Approval: The final approval is expected to be granted at the 37th International Geological Congress in Busan, South Korea, next year.
Conclusion
Compelling Evidence: Geologists’ examination of Crawford Lake provides compelling evidence for the existence of the Anthropocene epoch.
Challenging Conventional Timeline: The proposal for the Anthropocene epoch challenges the conventional understanding of the Earth’s official geological timeline.
Future Determination: Further discussions and approvals by international geological bodies will determine the recognition and acceptance of the Anthropocene epoch.
Back2Basics: Geological Time Scale
The Geological Time Scale is a system used by geologists and palaeontologists to divide Earth’s history into distinct time intervals based on significant geological and biological events.
It provides a framework for organizing and understanding the vast expanse of time since the formation of the Earth, approximately 4.6 billion years ago, up to the present day.
The Scale is divided into several hierarchical units, including eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
Here is a simplified overview of the major divisions:
(1) Eon: The largest division of time on the Geological Time Scale. The history of Earth is typically divided into four eons:
Hadean Eon: Represents the earliest stage of Earth’s history, from its formation to around 4 billion years ago.
Archean Eon: Covers the period from around 4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago. It includes the formation of the Earth’s crust, the emergence of life, and the development of the first continents.
Proterozoic Eon: Encompasses the time between 2.5 billion and 541 million years ago. It includes significant evolutionary developments, such as the emergence of complex multicellular life.
Phanerozoic Eon: The current eon, spanning from 541 million years ago to the present. It is further divided into eras.
(2) Era: The second-largest division of time, encompassing longer periods of geological history within an eon. The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three eras:
Paleozoic Era: Covers the time from 541 million to 252 million years ago. It is known for the diversification of life, including the appearance of complex marine organisms, fish, insects, and the first terrestrial plants.
Mesozoic Era: Spans from 252 million to 66 million years ago. It is often referred to as the “Age of Reptiles” and includes the dominance of dinosaurs, as well as the rise of mammals and birds.
Cenozoic Era: Extends from 66 million years ago to the present. It is sometimes called the “Age of Mammals” and includes the diversification and proliferation of mammals, the appearance of humans, and the development of modern ecosystems.
(3) Period: A subdivision of an era, representing a distinct interval of time characterized by specific geological and biological events. For example:
The Paleozoic Era is divided into periods such as the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian.
The Mesozoic Era is divided into periods including the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.
The Cenozoic Era is divided into periods such as the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary.
(4) Epoch: A smaller subdivision of a period, representing a shorter interval of time. Epochs are defined by more localized geological and biological changes.
(5) Age: The smallest division of time on the Geological Time Scale. Ages represent relatively brief periods, often defined by specific fossil or rock layers.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Electoral bonds
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
Electoral bonds have emerged as the primary source of donations for political parties in India, with the BJP securing the majority share.
A report by the Association of Democratic Reforms reveals that between 2016-17 and 2021-22, national and regional parties received a total donation of ₹9,188.35 crore through electoral bonds.
The BJP received ₹5,271.97 crore, while other national parties collectively received ₹1,783.93 crore.
Political Donations under Electoral bonds scheme
Breakdown of donations: Over the six-year period, the 31 analyzed political parties received a total of ₹16,437.63 crore in donations. Of this, 55.9% came from electoral bonds, 28.07% from the corporate sector, and 16.03% from other sources.
BJP leads the pack: The BJP declared donations worth ₹5,271.97 crore through electoral bonds, surpassing the total donations of all other national parties combined.
Congress and regional parties: The Congress received the second-highest amount through electoral bonds, with ₹952.29 crore (61.54% of total donations). The Trinamool Congress received ₹767.88 crore (93.27% of total donations).
Regional parties’ reliance on bonds: Regional parties such as the BJD, DMK, and TRS received a significant portion of their total donations from electoral bonds.
Surge in bond donations: National parties witnessed a 743% increase in donations through electoral bonds between 2017-18 and 2021-22, while corporate donations only rose by 48%.
Key features of Electoral Bonds Scheme
Introduction of Electoral Bond Scheme: The Electoral Bond Scheme 2018 was introduced for electoral funding during the crucial time period analyzed in the report.
Removal of donation limit: The Finance Act, 2017 eliminated the previous cap of 7.5% of a company’s average three-year net profit for political donations.
Purchase and Donation: Any Indian citizen or company incorporated in India can purchase Electoral Bonds from select branches of the State Bank of India. The bonds can be bought in denominations of ₹1,000, ₹10,000, ₹10 lakh, and ₹1 crore. The purchaser can then donate the bonds to an eligible political party of their choice.
Eligibility and KYC: To purchase Electoral Bonds, the buyer must fulfill the Know Your Customer (KYC) norms and make the payment from a bank account. Only individuals and companies with Indian citizenship or incorporation can participate in the scheme.
Bond Validity: Electoral Bonds have a life of 15 days, ensuring that they do not function as a parallel currency.
Anonymity and Disclosure: Donors who contribute less than ₹20,000 to political parties through Electoral Bonds are not required to provide their identity details, such as the Permanent Account Number (PAN). However, the identity of the donor is known to the bank.
Redemption and Eligible Parties: Only political parties registered under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, and securing at least one percent of the votes in the last general election are eligible to receive Electoral Bonds. The bonds can be encashed only through a bank account with the authorized bank.
Issues with the Scheme
Lack of Transparency: The scheme has faced criticism for enabling opaque political funding. While the identity of the donor is captured, it is not revealed to the party or the public, limiting transparency.
Limited Tax Benefits: Donations made through Electoral Bonds may not qualify for income tax breaks, potentially discouraging donors from participating in the scheme.
Privacy Concerns: The privacy of donors may be compromised as the bank will have knowledge of their identity.
Differential Benefits: The scheme can potentially favor parties in power, as the government can access information about the donors and the funds received.
Unlimited Donations: Amendments in the Finance Act of 2017 allow for unlimited donations from individuals and foreign companies to political parties without disclosing the sources of funding, raising concerns about the influence of money in politics.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ED, CBI
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The Supreme Court has upheld statutory amendments that permit the extension of tenures for Directors of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and the Enforcement Directorate (ED).
The court also directed the current ED Director, Sanjay Kumar Mishra, to resign four months before his third extension ends in November.
Amendments and Tenure Extensions
Tenure of CBI and ED chiefs: The CBI and ED directors traditionally have fixed tenures of two years.
Amendments enacted in 2021: Amendments were made to the Central Vigilance Commission Act, the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, and the Fundamental Rules. These amendments allow directors to receive a maximum of three annual extensions, expanding their tenure beyond the two-year limit.
Overcoming the court’s directive: The amendments were introduced shortly after the Supreme Court directed the government to cease granting extensions to Sanjay Kumar Mishra. These amendments provided a way for the government to grant Mishra two additional extensions.
Supreme Court’s Ruling
Ruling on back-to-back service extensions: The Supreme Court deemed the consecutive service extensions granted to Mishra in 2021 and 2022 as illegal.
Resignation deadline: The court ordered Mishra to resign by July 31, allowing for a smooth transition of responsibilities to his successor. Mishra has served as the ED Director for five years.
Disagreement with amicus curiae: The court disagreed with the submissions made by its own amicus curiae, who urged the court to strike down the amendments. The amicus curiae argued that the prospect of service extensions could influence the directors to work in accordance with the government’s desires, undermining the agencies’ independence.
High-Level Committees and Justification
Role of High-Level Committees: The amendments require High-Level Committees to recommend directors for service extensions.
Committee composition and recommendations: The committees consist of members such as the Central Vigilance Commissioner, Vigilance Commissioners, Prime Minister, Opposition Leader, and Chief Justice of India, depending on the agency. These committees recommend whether an extension is warranted in the public interest.
Recording reasons for recommendations: The committees are obligated to provide written justifications for their recommendations.
Constitutionality of Amendments
Legislative authority: The court emphasized that the amendments were enacted by Parliament and should not be easily declared unconstitutional.
Role of elected representatives: The court stated that the amendments were passed by elected representatives who possess knowledge of the needs and interests of the people.
Judicial restraint: The court acknowledged that it should not question the wisdom of the elected representatives unless there is a clear violation of constitutional provisions.
The Supreme Court has asked the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) to clarify why amendments were made in 2018 to the Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPI) Regulations.
These amendments had eliminated crucial clauses aimed at preventing opacity in FPI ownership structures.
The report highlighted the challenges faced by SEBI in determining the “ownership” of 13 overseas entities, including the FPIs mentioned in the Hindenburg report, due to the lack of clarity in their ownership chain.
What are FPIs?
Foreign Portfolio Investments (FPI) refer to investments made by foreign individuals, institutional investors, pension funds, sovereign wealth funds, and other entities in financial instruments of a foreign country.
These investments typically involve the purchase of securities such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), and other tradable financial assets.
Key characteristics of foreign portfolio investments include:
Indirect Ownership: FPIs involve indirect ownership of financial instruments rather than direct ownership of physical assets or businesses. Investors hold portfolios of securities issued by companies, governments, or other entities in the target country.
Diversification: FPIs allow investors to diversify their investment portfolios internationally. By investing in different countries and asset classes, investors can reduce risks associated with a concentration in a single market or asset type.
Liquidity: FPIs offer high liquidity as they involve trading in financial instruments that can be easily bought or sold in the secondary market. Investors have the flexibility to enter or exit their positions quickly based on market conditions or investment objectives.
Market Access: FPIs provide foreign investors with access to the securities markets of other countries. This enables them to participate in the economic growth and potential returns of different markets and take advantage of investment opportunities that may not be available domestically.
Regulatory Framework: FPIs are subject to regulations and guidelines set by the regulatory authorities of the target country. These regulations may include registration requirements, investment limits, disclosure obligations, and compliance norms to ensure market integrity and investor protection.
Market Impact: Large FPI flows can have a significant impact on the target country’s financial markets. They can influence stock prices, bond yields, exchange rates, and overall market sentiment. As a result, FPIs are closely monitored by regulatory bodies and policymakers.
Key Issue: FPI Regulations Amendment
The Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPI) Regulations were first introduced in 2014 by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).
Removal of “opaque structure” provision: The 2018 amendments eliminated provisions in the FPI Regulations that addressed opaque structures and required FPIs to disclose every ultimate natural person in the ownership chain.
Justice Sapre panel’s observations: The expert committee report stated that the removal of these provisions had put SEBI in a “chicken-and-egg situation” in its investigation of the 13 overseas entities suspected of having opaque structures.
Need for information on ultimate economic ownership: The report emphasized that SEBI’s investigation required information about the ultimate economic ownership, rather than just beneficial owners, of the entities under scrutiny.
Supreme Court’s Query and SEBI’s Response
Court’s inquiry on the amendments: The Chief Justice asked SEBI to explain the circumstances and reasons behind the changes made to the provisions dealing with opaque structures.
SEBI’s assertion on ongoing investigation: The Solicitor General, representing SEBI, stated that the investigation was progressing at full speed and that the agency was working diligently to meet the extended deadline set by the court.
Petitioners’ arguments on fatal impact: The petitioners argued that the amendments made in 2018 had rendered SEBI’s current investigation ineffective, as the definition of opaque structure was removed. They claimed that these amendments were intended to prevent fraud exposure.
Court’s Concerns and Request for Explanation
Court’s curiosity about the amendments: The Chief Justice expressed the court’s interest in understanding the reasons behind the changes made by SEBI in 2018.
Potential impact on the investigation: The court acknowledged the argument that the amendments might restrict SEBI from delving into the layers of transactions, potentially hindering the investigation.
Conclusion
The court seeks clarification on the circumstances surrounding these changes and their impact on SEBI’s investigation into the Adani Group.
The court’s concern lies in understanding the potential limitations these amendments may have imposed on SEBI’s ability to explore the ownership chain and layers of transactions.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GST, GST Council
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council convened its 50th meeting on July 11, announcing significant revisions and clarifications to tax rates.
Additionally, the council discussed the establishment of GST Appellate Tribunals.
It sought to address the concerns surrounding inclusion of the GST Network under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA).
What is GST Council?
The Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council is a crucial body established under the 101st Constitutional Amendment in 2016 to oversee the implementation of the GST regime in India.
Comprised of representatives from the central government and the states, the Council plays a pivotal role in making recommendations and decisions related to GST.
Composition of the GST Council
Joint forum: The GST Council is a joint forum consisting of members from the Centre (Union Finance Minister and Union Minister of State for Finance) and representatives from the states.
State representation: Each state nominates a minister in charge of finance, taxation, or any other relevant minister to be a member of the Council.
Objectives of the GST Council
Recommendation-making authority: The Council is responsible for making recommendations to the Union and the states on important GST-related issues. This includes suggestions on the goods and services that should be subjected to or exempted from GST, as well as the formulation of model GST laws.
Decision-making on tax rates: The Council determines the various rate slabs under the GST regime. It has the authority to decide the applicable tax rates for different goods and services.
Recent Tax Rate Changes proposals
Uncooked and unfried snack pellets and fish soluble paste: The tax rate on these items was reduced from 18% to 5%.
Imitation zari threads or yarn: The GST rate on these items was reduced from 12% to 5%.
Food and beverages consumed inside cinema halls: The GST rate for these items was reduced to 5% without any input tax credits, compared to the previous 18% levied on cinema services.
Special utility vehicles (SUVs): The tax treatment for SUVs was clarified, ensuring that the higher GST compensation cess does not affect sedans. The conditions for classifying a vehicle as an SUV were revised to exclude the requirement of being popularly seen as an SUV. The ground clearance of 170 mm should now be for an unladen vehicle.
Exemption for satellite launch services: The Council offered an exemption on GST for satellite launch services provided by private organizations.
Other recommendations: GST Appellate Tribunals
Proposal for setting up GST Appellate Tribunals: States’ proposals to establish 50 Benches of GST Appellate Tribunals were examined. These tribunals will play a crucial role in resolving GST disputes.
Operational timeline: The government aims to make the tribunals operational within four to six months, starting with the establishment of Benches in State capitals and places where High Courts have Benches.
Appointment and service conditions: The Council cleared the appointment and service conditions for tribunal members and the president, which will come into effect from August 1.
Inclusion of GST Network under PMLA
Concerns raised by non-BJP ruled states: Representatives from states not governed by the BJP criticized the decision to bring the GST Network under the purview of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) administered by the Enforcement Directorate (ED).
Tamil Nadu’s opposition: Tamil Nadu expressed opposition to the move, stating that it is against the interests of taxpayers and goes against the objective of decriminalizing offenses under the GST law.
Explanation and clarification: Revenue Secretary presented an explanation of the provision, stating that it is a requirement of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) and not directly related to the GST law.
Information sharing: The GSTN will not share information about private businesses with other law enforcement agencies. The ED will neither receive nor provide information, but the director of the Financial Intelligence Unit may provide information to the GSTN to empower tax authorities in combating tax evasion and money laundering.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Majorana Zero Modes
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
Microsoft researchers have made significant strides in the creation of Majorana zero modes, a type of particle that could revolutionize quantum computing.
Majorana zero modes, which are their own antiparticles, possess unique properties that could make quantum computers more robust and computationally superior.
Majorana Fermions: A conceptual backgrounder
Fermions and Antiparticles: All subatomic particles that constitute matter are known as fermions, with each fermion having an associated antiparticle that annihilates upon interaction.
Majorana Fermions: In 1937, Italian physicist Ettore Majorana discovered that certain particles, known as Majorana fermions, can satisfy specific conditions and be their own antiparticles.
Neutrinos as Potential Majorana Fermions: Neutrinos are one type of subatomic particle that scientists speculate may exhibit Majorana fermion behavior, although experimental confirmation is still pending.
Understanding Majorana Zero Modes
Quantum Numbers and Spin: All particles have four quantum numbers, with one called the quantum spin having half-integer values for fermions. This property allows any fermion, even a large entity like an atom, to be classified as a fermion.
Bound States and Fermions: Bound states composed of two particles can also be classified as fermions if their total quantum spin possesses a half-integer value.
Majorana Zero Modes: When these bound states are their own antiparticles and do not readily de-cohere, they are known as Majorana zero modes, which have been sought after by physicists for many years.
Easy explained: Majorana Zero Modes
In the world of physics, particles can have interesting properties and behave in strange ways. One type of particle that scientists have been studying is called a Majorana particle.
Majorana particles have a special property called “non-Abelian statistics.” Without getting too technical, this property means that when two Majorana particles come close together, something interesting happens. Instead of behaving like normal particles, they can combine in a special way to form a new kind of particle called a Majorana zero mode.
A Majorana zero mode is a very peculiar particle because it is its own antiparticle. Normally, particles have antiparticles with opposite properties, like an electron and a positron. But Majorana zero modes are special because they don’t have separate antiparticles. They are their own antiparticles!
Potential Benefits for Computing
Enhanced Stability: Majorana zero modes offer increased stability for qubits, the fundamental units of information in quantum computing. Even if one entity within the bound state is disturbed, the qubit as a whole can remain protected and retain encoded information.
Topological Quantum Computing: Majorana zero modes can enable topological quantum computing, which takes advantage of non-Abelian statistics. These statistics introduce an additional degree of freedom, allowing algorithms to produce different outcomes based on the order in which steps are performed.
Challenges and Future Prospects
Creating Majorana Zero Modes: Scientists have been exploring various setups, such as topological superconductors, to generate Majorana zero modes. However, confirming their existence remains a challenge, as their effects on surrounding materials must be inferred indirectly.
Recent Advances by Microsoft Researchers: Microsoft researchers recently engineered a topological superconductor using an aluminium superconductor and an indium arsenide semiconductor. Their device passed a stringent protocol, suggesting a high probability of hosting Majorana zero modes.
Future prospects
While this achievement is significant, the existence of Majorana fermions and their potential for topological quantum computing still need independent confirmation.
Continued improvements in simulation, growth, fabrication, and measurement capabilities are necessary to achieve the desired topological gap for coherent operations.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LVM3
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
ISRO is scheduled to launch the Chandrayaan 3 mission on July 14.
The mission will be carried out using the LVM-3 configuration.
The GSLV is used for heavier payloads and higher orbits, with the most powerful configuration known as LVM-3.
Soon a comprehensive article about Chandrayaan 3 would be released!
LVM3: Unlocking New Frontiers of Space Exploration
Expendable Space Launch Vehicle: LVM3 is an expendable space launch vehicle meticulously crafted by ISRO.
Purpose: Its primary objective is to deploy satellites and space objects into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits (GTO).
Launch History: ISRO successfully launched the first LVM3 on April 18, 2001, and has accomplished a total of 13 launches to date.
Impressive Specifications: With a lift-off mass of 420 tonnes, LVM3 demonstrates its robustness in handling complex missions.
Stages of LVM3: Powering the Journey to Orbit
First Stage:
S139 Solid Booster: The initial stage of LVM3 features the S139 solid booster, armed with 138 tonnes of propellant.
Liquid Strap-on Motors: Additionally, it incorporates four liquid strap-on motors, each carrying 40 tonnes of propellant.
Second Stage:
Liquid Engine: The second stage of LVM3 is equipped with a liquid engine, propelling the vehicle with 40 tonnes of liquid propellant.
Third Stage:
Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS): LVM3 showcases its technological prowess with the indigenously built CUS, capable of accommodating 15 tonnes of cryogenic propellants.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Turtle Rehabilitation
Mains level: Not Muchga
Central Idea
Hundreds of turtles will be released into the river as a joint endeavour between the Namami Gange Programme, the Forest and Wildlife Department, and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII).
These turtles, hatched at a breeding and rehabilitation center in Varanasi, aim to contribute to the cleanliness and rejuvenation of the sacred Ganges.
Turtle Rehabilitation Center: A Crucial Element in Ganges Conservation
Significance: The turtle rehabilitation center in Varanasi, established under the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) in the late 1980s, plays a pivotal role in the conservation of the Ganges River.
Achievements: Over 40,000 turtles have been released from the center, with approximately 28,000 turtles released during the initial phase of the GAP.
Renewed Focus: The center has gained renewed attention and support following the launch of the Namami Gange Programme in 2014, a flagship initiative of the Central government aimed at combating pollution and restoring the river’s ecological balance.
Strengthening the Ganges Clean-up Efforts
Turtle Population: The center nurtures around a dozen turtle species, including herbivores and carnivores, which are vital in maintaining a balanced ecosystem.
Collection of Eggs: The Forest and Wildlife Department collects turtle eggs from the coastal areas of the Chambal region.
Controlled Hatching Process: The eggs are carefully monitored for 70 days in a specially designed room for hatching. They are buried in sand-filled wooden boxes placed on a water-filled ground with bricks on top.
Monitoring and Care: After hatching between June and July, the turtles are observed and nurtured in an artificial pond for two years to ensure their health and readiness for release into the river.
Role of Turtles in Ganges Restoration
Impact on Water Quality: Turtles contribute to improving the quality of the Ganges by feeding on meat and waste products present in the river.
Positive Indicators: Water quality assessments conducted by the Namami Gange Programme reveal improvements in biochemical demand (BOD), faecal coliform (FC), and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels.
Government’s Findings: The Uttar Pradesh Government confirmed that the pH levels at various locations, including Varanasi, meet bathing water quality criteria, while DO, BOD, and FC levels have shown improvement at 16, 14, and 18 out of 20 locations, respectively.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Performance Grading Index (PGI)
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The annual Performance Grading Index (PGI) released by the Union government ranks the performance of States and Union Territories in school education for the year 2021-22.
While Chandigarh and Punjab emerged as the top performers, none of the states or UTs achieved the highest grade, Daksh, indicating room for improvement across the board.
Performance Grading Index (PGI)
The Performance Grading Index (PGI) is a tool to provide insights on the status of school education in States and UTs including key levers that drive their performance and critical areas for improvement.
The Department of School Education and Literacy (DoSEL) has designed the PGI to catalyse transformational change in the field of school education.
Key Parameters of the PGI
Learning Outcomes: Assessing students’ performance in subjects such as language, math, science, and social science.
Access to Education: Evaluating net enrolment ratio, retention rates, transitions between educational levels, and mainstreaming of out-of-school children.
Infrastructure: Examining availability of science labs, computer labs, book banks, vocational education subjects, mid-day meal supply, functional drinking water facilities, and provision of uniforms and free textbooks.
Equity: Considering the performance gap between marginalized communities and the general category, as well as the presence of inclusive infrastructure like ramps and disabled-friendly toilets.
Educational Governance and Management: Assessing digital attendance records, the presence of single-teacher primary schools, vacancies in educational posts, inspections, and teacher evaluations.
PGI Grades and Rankings
Daksh: The highest grade in the PGI, scoring above 940 out of 1,000 points.
Akanshi-3: The lowest grade, with scores up to 460 points.
Top Performers: Chandigarh and Punjab secured the sixth-highest grade, Prachesta-2, followed closely by Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, Delhi, Puducherry, and Tamil Nadu at Prachesta-3.
Improvement Needed: Thirteen states, including Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh, were categorized as Akanshi-1 states, indicating substantial room for improvement.
Action for Improvement
Domain-Wise Action: The report highlights that states can take specific actions in each domain to improve their overall score in the PGI.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nari Adalat
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The government is launching a unique initiative ‘Nari Adalat’ to establish women-only courts at the village level.
Nari Adalat
Nari Adalat aims to provide an alternative dispute resolution forum for issues such as domestic violence, property rights, and countering patriarchal norms.
The pilot project will commence in 50 villages each in Assam and Jammu and Kashmir, with plans for nationwide implementation over the next six months.
Structure and Functioning
Composition: Each Nari Adalat will consist of 7-9 members, with half elected members of the gram panchayat and the other half being women with social standing, such as teachers, doctors, and social workers.
Objectives: It will address individual cases, promote awareness about social schemes, collect feedback, raise awareness about legal rights, and resolve cases falling within its jurisdiction.
Services Provided: The platform will offer alternate dispute resolution, grievance redressal, counseling, evidence-based decision making, pressure group tactics, negotiation, mediation, and reconciliation for accessible and affordable justice.
Implementation and Collaboration
Ministry-In-Charge: The Ministry of Women and Child Development will oversee the implementation of the scheme under the Sambal sub-scheme of Mission Shakti, dedicated to women’s safety, security, and empowerment.
Collaborative Efforts: The Ministry of Panchayati Raj, the Ministry of Rural Development, and the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology’s Common Service Centers will collaborate in the implementation process.
Standard Operating Procedures: Detailed procedures for all states have been prepared and will be released to ensure uniformity and effective functioning of Nari Adalats.
Inception of the idea
Previous Initiatives: The scheme draws inspiration from the Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats (People’s Court of Women) previously operated by the National Commission for Women (NCW).
Focus Areas: These courts addressed matters related to family affairs, matrimonial disputes, bigamy, succession, and motor vehicle accident disputes related to labor.
Discontinued Scheme: The NCW-assisted Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats conducted a total of 298 sessions before the scheme was discontinued in 2014-15.
Need for such scheme
Persisting Gender Bias: Women’s only courts counter gender bias in traditional court systems, providing a fair and non-discriminatory environment for women’s cases.
Cultural and Social Barriers: These courts break down cultural and social barriers that prevent women from seeking justice, offering a culturally sensitive space where they can freely participate.
Empowerment andAgency: Women’s only courts empower women to assert their rights, challenge patriarchal norms, and access justice independently.
Addressing Specific Issues: These courts focus on women’s unique issues, including domestic violence, property rights, and gender-based discrimination.
Enhanced Access to Justice: By being located at the village level, women’s only courts improve access to justice for women who face geographical and logistical challenges in reaching mainstream courts.
Alternative Dispute Resolution: These courts offer mediation and negotiation options, which are more effective and less adversarial for resolving disputes, particularly in family and community conflicts.
Precedents and Awareness: Women’s only courts set legal precedents and raise awareness about women’s rights, influencing social norms and promoting positive change.
Conclusion
The establishment of women-only courts at the village level through the Nari Adalat initiative demonstrates the government’s commitment to empowering women and promoting gender justice.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dadabhai Naoroji
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
Dadabhai Naoroji, the first Indian member of the British Parliament, played a significant role in India’s anti-colonial struggle.
His scholarly work exposed the economic exploitation of India under British rule, emphasizing the drain theory.
Who was Dadabhai Naoroji?
Early Life: Naoroji was born in Navsari, Gujarat, into a Parsi Zoroastrian family. He received his education at the Elphinstone Institute School.
Social Reforms: He founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasan Sabha and the Rast Goftar newspaper to promote Parsi social reforms and clarify Zoroastrian concepts.
Political Activism: Naoroji co-founded the London Indian Society and the East India Association, advocating for Indian political rights and countering negative stereotypes.
Indian National Congress: He played a crucial role in the Indian National Congress and served as its President on three occasions.
British Parliament: Naoroji became the first Indian MP in the British House of Commons, representing Finsbury Central from 1892 to 1895.
Economic Critique: His book “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India” exposed the drain of wealth from India to Britain and its impact on India’s development.
His proposition of Drain Theory and Poverty
Naoroji’s Drain Theory: He identified six factors contributing to the wealth drain, including foreign governance, lack of immigration, and unequal employment opportunities.
Impact of Drain: Naoroji estimated a drain of 200-300 million pounds from India to Britain, which hindered India’s economic progress.
Railways and Tribute: Naoroji argued that India paid for services like railways, but the profits were drained out of the country, leading to economic imbalances.
Exploitative Trade: British workers in India were encouraged to repatriate their earnings, and Indian goods were undervalued, allowing for economic exploitation.
Major works
Started the Rast Goftar Anglo-Gujarati Newspaper in 1854.
The manners and customs of the Parsees (Bombay, 1864)
The European and Asiatic races (London, 1866)
Admission of educated natives into the Indian Civil Service (London, 1868)
The wants and means of India (London, 1876)
Condition of India (Madras, 1882)
Legacy and Views
Naoroji’s Significance: He is considered a crucial figure in India’s independence movement, advocating for responsible government and Indian autonomy.
Influence on Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi was influenced by Naoroji’s writings and recognized him as a father figure for the Indian people.
Admirations: Bal Gangadhar Tilak praised Naoroji’s leadership and stated that Indians would unanimously elect him if given the chance.
Recognition: Naoroji’s contributions are honoured through various roads, streets, and awards named after him.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NanoSIMS
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
A team of scientists from IIT Kharagpur has discovered evidence of exceptionally high annual rainfall during the volcanic activity that formed the Deccan Traps in India around 66 million years ago.
Using a new technique called Nanoscale Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (NanoSIMS), the researchers analyzed the isotopic composition of fossil trees from the Cretaceous period.
They determined the isotopic composition of the rainfall-derived lake water.
Nanoscale Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (NanoSIMS)
NanoSIMS is an advanced analytical technique to determine the composition and distribution of elements and isotopes at a microscopic scale.
It allows for high-resolution imaging and quantitative analysis of samples.
The technique involves bombarding the sample surface with a focused beam of primary ions.
This causes the ejection of secondary ions from the sample surface.
The secondary ions are collected and analyzed using a mass spectrometer.
The mass spectrometer separates the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio and measures their abundance.
Analysis and Findings
New Technique: The team used Nanoscale Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry to analyze oxygen isotopes in fossil trees and measure the isotopic composition of the lake water derived from rainfall.
Depleted Oxygen Isotopes: The analysis revealed depleted oxygen isotope values, indicating higher tropical rainfall in India during the terminal Cretaceous period.
Link to Paleoclimatic Changes: The increase in rainfall closely corresponded to changes in paleo-atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, suggesting a potential underlying link between the two.
Implications and Comparison
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentration: The eruption of Deccan Trap lavas released a significant amount of carbon dioxide, raising atmospheric levels to as high as 1,000 ppm.
Comparison to Modern Rainfall: The data from fossil trees indicated an annual rainfall of 1,800-1,900 mm, exceeding the average modern rainfall of 1,000-1,200 mm in most parts of peninsular India.
Climate Change Predictions: The findings align with predictions made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for extreme warming scenarios, suggesting a correlation between high carbon dioxide levels and increased rainfall.
Climate Models and Future Projections
Rising Carbon Dioxide Levels: Fossil fuel emissions have raised carbon dioxide levels from 280 ppm to about 420 ppm in 2023.
Impact on Rainfall: Climate models indicate that doubling carbon dioxide levels will intensify atmospheric circulation and subsequently increase rainfall.
IPCC AR6 Report: The report warns of a significant increase in the wettest day precipitation and tropical cyclone-associated rainfall if carbon dioxide emissions continue to rise unabated.
Conclusion
The study provides evidence of high rainfall during the volcanic activity that formed the Deccan Traps in India millions of years ago.
The findings suggest a correlation between elevated carbon dioxide levels and increased rainfall, supporting predictions made by climate models for future climate change scenarios.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gravity Hole
Mains level: Not Much
The true shape of our Earth
Central Idea
One intriguing phenomenon recently discovered is the presence of a significant “gravity hole” in the Indian Ocean, where the gravitational pull is notably weaker.
Recent research sheds light on the possible causes behind this anomaly.
What is a Gravity Hole?
A “gravity hole” refers to a region on Earth where the gravitational pull is significantly weaker compared to the surrounding areas or the global average.
It is characterized by a dip or low gravity anomaly.
In such areas, the sea level may be lower than average due to the weaker gravitational force acting upon the water.
This term is often used to describe specific locations, such as the Indian Ocean geoid low (IOGL), where the gravitational pull is notably diminished compared to nearby regions.
The exact causes of gravity holes can vary and may involve factors such as variations in the Earth’s mass distribution or underlying geological features.
What is Indian Ocean Geoid Low (IOGL)?
It is located approximately 1,200 kilometers southwest of the southernmost tip of India.
IOGL is an area in the Indian Ocean where the sea level is about 106 meters below the global average.
Unraveling the Causes of IOGL
Discovering the Anomaly: Geophysicist Felix Andries Vening Meinesz first identified the IOGL during a survey in 1948. Since then, it has been confirmed by subsequent ship-based experiments and satellite measurements.
Ancient Ocean Hypothesis: Researchers from the Indian Institute of Science conducted computer-simulated models spanning 140 million years. They discovered remnants of an ancient ocean, located approximately 965 kilometers below the Earth’s crust, just beneath Africa.
Molten Rock Plumes: The simulations revealed molten rock plumes below Africa, potentially caused by tectonic plates subducting into the mantle. These plumes are believed to be a contributing factor to the IOGL.
Possible origination: Researchers said that the IOGL comprises slabs from the Tethys Sea, a long-lost sea that plunged into the depths of the planet millions of years ago. Tethys Sea, which once separated the supercontinents of Gondwana and Laurasia is believed to have perturbed the African Large Low Shear Velocity province.
Future Perspectives
Lack of Seismic Evidence: While the simulated models suggest the presence of molten rock plumes beneath the Indian Ocean, seismographic evidence has yet to confirm their actual existence.
Additional Factors at Play: The researchers emphasize that other factors contributing to the gravitational anomaly in the Indian Ocean need to be further explored before reaching a definitive conclusion.
Further Research: Continuation of studies, including seismic surveys and detailed modelling, is necessary to gain a comprehensive understanding of the IOGL and its causes.
