Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ongole Cows
Why in the News?
India’s indigenous cattle breed from Ongole is experiencing a sharp decline domestically, even as it has become one of the most prized and expensive cattle breeds in Brazil.
About Ongole Cows
- Ongole cattle, also known as Ongolu Gitta, are a native Indian breed originating from Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh.
- This Bos indicus breed is historically renowned for its strength, resilience, and disease resistance.
- It has been widely used for draught power, milk production, and breeding programs.
- The breed has gained global prominence, especially in Brazil, where it forms the foundation of several superior cattle breeds used for beef production.
- Though declining in India, they thrive in Brazil, where they form 80% of the cattle population and are used extensively for beef production.
- LAM Farm, Guntur, is using IVF and embryo transfer for preservation.
Distinct Features of Ongole Cattle:
- Heat & Disease Resistance: Naturally adapted to high temperatures and immune to foot-and-mouth and mad cow disease.
- Strength & Draught Power: Historically used for ploughing, transport, and bull races.
- A2 Milk Production: Produces high-quality A2 milk, fetching ₹150+ per litre in premium markets.
- Global Demand & Genetic Superiority: Exported to Brazil, USA, Argentina, and Australia. Used to develop breeds like Brahmana (USA) and Santa Gertrudis (USA).
- Efficient Feed Conversion: Survives on minimal fodder, ideal for drought-prone regions.
- High Fertility & Longevity: Strong reproductive lifespan, producing robust calves.
- Cultural & Historical Importance: Revered in Indian scriptures and associated with prosperity.
PYQ:
[2011] What is/are unique about ‘Kharai camel’, a breed found in India?
1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in seawater.
2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.
3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Successful PHTA Test of ISRO's Semi-Cryogenic Engine
Why in the News?
ISRO successfully conducted a hot test on the semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000), a key step towards finalizing the cryogenic stage for future launch vehicles. This Power Head Test Article (PHTA) is the first hardware test for semi-cryogenic engines.
About the SE2000 Engine
- The SE2000 engine is a semi-cryogenic rocket engine developed by ISRO to enhance propulsion for future heavy-lift launch vehicles.
- It is designed to power the booster stages of rockets, increasing payload capacity and efficiency.
- The engine operates on a Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Refined Kerosene (RP-1) combination, unlike traditional cryogenic engines that use LOX and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2).
- Key features of the SE2000 engine:
- Thrust capability: 2000 kN (kilonewtons), making it one of ISRO’s most powerful engines.
- Higher density impulse: Provides better efficiency than LOX-LH2 combinations.
- Cost-effective: Kerosene is cheaper and easier to handle than liquid hydrogen.
- Storage advantages: Kerosene can be stored at ambient temperatures, unlike liquid hydrogen, which requires -253°C for storage.
- The engine is expected to enhance the performance of LVM3 and will be used in ISRO’s Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV).
- Applications of the SE2000 engine:
- Heavy-lift launch missions with increased payload capacity.
- Future space exploration programs, including human spaceflight missions like Gaganyaan.
- Reusable launch vehicles, contributing to cost-effective and sustainable space travel.
What is the PHTA Test?
- The PHTA test is a crucial hardware test conducted as part of the SE2000 semi-cryogenic engine development process.
- It is designed to validate key engine subsystems before full-scale integration and testing.
- Purpose of the PHTA test:
- Ensure subsystems perform as expected under operational conditions.
- Evaluate pressure, temperature, thrust efficiency, and fuel combustion.
- Identify potential technical issues before moving to full engine testing.
- A previous attempt in July 2023 was aborted due to technical issues at ISRO’s Mahendragiri facility.
Back2Basics: Semi-Cryogenic vs. Cryogenic Engines
- A semi-cryogenic engine uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene as propellants, making it easier to handle and store than the cryogenic engine, which uses liquid hydrogen (LH2).
- Semi-cryogenic engines are less efficient but more cost-effective and practical for Earth-orbit missions.
- Cryogenic engines offer higher performance due to the higher specific impulse of liquid hydrogen but are more complex to store and manage.
- Semi-cryogenic engines strike a balance between cost, efficiency, and simplicity.
|
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch l vehicle with the first and third stages l using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: COPUOS
Why in the News?
In December 2024, a 500 kg metal object crashed in Makueni County, Kenya, highlighting the growing concern over uncontrolled satellite re-entries, for which the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) remains accountable.
It has yet to implement binding regulations on space debris disposal and re-entry control.
About the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)
- The COPUOS was established in 1958 to promote international cooperation in the peaceful use of outer space and address legal issues related to space exploration.
- The committee currently has 102 member states (as of 2022) and meets annually in Vienna, Austria.
- COPUOS plays a key role in preventing the militarization of space and ensuring responsible space activity.
- Historical Context:
- Established following the launch of Sputnik in 1957, COPUOS was instrumental in preventing space from becoming a new conflict zone.
- Resolution 1721 (1961) declared that international law applies in outer space and directed states to report all space launches to the UN public registry.
- Subcommittees:
- Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (meets in February).
- Legal Subcommittee (meets in April).
Space Treaties overseen by COPUOS:
- COPUOS oversees five key UN treaties and agreements related to space activities:
- Outer Space Treaty (1967): Establishes principles for space exploration and prohibits national sovereignty over celestial bodies.
- Rescue Agreement (1968): Governs the rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
- Liability Convention (1972): Defines responsibility for damage caused by space objects, introducing absolute liability for damages on Earth.
- Registration Convention (1976): Requires states to register launched space objects with the UN.
- Moon Treaty (1984): Regulates activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies.
Defining Space Debris in Law
- Space debris has no universally accepted legal definition in international treaties.
- The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) defines it as non-functional man-made objects in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere.
- Legal disputes arise over whether a piece of debris qualifies as a “space object” under the 1972 Liability Convention.
Liability Under International Space Law
- Outer Space Treaty (1967), Article VI: States bear responsibility for national space activities, including those by private companies.
- Liability Convention (1972): Introduced “absolute liability”, meaning launching states are automatically responsible for damage caused by space objects.
- However, liability enforcement remains weak, and affected nations often struggle to claim full compensation.
|
PYQ:
[2014] International civil aviation laws provide all countries complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above their territory. What do you understand by ‘airspace’? What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggest ways to contain the threat. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Wolly Mammoth
Why in the News?
Recently, Colossal Biosciences has created a “Woolly Mouse” by editing seven genes in mice embryos to mimic the cold-adaptive traits of woolly mammoths.
What are Woolly Mammoths?
- The Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) was a large, Ice Age herbivore that roamed Eurasia and North America, thriving in cold tundra environments.
- It had a thick woolly coat, a fat layer for insulation, and small ears to minimize heat loss.
- Mammoths lived in herds and primarily fed on grasses and shrubs.
- They went extinct around 4,000 years ago, likely due to climate change, habitat loss, and human hunting.
- Scientists believe reviving mammoth-like elephants could help restore Arctic ecosystems and slow permafrost thawing.
|
About Woolly Mice
- The Woolly Mouse is a genetically modified laboratory mouse developed by Colossal Biosciences to test their de-extinction research.
- Scientists successfully edited seven genes, resulting in mice with thick, woolly fur, mimicking the coat of a woolly mammoth.
- Key Features of Woolly Mice:
-
- Genetically engineered for cold-resistant traits using DNA modifications.
- Long, thick, wavy fur and curled whiskers, resembling mammoth adaptations.
- Created by combining multiple genetic variants into a single organism.
- Serves as a model organism to test gene-editing techniques before applying them to Asian elephants, the closest living relatives of woolly mammoths.
Technology Used in Woolly Mouse Development:
- The CRISPR-Cas9 system was used to precisely modify DNA.
- Scientists identified genes responsible for fur texture, length, and body fat metabolism, allowing them to engineer cold-resistant traits.
- Scientists edited seven genes simultaneously, an unprecedented feat in genetic engineering.
- Key genes modified included:
- FGF5: regulates hair growth, making it longer and thicker.
- MC1R: controls hair color, giving the mice a golden hue similar to mammoth fur.
- Hair follicle structure genes: induced woolly hair texture, wavy coats, and curled whiskers.
PYQ:
[2013] Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred:
1. across different species of plants
2. from animals to plants
3. from microorganisms to higher organisms
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bangus Valley
Why in the News?
The Jammu and Kashmir government has announced new ecotourism policies for Bangus Valley, a scenic yet lesser-known destination near the Line of Control (LoC) in North Kashmir.
About Bangus Valley
- It is situated in Kupwara district, Jammu & Kashmir, about 100 km from Srinagar in the Pir Panjal range, close to the Line of Control (LoC).
- It consists of 2 valleys:
- Boud Bangus (Big Bangus): ~300 sq km, surrounded by Rajwar, Mawar, and Shamasbury ranges.
- Lokut Bangus (Small Bangus): A smaller valley northeast of Big Bangus, known for trekking routes.
- Its name is derived from Sanskrit words “Van” (forest) and “Gus” (grass), meaning “Forest of Grass.”
- Connectivity:
- Handwara via Reshwari Mawer (shortest and most preferred route).
- Handwara via Rajwar (trekking route).
- Kupwara via Chowkibal (under development, expected completion by 2025).
- Road connectivity via Handwara is complete (June 2022).
Ecological Importance of Bangus Valley:
- Biodiversity: Home to 50+ animal species and 10+ bird species.
- Key Mammals: Musk deer, antelope, snow leopard, brown bear, black bear, red fox, monkeys.
- Bird Species: Tragopan, monal pheasant, black partridge, bush quail, wild fowl.
- Flora: Rich in medicinal plants and wildflowers, supporting traditional herbal medicine.
- Water Conservation: 14 tributaries, including Roshan Kul, Tillwan Kul, Douda Kul, feed the Pohru River.
- Climate Sensitivity: Threatened by glacial melt and changing precipitation patterns.
PYQ:
[2019] Siachen Glacier is situated to the:
(a) East of Aksai Chin
(b) East of Leh
(c) North of Gilgit
(d) North of Nubra Valley |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Suspension of MLAs
Why in the News?
An MLA was suspended from the Maharashtra Assembly for praising and justifying the actions of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. This incident has sparked a debate on the rules and constitutional provisions governing the suspension of MLAs in India.
What is the Suspension of MLAs?
- Suspension of MLAs is a disciplinary measure imposed by the Speaker to maintain order and decorum in the House.
- It is used when members engage in unruly behavior, disrupt proceedings, or violate parliamentary rules.
- Duration can range from a single day to the remainder of the session.
Rules Governing Suspension of MLAs:
| Rule 53 of Maharashtra Assembly |
- The Speaker can order a member to withdraw for grossly disorderly conduct.
- If repeated, they can be suspended for the remainder of the session.
|
| “Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business” in Lok Sabha |
- Template for most state assemblies allows suspension for obstructing House business.
- Suspension should not exceed the session.
|
| Maharashtra’s Suspension Practices vs Other States |
Maharashtra has no upper limit on suspension duration, unlike states like Odisha where it is capped at 7 days. |
| Article 212 (1) [Protection of Legislative Proceedings] |
- Prevents courts from questioning legislative proceedings on procedural grounds.
- Used to argue that courts have no jurisdiction over suspensions.
|
| Article 194 [Powers and Privileges of the Legislature] |
Grants legislative bodies the power to maintain order and discipline. Justifies suspensions beyond Rule 53. |
| Article 190 (4) [Absence from Legislative Proceedings] |
- If an MLA is absent for more than 60 days without permission, their seat can be declared vacant.
- Prolonged suspensions violate this provision.
|
| Representation of the People Act, 1951 – Section 151 (A) |
Mandates a by-election within six months if a seat becomes vacant. Supreme Court argues that suspensions beyond six months deprive constituencies of representation. |
Supreme Court Rulings on Suspension:
(a) 2022 Supreme Court Ruling on Maharashtra BJP MLAs
- In 2021, 12 BJP MLAs were suspended for one year for disrupting proceedings.
- Judgment:
- Suspensions beyond six months are unconstitutional.
- Prolonged suspensions deprive voters of representation.
- Governments could misuse suspensions to weaken the opposition.
- The Speaker’s discretion is subject to constitutional limits.
(b) Jambuwantrao Dhote Case (1964): Only Maharashtra MLA expelled for throwing a paperweight at the Speaker during Vasantrao Naik’s Government.
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to the Legislative Assembly of a State in India, consider the following statements:
1. The Governor makes a customary address to Members of the House at the commencement of the first session of the year.
2. When a State Legislature does not have a rule on a particular matter, it follows the Lok Sabha rule on that matter.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017. (UPSC CSE 2019) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the Long-term Capital Gains Tax (2018) and indirect taxes (2019).
In February 2025, the Union Finance Minister introduced the Income-Tax Bill, 2025, to replace the Income-Tax Act, 1961. The government claims it will simplify tax laws and reduce disputes. However, despite some structural changes, many complexities remain, and the Bill grants even more authoritarian powers than the current law.
Today’s editorial discusses the newly introduced Income-Tax Bill, 2025, which is important for the GS III Mains paper.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman introduced the Income Tax Bill, 2025, in the Lok Sabha, while opposition parties protested against it.
What are the key objectives of the Income-Tax Bill, 2025?
- Simplifying Tax Laws: To make the tax code easier to understand for both taxpayers and professionals. Example: Replacing complex legal phrases like “notwithstanding anything contained to the contrary” with simpler terms like “irrespective of anything to the contrary”.
- Reducing Litigation and Ambiguity: To minimize legal disputes by providing clearer definitions and reducing interpretative confusion. Example: Consolidating compliance timelines into tables and schedules to avoid multiple interpretations of deadlines.
- Modernizing Tax Compliance: To align tax administration with technological advancements and changing business environments. Example: Allowing the use of a “risk management strategy” to identify tax evasion through data analysis.
- Ensuring Policy Continuity with Structural Reform: To retain core tax policies while improving the law’s structure for better efficiency. Example: Definitions like “income” still refer to the 1961 Act but are presented in a more structured format.
- Expanding Digital Oversight: To empower tax authorities to investigate digital transactions and virtual assets. Example: Permitting access to digital platforms (e.g., email servers and social media) during tax investigations.
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Why did the government previously amend the criteria for a reassessment of tax?
The government previously amended the criteria for reassessment of tax through the Finance Act, 2021, which came into effect on April 1, 2021. This marked a significant shift in the reassessment framework under the Income Tax Act, 1961.
- Shift from “Reason to Believe” to “Information”: The previous requirement for reassessment was based on the assessing officer having a “reason to believe” that income had escaped assessment. Example: After 2021, tax authorities could reopen assessments if they had “information” suggesting unreported income, including data from third-party reports.
- Introduction of Risk Management Strategy: The amendment introduced the use of a “risk management strategy” as a basis for reopening tax assessments. Example: Tax authorities can now reopen cases based on algorithm-driven data analysis without needing detailed justification.
- Time Limit Reduction for Reopening Assessments: The time limit for reassessment was reduced from 6 years to 3 years for most cases, with a 10-year limit for cases involving income above ₹50 lakh. Example: If concealed income exceeds ₹50 lakh, tax authorities can reopen cases up to 10 years later, enhancing scrutiny in high-value matters.
- Legal Challenges and Judicial Interpretations: The vague definition of “information” and the undefined “risk management strategy” led to concerns over arbitrary use of power. Example: Courts have intervened to limit reassessment powers, demanding stricter adherence to procedural safeguards to protect taxpayer rights.
What are the main concerns regarding their implementation?
- Increased Administrative Burden: The new system requires detailed procedures and prior approvals, leading to delays and increased workload for tax authorities. Example: Obtaining approval from senior officers before issuing notices can slow down reassessment, especially in cases involving large volumes of data.
- Ambiguity in “Information” Definition: The term “information” used to trigger reassessment is broad and vague, allowing subjective interpretations. Example: Data from social media activity or third-party reports can be used for reopening cases, raising concerns about the reliability and accuracy of such information.
- Risk of Harassment and Overreach: Despite safeguards, there is concern that taxpayers may still face unwarranted scrutiny under the new rules. Example: Cases where income exceeds ₹50 lakh can be reopened for up to 10 years, leading to prolonged uncertainty for taxpayers.
- Challenges in Data Privacy and Security: Accessing digital platforms and using technology-based triggers raises privacy concerns for individuals and businesses. Example: Tax authorities can now access electronic records from email servers and financial platforms, increasing the risk of data misuse.
- Legal Uncertainty and Litigation: Despite reforms, there is still a risk of judicial challenges due to the interpretive flexibility in the law. Example: Taxpayers may challenge reassessment notices on the grounds of insufficient evidence or procedural lapses, leading to further litigation.
Way forward:
- Enhancing Clarity and Transparency: Clearly define terms like “information” and “risk management strategy” to prevent subjective interpretation and ensure uniform application. Example: Establish detailed guidelines on acceptable data sources and the procedure for using digital evidence.
- Strengthening Safeguards and Oversight: Implement independent reviews for high-value reassessments and ensure data privacy through robust security protocols. Example: Mandate third-party audits to monitor the use of digital platforms and safeguard taxpayer rights.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Wallace Line
Why in the News?
In the 19th century, English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace observed a sharp shift in biodiversity as he moved from Asia to Australia, leading him to propose the Wallace Line—an imaginary boundary separating species from both regions.
About the Wallace Line:
- It is a bio-geographical boundary separating Asia and Australia’s eco-zones.
- It was identified by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1863 during his explorations.
- It is an imaginary line running through the Lombok Strait (between Bali and Lombok) and the Makassar Strait (between Borneo and Sulawesi).
- Distinct evolutionary histories:
- West of the line (Asia): Tigers, elephants, and orangutans.
- East of the line (Australia): Kangaroos, marsupials, and cockatoos.
- A very few species cross the line, particularly birds and mammals.
- This is a barrier for land species but not marine life.
-
- Continental drift: Australia separated from Antarctica and moved toward Asia (~35 million years ago). This created a deep-water channel, preventing species migration.
- Pleistocene Epoch Influence: Lower sea levels exposed land bridges but deep waters maintained the boundary.
Scientific Relevance:
- Wallace Line is more of a gradient than a strict boundary.
- Understanding biogeography helps predict species adaptation to climate change.
Note:
Weber Line more accurately defines the balance point where the influence of Asian and Australian species is nearly equal, whereas the Wallace Line marks a sharper divide. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Navratna Status
Why in the News?
The Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC) and the Indian Railway Finance Corporation (IRFC) have been granted Navratna status, making them the 25th and 26th Navratna companies in India.
Other Navratna Companies in Indian Railways
- Container Corporation of India (CONCOR): Multimodal logistics.
- Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd (RVNL): Infrastructure expansion.
- RITES Ltd: Transport consultancy.
- IRCON International Ltd: Railway and highway construction.
- RailTel Corporation of India Ltd: IT & communication services.
|
What is Navratna Status?
- Introduced in 1997, the Navratna scheme identifies high-performing CPSEs and grants them financial and operational independence.
- It allows selected companies to compete globally while maintaining public sector ownership.
- Categories of PSUs in India:
- Maharatna: Largest CPSEs with highest financial powers.
- Navratna: Mid-tier CPSEs with strategic autonomy.
- Miniratna: Emerging CPSEs with limited independence.
Eligibility Criteria for Navratna Status:
A CPSE must-
- Be a Miniratna-I company with an Excellent or Very Good rating in its MoU performance in three out of five years.
- Achieve a composite score of 60+ based on:
- Net Profit to Net Worth
- Manpower Cost to Total Cost of Production
- Profitability Ratios (PBDIT & PBIT)
- Earnings Per Share
- Inter-Sectoral Performance
Benefits of Navratna Status:
- Investment Autonomy: Can invest ₹1,000 crore or 15% of net worth in a single project without government approval.
- Strategic Expansion: Freedom to form joint ventures, subsidiaries, and acquisitions.
- Operational Flexibility: Can make independent business and investment decisions.
- Enhanced Market Position: Attracts more investors and improves stock performance.
PYQ:
[2011] Why is the Government of India disinvesting its equity in the Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs)?
1. The Government intends to use the revenue earned from the disinvestment mainly to pay back the external debt.
2. The Government no longer intends to retain the management control of the CPSEs.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MISHTI Scheme
Why in the News?
Gujarat has emerged as the national leader in mangrove afforestation, covering 19,020 hectares in just two years under the Central Government’s MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes) scheme.
About the MISHTI Scheme
- The MISHTI scheme was launched on June 5, 2023, to restore 540 sq. km of mangrove forests.
- It aims to restore and expand 540 sq. km mangrove forests across 9 states and 3 union territories over a 5-year period (2023–28).
- It aligns with India’s commitment to the Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) at COP27 (2022, Egypt).
- The scheme is funded through MGNREGS, CAMPA Fund, and other sources, ensuring community participation.
- It focuses on Sundarbans (West Bengal), Hooghly Estuary, and other coastal and wetland ecosystems.
Gujarat’s Leadership in Mangrove Afforestation
- Gujarat has emerged as India’s top state in mangrove afforestation, covering 19,020 hectares (190 sq. km) in just two years under MISHTI.
- The Gulf of Kutch (799 sq. km) leads in coverage, followed by the Gulf of Khambhat and Dumas-Ubhrat belt (134 sq. km).
- Gujarat’s 1,650 km-long coastline is home to mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrasses, making it an
- It aims to expand mangrove cover by an additional 350 sq. km, strengthening climate resilience and coastal biodiversity.
PYQ:
[2015] Which one of the following regions of India has a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest?
(a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
(b) South-West Bengal
(c) Southern Saurashtra
(d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Planetary Alignment
Why in the News?
On February 29, 2024, skywatchers worldwide witnessed a rare planetary alignment (parade) with seven planets—Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune, Mercury, Saturn, and Venus—lining up in the night sky.
What is Planetary Alignment?
- A planetary alignment occurs when multiple planets in the Solar System appear to line up in the sky as seen from Earth.
- This phenomenon happens because planets orbit the Sun in a flat, disc-shaped plane called the ecliptic.
- Although planets remain millions of kilometers apart, they seem to form a straight line from Earth’s perspective due to optical illusion and perspective.
- The term “planet parade” is also used to describe this occurrence when multiple planets become visible in the sky at the same time.
- Types of Planetary Alignments:
- Conjunction: Two or more planets appear close to each other in the sky.
- Small Alignment: Three planets align in a visible line.
- Large Alignment: Four or more planets appear aligned from Earth’s perspective.
- Full Alignment: All eight planets of the Solar System appear in a single line (very rare).
How often do Planetary Alignments occur?
- Planetary alignments are not uncommon, but their rarity depends on the number of planets involved.
- Two- or Three-Planet Alignments: Occur multiple times a year.
- Four- or Five-Planet Alignments: Visible every few years.
- Six- or Seven-Planet Alignments: Appear every few decades.
- Full Alignment (All Eight Planets): Extremely rare, occurs once every 170–200 years.
- Recent & Upcoming Alignments:
-
- August 2025: Expected four-planet alignment.
- May 2492: The next predicted full planetary alignment of all eight planets.
PYQ:
[2019] On 21st June, the Sun:
(a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle
(b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle
(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator
(d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bose Metal
Why in the News?
Researchers have recently discovered a potential new state of matter, the Bose metal, found between a regular metal and a superconductor, with evidence of this phase in Niobium Diselenide (NbSe₂) by a team of Chinese and Japanese scientists.
What is a Bose Metal?
- A Bose metal is a hypothetical anomalous metallic state where Cooper pairs (electron pairs) form but do not transition into a superconducting state.
- This state exists between a normal metal and a superconductor, challenging traditional theories of condensed matter physics.
- In simple terms, a Bose metal is a material where:
- Electrons pair up into Cooper pairs (like in superconductors).
- However, these Cooper pairs fail to achieve long-range coherence, meaning the material remains metallic instead of becoming superconducting.
- This results in partial electrical resistance, unlike superconductors that have zero resistance.
- Recent experimental studies suggest their existence in materials like Niobium Diselenide (NbSe₂) when subjected to specific conditions, such as thin layers and applied magnetic fields.
Key Features:
- Intermediate State: Exists between a metal and a superconductor.
- Cooper Pair Formation: Electrons form pairs, but they don’t condense into superconductivity.
- Anomalous Conductivity: Higher than normal metals but not infinite like superconductors.
- Quantum Fluctuations: Strong phase fluctuations disrupt Cooper pair coherence.
- Hall Resistance Vanishing: Indicates charge transport by Cooper pairs rather than individual electrons.
- Observed in Thin 2D Materials: Seen in ultra-thin films of superconductors under specific conditions.
PYQ:
[2013] Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste?
- Beryllium
- Cadmium
- Chromium
- Heptachlor
- Mercury
- Lead
- Plutonium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PM 2.5
Why in the News?
A recent study published in Nature Communications has analyzed the sources and health impacts of PM2.5 pollution in Northern India, particularly in the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
About PM2.5
- PM2.5 (Particulate Matter ≤2.5 microns) refers to tiny air pollutants small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream.
- These fine particles come from both natural sources (like dust storms and wildfires) and human activities (like burning fossil fuels and industrial emissions).
- PM2.5 poses severe health risks, contributing to respiratory diseases, heart conditions, and reduced lung function.
- The oxidative potential of PM2.5 is an important indicator of its toxicity and ability to cause cellular damage.
Key Findings of the Study
- Major Sources of PM2.5 in Northern India:
- The study analyzed PM2.5 pollution across five locations in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, including Delhi and Kanpur.
- Delhi: PM2.5 is mainly from vehicular emissions, fossil fuel burning, and residential heating.
- Outside Delhi: It consists of ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, and biomass-burning aerosols.
- PM2.5 Toxicity and Health Risks:
- PM2.5 toxicity is linked to organic aerosols from inefficient combustion of biomass and fossil fuels.
- Traffic emissions and residential fuel burning significantly contribute to PM2.5-related health risks.
- Traffic as a Major Contributor:
- Hydrocarbon-like organic aerosols (HOA) from vehicular emissions were highest at urban roadside sites in Delhi (8 μg/m³).
- HOA accounts for 50% of fossil fuel-derived aerosols, increasing to 40% in warmer months.
- Winter Pollution Due to Residential Heating and Cooking:
- Cow dung combustion for heating and cooking in winter increases organic aerosols, with levels 10 times higher than in summer due to biomass burning and shallow boundary layers.
- India’s PM2.5 Toxicity Among the Highest Globally:
- The study found that PM2.5 oxidative potential (toxicity) in Indian cities is up to 5 times higher than in Chinese and European cities.
PYQ:
[2016] In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of the Air Quality Index?
- Carbon dioxide
- Carbon monoxide
- Nitrogen dioxide
- Sulphur dioxide
- Methane
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Amir Khusrau
Why in the News?
Recently, PM Modi inaugurated the 25th edition of Jahaan-e-Khusrau, a Sufi music festival held at Sunder Nursery, New Delhi, in Khusrau’s honor.
Who was Amir Khusrau?
- Amir Khusrau was born in Patiyali, Uttar Pradesh, to a Turkish father and an Indian mother.
- He served as a court poet to five Delhi Sultans:
- Muiz ud din Qaiqabad of Mamluk Dynasty (1287–1290)
- Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–1296)
- Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)
- Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316–1320)
- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325)
- He was deeply influenced by Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, whose teachings shaped his spiritual and poetic journey.
- He is fondly remembered as “The Parrot of India” (Tuti-e-Hind) for his eloquence.
Literary Contributions:
- Wrote in Persian and Hindavi, pioneering Khari Boli, the precursor to Hindi and Urdu.
- Created the first Hindi lexicon (Khalikbari), blending Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic words.
-
- Tughlaq Nama (historical epic)
- Nuh Sipihr (Nine Skies)
- In the Bazaar of Love (ghazals and poetry)
- Invented the qawwali tradition, merging Indian and Persian musical elements.
- Composed Chhap Tilak Sab Chheeni Re, Zehal-e-Miskeen, and Sakal Ban Phool Rahi Sarson.
- Credited with developing the sitar and tabla, though debated by historians.
- Most devoted disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.
- Upon his master’s death in 1325, Khusrau followed within 6 months.
- His tomb lies beside Nizamuddin’s dargah in Delhi, symbolizing their eternal bond.
- Pioneered Hindavi poetry and laid the foundation for Hindi and Urdu literature.
- Inspired generations of ghazal and qawwali singers, including Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Abida Parveen.
- Festivals like Jahaan-e-Khusrau continue to honor his enduring cultural legacy.
PYQ:
[2012] With reference to the religious history of medieval India, the Sufi mystics were known to pursue which of the following practices?
1. Meditation and control of breath
2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely place
3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a state of ecstasy in their audience
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dramatic Performances Act, 1876
Why in the News?
PM Modi recently questioned why the colonial-era Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, which allowed authorities to ban plays deemed seditious, defamatory, or obscene, remained in force 75 years after independence.
What is the Dramatic Performances Act, 1876?
- The Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, was a colonial-era law enacted by the British to suppress nationalist and anti-government sentiments in public performances.
- The Act empowered the government to ban, regulate, or censor public plays, pantomimes, and dramas that were deemed:
- Scandalous or defamatory
- Seditious or inciting disaffection against the government
- Obscene or corrupting to public morality
- It also allowed magistrates to search, seize, and arrest performers and organizers without a warrant.
- The law prescribed up to three months of imprisonment and/or a fine for violations.
References to Article 19 and Article 372
- Conflict with Article 19(1)(a) – Right to Free Speech:
-
- After independence, freedom of speech and expression was guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a).
- The Allahabad High Court (1956) ruled the Act unconstitutional, stating it restricted free speech beyond reasonable limits.
- Exceptions Under Article 19(2):
-
- Article 19(2) allows reasonable restrictions on free speech for: Security of the state, public order, morality, and defamation.
- The court ruled that the Dramatic Performances Act exceeded these limits.
- Article 372 and Colonial Laws:
-
- Article 372(1) of the Constitution states that laws in force before independence shall continue to be in effect unless repealed or modified by the Parliament.
- Though invalidated in 1956, the law was formally repealed in 2018 under the Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017.
PYQ:
[2014] What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.
[2021] A legislation which confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled discretionary power in the matter of application of law violates which one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India?
(a) Article 14
(b) Article 28
(c) Article 32
(d) Article 44 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 136 of the Indian Constitution
Why in the News?
Vice President Jagdeep Dhankhar recently raised concerns over the wide usage of Special Leave Petitions (SLPs) under Article 136 of the Indian Constitution, stating that what was meant to be a “narrow slit” has now turned into a wide judicial intervention.
What is a Special Leave Petition (SLP) under Article 136?
- A SLP is an extraordinary appeal mechanism that allows the Supreme Court (SC) to intervene in any judgment, decree, or order passed by a lower court or tribunal, except in matters related to the Armed Forces Tribunal.
- SLP is discretionary, meaning the SC is NOT obligated to hear every petition filed under Article 136.
- The concept of SLP originates from the Government of India Act, 1935, which gave a similar power to the Privy Council in colonial times.
Key Features of SLP:
- Jurisdiction of Article 136:
- The SC has the power to grant special leave to appeal against judgments of High Courts, tribunals, or other judicial bodies.
- This allows the SC to examine cases that may not have a direct appeal provision under law.
- Scope of Application:
- SLPs can be filed in both civil and criminal cases.
- It can be used even in cases where a High Court refuses to grant a certificate of appeal to the Supreme Court.
- The SC may accept or reject an SLP without providing reasons.
- Time Limit for Filing:
- 90 days from the date of the High Court’s judgment.
- 60 days if the High Court refuses to certify an appeal.
- Judicial Discretion:
- SLP is not an automatic right of appeal but is granted only in cases where the SC finds that a substantial question of law or injustice is involved.
- Even if an SLP is accepted, the SC may later decline to interfere in the final decision.
- Conversion into a Formal Appeal: If the SC grants leave under an SLP, the case turns into a full-fledged appeal, allowing both parties to present their arguments.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements:
- Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
- A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither I nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1
Why in the News?
US’s Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission 1 successfully landed on the Moon, becoming the second private mission to do so and the first to land upright.
What is ‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1?
- Blue Ghost Mission 1 is a private lunar landing mission by Firefly Aerospace under NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program.
- It was launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9.
- It successfully landed on the Moon, at Mons Latreille, Mare Crisium.
- The mission is designed to operate for 14 Earth days (one lunar day).
Key Features of Blue Ghost Mission 1:
- Carries 10 scientific instruments, including a lunar soil analyzer, a radiation-tolerant computer, and a GPS-based navigation experiment to test satellite navigation on the Moon.
- Equipped with a high-definition imaging system to capture a lunar eclipse (March 14, 2024) and lunar sunset (March 16, 2024).
- Successfully navigated a rocky and cratered surface using hazard-avoidance technology, slowing from thousands of miles per hour to just two mph before touchdown.
- The lander is golden in color and about the size of a hippopotamus.
- It supports Artemis missions by testing lunar technologies and reducing costs for future human exploration.
PYQ:
[2016] What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently in the news?
(a) Electric plane tested by NASA
(b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan
(c) Space observatory launched by China
(d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Traditional water harvesting systems in India
Why in the News?
With summers nearing, the arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan particularly in Churu, Jaisalmer, and Barmer districts largely rely on ‘Kundi’ system of traditional rainwater harvesting.
What is Kundi System?
- Found in Churu, Rajasthan, kundis (or kunds) are traditional rainwater harvesting structures designed for storing drinking water.
- A circular or rectangular pit, often lined with bricks or stones, is dug into the ground.
- Rainwater is collected through sloped catchments and funneled into the kundi for storage.
- A lid or stone slab covers the pit to prevent contamination and evaporation.
- These structures help communities survive in regions with scarce groundwater and unpredictable rainfall.
Other Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in India
| Khadin (Rajasthan) |
Earthen embankment (bund) built across slopes to retain surface runoff for moisture conservation and groundwater recharge, used since the 15th century. |
| Johads (Rajasthan, Haryana) |
Small crescent-shaped embankments that store rainwater, recharge groundwater, prevent runoff, and improve water availability. |
| Baolis / Stepwells (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi, MP) |
Deep stepwells with stairs leading to groundwater storage, used for drinking, irrigation, and bathing; famous examples include Rani ki Vav (UNESCO site) and Agrasen ki Baoli. |
| Virdas (Gujarat – Kutch region) |
Shallow wells dug in depressions to separate fresh rainwater from saline groundwater, used by Maldhari pastoralists for drinking and livestock. |
| Tankas (Rajasthan, Gujarat) |
Circular underground tanks built in homes and temples for storing rainwater; lined with lime for purification, found in Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Dwarka. |
| Zabo (Nagaland) |
Terraced ponds built on hill slopes to collect rainwater for drinking, irrigation, and livestock, preventing soil erosion and increasing groundwater recharge. |
| Kuls (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, J&K) |
Small channels (kuls) diverting glacial meltwater to fields for irrigation, made of stones, wood, and mud, and managed by local communities. |
| Ahar-Pyne (Bihar, Jharkhand) |
Ancient system from the Mauryan period, where reservoirs (Ahar) collect rainwater, and channels (Pyne) distribute it for paddy cultivation. |
| Eri (Tamil Nadu) |
Interconnected chain of tanks developed during the Chola period for irrigation, groundwater recharge, and flood control, still supporting agriculture. |
| Surangam (Kerala, Karnataka) |
Horizontal tunnels dug into hillsides to extract water from aquifers, similar to Iran’s Qanat system, common in Malabar and Kasargod. |
| Phad Irrigation (Maharashtra) |
Community-managed canal irrigation system drawing water from rivers, used in drought-prone areas, managed by a village council (patkari system). |
PYQ:
[2021] Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs?
(a) Dholavira
(b) Kalibangan
(c) Rakhigarhi
(d) Ropar |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Science Day
Why in the News?
February 28 is observed as National Science Day in India to commemorate the discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir C.V. Raman in 1928. It is the only Nobel achieved by an Indian while working in India.
About National Science Day
- National Science Day is celebrated in India on February 28 every year.
- It marks the discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir C.V. Raman on February 28, 1928.
- The GoI declared this day as National Science Day in 1986 to promote scientific awareness.
- The primary objective of the day is to promote scientific temper, encourage research, and recognize India’s contributions to science.
- Schools, colleges, and research institutions organize seminars, science exhibitions, and debates to celebrate this day.
- The theme for National Science Day 2024 is “Empowering Indian Youth for Global Leadership in Science & Innovation for Viksit Bharat.”
Who was C.V. Raman?
- Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was an Indian physicist born on November 7, 1888, in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu.
- He completed his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Physics from Presidency College, Madras.
- He initially worked as an Assistant Accountant General but continued his passion for physics through research.
- In 1917, he became a professor at Calcutta University and conducted groundbreaking experiments.
- He established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore in 1948, which became a major center for scientific research.
|
Contributions of C.V. Raman
- Raman Effect (1928): Proved that light changes wavelength when scattered by molecules.
- Inspired by the blue color of the Mediterranean Sea, disproving the earlier sky-reflection theory.
- Won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930, becoming India’s first Nobel laureate in science.
- Conducted research on vibrations of musical instruments like the veena, tabla, and mridangam.
- Raman Spectroscopy is widely used in chemistry, physics, medicine, and space exploration.
- Used by NASA in Mars Rover missions for mineral analysis.
- He established the Raman Research Institute to promote advanced scientific research in India.
- He contributed to strengthening India’s scientific infrastructure and mentored future physicists.
PYQ:
[2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of:
(a) S. Ramanujan
(b) S. Chandrasekhar
(c) S. N. Bose
(d) C. V. Raman |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Doomsday Fish
Why in the News?
Recent sightings of the rare oarfish, also known as the “Doomsday Fish,” near the shores of Baja California Sur, Mexico, have sparked speculation and social media frenzy.
About the ‘Doomsday Fish’
- Japanese Folklore calls the oarfish “Ryugu no tsukai” or “Sea God’s Palace Messenger” and believes its rare appearance signals an impending natural calamity.
- The belief gained strength in 2011 when multiple oarfish washed ashore in Japan just before the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami (9.0 magnitude).
- Some cultures also consider the oarfish a messenger of the deep, warning humans of major disturbances in the ocean.
Popular Legends
- Some scientists suggest that deep-sea fishlike oarfish may be sensitive to underwater vibrations from fault lines and could surface before an earthquake.
- However, no conclusive scientific evidence supports this theory.
- Powerful ocean currents, storms, or underwater disturbances may push weakened or dying oarfish toward the surface.
- The El Niño phenomenon or changes in water temperature might also affect their movements.
- A 2019 study in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America found no relationship between oarfish sightings and earthquakes in Japan.
PYQ:
[2017] Due to some reasons, if there is a huge fall in the population of species of butterflies, what could be its likely consequence/consequences?
1. Pollination of some plants could be adversely affected.
2. There could be a drastic increase in the fungal infections of some cultivated plants.
3. It could lead to a fall in the population of some species of wasps, spiders and birds.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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