Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LK-99 Superconductors
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Researchers in South Korea have recently unveiled a potential room-temperature superconductor named LK-99, a discovery that could revolutionize industrial and medical applications due to its ability to conduct heavy currents with zero resistance.
- This article delves into the key characteristics that define a superconductor and the significance of LK-99’s potential discovery.
Understanding Superconductors
A superconductor is a material that, under specific conditions, displays four distinct changes indicating its transition to the superconducting state.
(1) Electronic Effect:
- A genuine superconductor demonstrates zero resistance when conducting electric current.
- Verifying this property requires advanced equipment and testing on a sufficiently large sample.
(2) Magnetic Effect:
- Different types of superconductors exhibit unique responses to magnetic fields.
- A type I superconductor expels a magnetic field below a critical value, creating the Meissner Effect.
- A type II superconductor, undergoing a mixed superconducting and non-superconducting phase, prevents magnetic fields from penetrating its bulk, known as flux pinning.
(3) Thermodynamic Effect:
- The electronic-specific heat, representing the heat required to raise electron temperature by 1 degree Celsius, changes significantly during the superconducting transition.
- As the material shifts to its superconducting state, the electronic-specific heat decreases.
- Upon re-warming the material to the critical temperature, the specific heat reverts to its non-superconducting value.
(4) Spectroscopic Effect:
- A distinctive feature of superconductors is the presence of energy level gaps that restrict electrons from certain energy states.
- Mapping energy levels in a superconductor reveals these gaps, serving as an indicator of its superconducting nature.
Conventional vs. Unconventional Superconductors:
- Conventional Superconductors: These materials adhere to the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory of superconductivity. They display predictable behaviors explained by established scientific principles.
- Unconventional Superconductors: In contrast, unconventional superconductors exhibit superconductivity that defies current theoretical explanations. Their unique properties challenge researchers to unravel the mysterious origins of their superconducting abilities.
About Material LK-99
- Apatite Structure: The Korean group utilized copper-substituted lead apatite, a phosphate mineral with unique tetrahedral motifs, to create LK-99.
- Superconducting Behavior: LK-99 displayed essential superconducting properties, with almost zero resistance to current flow and sudden emergence of resistance above a critical current threshold.
- Magnetic Resilience: LK-99 retained superconductivity even under the presence of a magnetic field until reaching a critical threshold.
Implications of the LK-99 Discovery
- The potential room-temperature superconductor LK-99 carries the promise of transforming various industries and medical applications.
- However, thorough validation by independent researchers is necessary to establish its authenticity and potential impact.
- If confirmed, LK-99 could reshape the way we harness and utilize electrical currents in a multitude of fields.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 8th Schedule Languages
Mains level: National Language Debate
Central Idea
- The Supreme Court rejected a plea to transfer a motor accident case from the Motor Accident Claims Tribunal (MACT) in Farrukhabad, UP, to the MACT in Darjeeling, West Bengal.
- The court emphasized that language should not be a barrier, and witnesses should communicate in Hindi, the national language, during proceedings
Why discuss this?
- The Supreme Court’s assertion that Hindi is the national language sparked debates, given India’s linguistic diversity.
- While no language is officially designated as the “national language,” Hindi holds a significant position as the official language of the Union.
Official Languages and the Constitution
- Article 343: The Constitution designates Hindi in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Union, with English used for official purposes during the initial 15 years after the Constitution’s commencement in 1950.
- Article 351: The Constitution directs the Union to promote the spread of Hindi while respecting the forms and expressions of other languages listed in the Eighth Schedule.
Eighth Schedule and Linguistic Diversity
- Eighth Schedule: The Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists 22 languages, including Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu, as recognized languages. The Schedule has expanded over time to accommodate languages like Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali.
- Demands for Inclusion: Various languages such as Bhojpuri, Garhwali (Pahari), and Rajasthani are vying for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule. The MHA acknowledges the dynamic nature of language evolution but faces challenges in establishing criteria for inclusion.
- Official Languages Act, 1963: Despite Hindi being an official language, the Act ensures the continuation of English for official purposes even beyond the initial 15-year period.
Status of English in Judiciary
- Apex Courts: The use of English is mandated in proceedings of the Supreme Court and High Courts, ensuring uniformity in legal communication. The Rajasthan High Court introduced Hindi for court proceedings, citing Article 348 (2) and the Official Languages Act.
- Subordinate Courts and Regional Languages:
- Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC): The State Government has the authority to determine the language of subordinate courts within the state.
- Code of Civil Procedure (CPC): While the language of subordinate courts is initially maintained, the State Government can declare a language and character for applications and proceedings.
Way Forward
- Balancing Diversity and Accessibility: The debate on regional languages in courts underscores the need to make legal proceedings accessible to all citizens, considering linguistic diversity.
- Gradual Transition: While the use of regional languages in courts is a growing conversation, any transition must be gradual and carefully implemented to ensure clarity and consistency.
- Socio-Linguistic Dynamics: Encouraging the use of local languages in legal proceedings aligns with PM’s vision to facilitate understanding of the judicial process among citizens.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BharatNet Project
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Cabinet has given its approval for an outlay of ₹1.39 lakh crore for the BharatNet project, aimed at providing last-mile connectivity to around 6.4 lakh villages across India.
About BharatNet Project
- Objectives: The project aims to connect 6.4 lakh villages, covering all gram panchayats in the country, with last-mile broadband connectivity through optical fiber.
- Implementation: Bharat Broadband Network (BBNL), a special purpose vehicle under Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), is responsible for executing the project.
- Tie-up with VLEs: BBNL will collaborate with village level entrepreneurs (VLEs) to provide connectivity, following a successful pilot project in four districts and later expanded to 60,000 villages.
- Progress So Far: As of now, around 1.94 lakh villages have been connected, and the rest are expected to be covered in the next 2.5 years.
Services details
BharatNet is the world’s largest rural connectivity scheme with an Optical Fibre network.
- Gram Panchayat: The scheme aimed to provide 100 Mbps broadband to 2.5 lakh gram panchayats.
- Households: The main goal is affordable 2 Mbps to 20 Mbps broadband for all households, especially in rural areas.
Key Achievements of the Project
- Broadband Connections: The pilot project involved 3,800 entrepreneurs providing 3.51 lakh broadband connections to villages.
- Data Consumption: Households in connected villages recorded an average data consumption of 175 gigabytes per month.
- Pricing and Speed: The project is based on a 50% revenue share between BBNL and VLEs, offering monthly broadband plans priced from ₹399 to ₹799 with a minimum speed of 30mbps.
- Optical Fiber Laid: Currently, there are 37 lakh route kilometers (rkm) of optical fiber cable (OFC) laid in India, with BBNL contributing 7.7 lakh rkm OFC to the network.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Clouded Leopard
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- International Clouded Leopard Day has been celebrated on 4th August since 2018.
- Scientists from the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) have conducted a study on clouded leopards in Manas National Park and Tiger Reserve in western Assam.
About Clouded Leopard
- The clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is a wild cat found in dense forests from the foothills of the Himalayas to mainland Southeast Asia and South China.
- It has large dusky-grey blotches and irregular spots and stripes on a dark grey or ochreous fur, resembling clouds, hence its name.
- It is the first cat that genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the pantherine cats around 9.32 to 4.47 million years ago.
- Currently, the clouded leopard is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
- It is listed in CITES Appendix I, and protected in most of its range.
Habitat in India
- It inhabits dense forests in states such as Sikkim, northern West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, Assam, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh.
- It is the State animal of Meghalaya (Note: Clouded Leopard National Park is located in Tripura).
Features of Clouded Leopards
- The mainland clouded leopard is agile and strong, often compared to the Ice Age sabretooth due to its large canines.
- It has rotating rear ankles that enable it to climb down headfirst from trees, distinguishing it from other felines.
- The cat has cloud-like spots on its hide, making it easily identifiable.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: DRACO Program
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- NASA, in collaboration with DARPA, has selected Lockheed Martin to design and build a nuclear-powered propulsion system for DRACO program.
- It is a breakthrough technology that could propel astronauts on a faster journey to Mars.
What is DRACO Program?
- DRACO stands for Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations.
- It aims to leverage nuclear reactions to significantly reduce travel time, making interplanetary missions more efficient and safer.
- The spacecraft will orbit at an altitude of approximately 700 to 1,994 kilometers, staying in orbit for over 300 years to ensure safe decay of radioactive elements.
How it is different from conventional spacecraft?
- DRACO, a nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) utilizes a nuclear reactor to heat propellant to extreme temperatures before exhausting the hot propellant through a nozzle to produce thrust.
- Compared to conventional space propulsion technologies, NTRs offer a high thrust-to-weight ratio.
- This thrust is around 10,000 times greater than electric propulsion, and a specific impulse (i.e., propellant efficiency) two-to-five times greater than in-space chemical propulsion.
Benefits of DRACO
- Shorter Journey to Mars: With nuclear-powered propulsion, astronauts could reach Mars in just three to four months, cutting the current travel time in half. The spacecraft could continue accelerating through the first half of the journey and then start slowing down again, reducing the need for extensive propellant storage.
- Enhanced Fuel Efficiency: Nuclear reactions, using the splitting of uranium atoms, are far more efficient than conventional rocket engines that rely on fuel combustion. The DRACO engine features a nuclear reactor that heats hydrogen gas to generate thrust, offering greater fuel efficiency for interplanetary travel.
- Reduced Exposure to Deep Space: Faster journeys to Mars would minimize astronauts’ exposure to the harsh environment of deep space, reducing potential risks and health hazards.
Nuclear Propulsion: Historical Context
- Legacy: The concept of nuclear propulsion for space is not new. In the 1950s and 1960s, Project Orion explored using atomic bomb explosions to accelerate spacecraft. NASA’s Project Rover and Project NERVA in the same era aimed to develop nuclear-thermal engines for space missions.
- Advancements in Safety Protocols: Unlike earlier nuclear propulsion projects, DRACO uses a less-enriched form of uranium and incorporates advanced safety protocols. The reactor will only be activated in space to minimize the risk of a radioactive accident on Earth.
Potential Applications and Future Testing:
- Military Satellite Maneuvers: DARPA’s investment in the DRACO program indicates potential military applications, such as enabling rapid maneuvers of military satellites in Earth’s orbit.
- Nuclear-Thermal Engine Test: Lockheed Martin plans to launch the demonstration spacecraft in late 2025 or early 2026.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fediverse
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Meta, the parent company for Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp, has launched Threads, a Twitter rival, which is set to become a part of the fediverse.
- While Meta’s move has garnered attention, the company is yet to reveal its plans for utilizing the fediverse to build a decentralized social network.
What is the Fediverse?
- Network of Servers: The fediverse is a group of federated social networking services that operate on decentralized networks using open-source standards.
- Third-Party Servers: It comprises a network of servers run by third parties, not controlled by any single entity. Social media platforms can utilize these servers to facilitate communication between their users.
- Cross-Platform Communication: Users on social media platforms within the fediverse can seamlessly communicate with users of other platforms within the network, eliminating the need for separate accounts for each platform.
- Media Platforms Using: Meta’s Threads is set to join the fediverse, along with other platforms like Pixelfed (photo-sharing), PeerTube (decentralized video-sharing), Lemmy, Diaspora, Movim, Prismo, WriteFreely, and more.
Benefits of Using the Fediverse
- Decentralized Nature: Social media platforms adopt the fediverse to leverage its decentralized nature, giving users more control over the content they view and interact with.
- Cross-Platform Communications: The fediverse enables easier communication between users of different social media platforms within the network.
- Data Portability: Users can freely transport their data to other platforms within the fediverse, ensuring greater flexibility and control over their online data.
Challenges Hindering Wider Adoption
- Scalability: Decentralized servers might face challenges in handling large amounts of traffic, leading to potential scalability issues.
- Content Moderation: The decentralized nature of the fediverse poses difficulties in implementing and enforcing uniform content moderation policies across servers.
- Data Privacy: Enforcing data privacy policies becomes more challenging since data posted on one server might not be deleted due to differing data deletion policies on other servers.
The Fediverse’s Evolution
- Long-standing Idea: The concept of the fediverse has been around for decades, with attempts made by companies like Google to embrace decentralized networks.
- Emergence of Notable Platforms: Platforms like Identi.ca (founded in 2008) and Mastodon and Pleroma (emerged in 2016) have contributed to the development of the fediverse.
- ActivityPub Protocol: In 2018, the W3 (World Wide Web Consortium) introduced the ActivityPub protocol, a commonly used protocol in applications within the fediverse.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Criminal Defamation
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Supreme Court’s recent decision to stay the conviction in a criminal defamation case has significant implications for the parliamentary representation of a prominent political leader.
- The court highlighted the absence of valid reasons for awarding the maximum sentence and emphasized the need for mutual respect and caution in public speeches.
Disqualification of Lawmakers
- This is an important aspect of maintaining the integrity of the legislative bodies.
- In India, disqualification can occur under constitutional provisions and the Representation of The People Act (RPA), 1951.
- Additionally, the Tenth Schedule deals with defection-related disqualifications.
Grounds for Disqualification
- Constitutional Provisions: Disqualification under Articles 102(1) and 191(1) applies to members of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies. Grounds include holding an office of profit, being of unsound mind, insolvent, or lacking valid citizenship.
- Defection: The Tenth Schedule of the Constitution provides for disqualification on the grounds of defection.
- RPA, 1951: This Act mandates disqualification for conviction in criminal cases.
Disqualification under RPA, 1951
- Section 8: Section 8 of the RPA deals with disqualification for conviction of offences.
- Objective: The provision aims to prevent the criminalization of politics and bar ‘tainted’ lawmakers from contesting elections.
- Disqualification Period: Section 8(3) specifies that a person convicted of an offence and sentenced to imprisonment for at least two years will be disqualified from the date of conviction and for an additional six years after release.
Appeal and Stay of Disqualification
- Reversal: Disqualification can be reversed if a higher court grants a stay on the conviction or decides the appeal in favor of the convicted lawmaker.
- Lok Prahari v Union of India: In a 2018 decision, the Supreme Court clarified that the disqualification will not take effect if the appellate court stays the conviction.
- Appeals Process: For example, if a convicted lawmaker appeals, it would first go to the Surat Sessions Court and then to the Gujarat High Court.
Changes in the Law
- Section 8(4) of RPA: Previously, Section 8(4) stated that disqualification takes effect after three months from the date of conviction.
- Lily Thomas v Union of India: In the landmark 2013 ruling, the Supreme Court struck down Section 8(4) of the RPA as unconstitutional.
- Significance: The verdict aimed to prevent convicted politicians from continuing to hold public office while their appeals were pending, contributing to the purification of Indian politics.
Supreme Court’s recent observations
- Lack of Reasoning: The court noted that the trial judge failed to provide any reasons for awarding the maximum sentence, considering the penal code allowed various options for punishment.
- High Court’s Omission: The Supreme Court observed that the High Court, in its judgment, overlooked the crucial aspect of the lack of reasoning behind the severe punishment.
- Impact on Representation: The court highlighted that disqualification from Parliament affects not only the individual but also the electorate represented by the person in question, raising concerns about unrepresented constituencies.
- Exercise of Caution by Public Figures: While accepting the apology for his previous “thief” remarks during the general elections, the Court reminded him of the need for caution in public speeches due to his position in public life.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Himalayan Vulture
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- In a remarkable achievement for conservation efforts, researchers have successfully recorded the first instance of captive breeding of the Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis) in India.
About Himalayan Vultures
|
| Scientific Name |
Gyps himalayensis |
| Range and Habitat |
Found in the Himalayan region and adjoining areas of India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Pakistan. Inhabit high-altitude mountainous regions. |
| Feeding Habits |
Scavengers that feed on carrion, playing a crucial role in the ecosystem by cleaning up carcasses and preventing the spread of diseases. |
| Conservation Status |
Near Threatened (IUCN)
Schedule-IV (WPA) |
| Breeding Behavior |
Build nests on cliffs and rocky ledges. Monogamous and form long-term pair bonds. |
| Cultural Significance |
Hold cultural and religious importance in some Himalayan cultures as symbols of purification and spiritual significance. |
Details of the Breeding Process
- Date and Nestling: The successful hatching of a Himalayan vulture nestling was observed on March 14, 2022, at the Assam State Zoo, Guwahati. The nestling was later moved to an artificial brooding facility on March 15.
- Observations: Researchers closely observed the housing, feeding, frequency of feed, and the growth and coloration of the nestling.
- Vulture Conservation Breeding Centers: India has established four Vulture Conservation Breeding Centers (VCBC) in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, and West Bengal. These centers focus on conserving White-rumped vultures, Slender-billed vultures, and Indian vultures, all of which are categorized as ‘Critically Endangered.’
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pepper Trade
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Pepper, often referred to as the “king of spices,” played a pivotal role in driving exploration, colonization, and cultural exchanges between the East and West.
Early Origins and Mystique of Pepper
- Luxury Commodity: Pepper, once considered a luxury good, was produced predominantly along India’s Malabar Coast and was shrouded in secrecy and legend. European Christians believed it came from the mythical land of “Prester John,” while Arabs, who controlled the trade, believed it grew behind waterfalls guarded by fire-breathing dragons.
- Ancient Trade: Archaeological evidence indicates that pepper was consumed in ancient India as early as 2000 BCE. It was exported to other parts of Asia and North Africa, with the mummified remains of Ramesses the Great from 1213 BCE found with peppercorns in Egypt.
- Arab Dominance: By the 10th century, Arab traders held a virtual monopoly on the spice trade, connecting India with the Middle East, Africa, and Europe, controlling supply and prices.
Pepper’s Role in Global Commerce
- Currency and Rent: Pepper became so valuable that it was used as currency and rent in various parts of the world. For example, in 408 BCE, the King of Visigoths demanded 3,000 kilograms of pepper as part of the siege of Rome.
- Spices and the Age of Discovery: The European craving for spices, particularly pepper, was a driving force behind the Age of Discovery. Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas in search of India, while Vasco da Gama found the route to India around the Cape of Good Hope.
- Portuguese and Dutch Dominance: The Portuguese initially controlled the spice trade from the Malabar region but were unable to dominate the pepper-producing areas. The Dutch East India Company monopolized the sale of pepper and challenged Portuguese supremacy.
- English East India Company: Queen Elizabeth I granted the English East India Company the right to trade in the East Indies in 1600. The Company’s expeditions marked the foundation of the English colonial presence in India.
Cultural Exchanges and Islam’s Spread:
- Malabar’s Trading Legacy: The Malabar Coast, known as “the city of spices,” served as a hub for international trade. The Zamorin welcomed traders from various cultures, including Jewish, Christian, and Muslim communities.
- Islamic Influence: The pepper trade helped spread Islam across regions, extending from East Africa to southern China. Malabar witnessed a significant Islamic presence going back almost a thousand years.
Pepper’s Evolution and Legacy
- From Luxury to Staple: Improved production techniques and cultivation in tropical regions led to pepper becoming a household staple. Its significance in driving exploration and colonial empires remains a significant part of world history.
Conclusion
- Pepper’s journey through history reflects the transformative power of trade and the influence of commodities in shaping the world.
- Once a prized luxury, pepper became a driving force behind exploration, colonization, and cultural exchanges between East and West.
- Its significance as a global commodity and the desire to control its trade shaped the course of history, and its legacy as a vital spice endures in our daily lives.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Money Bills vs. Financial Bills
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The debate surrounding the classification of the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Bill as a Money Bill and its implications has sparked discussions on the nuances of Money Bills and Financial Bills in India’s parliamentary process.
Money Bills vs. Financial Bills
|
Money Bills |
Financial Bills |
| Definition and Scope |
Article 110 – Deals with taxes, government borrowing, expenditure, receipt of money from the Consolidated Fund of India, among others. |
Broader scope beyond Article 110(1) |
| Rajya Sabha’s Role |
Introduced only in Lok Sabha, no Rajya Sabha approval needed
Lok Sabha has the discretion to accept or reject any recommendations made by the Rajya Sabha on a Money Bill. |
Can be introduced in either house, requires approval from both houses. |
| Origin and President’s Recommendation |
Must be introduced only in Lok Sabha, and the President’s recommendation is required for its introduction. |
Can be introduced in either house, no President’s recommendation needed. |
| Passage Procedure |
Passed by Lok Sabha, sent to Rajya Sabha for recommendations within 14 days.
Rajya Sabha’s recommendations are not binding.
If rejected by Lok Sabha, the Bill is considered passed without Rajya Sabha’s concurrence. |
Require agreement of both houses for passage, subject to Rajya Sabha amendments or rejections. |
Supreme Court’s Perspective
- Striking Down Amendments: In Nov 2019, a five-judge Constitution Bench, headed by the then CJI Ranjan Gogoi, struck down amendments to the 2017 Finance Act, passed as a Money Bill. The court found the amendments altering the structure and functioning of various tribunals contrary to constitutional principles.
- Referring the Matter: The court referred the issue of whether these amendments could have been passed as a Money Bill to a seven-judge bench for consideration, indicating the complexity of the matter.
- Doubts Over Aadhaar Act: The same Constitution Bench expressed doubts about the correctness of the 2018 verdict upholding the 2016 Aadhaar Act, which was also passed as a Money Bill. This matter is yet to be conclusively settled, as petitions seeking a review of the Aadhaar Act ruling remain pending in the Supreme Court.
Conclusion
- The distinction between Money Bills and Financial Bills is crucial in India’s parliamentary process, as it determines the extent of Rajya Sabha’s role and the passage procedure.
- While Money Bills have limited Rajya Sabha involvement and cannot be amended or rejected by it, other Financial Bills and ordinary Bills require the agreement of both houses for passage.
- The Supreme Court’s perspective on the correct classification of certain Bills as Money Bills adds further complexity to the debate, underscoring the need for a comprehensive understanding of these constitutional provisions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Voyager 1 and 2
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- After more than four decades in space, Voyager 2, Earth’s longest-running space probe, experienced a communication loss with NASA.
Voyager Mission
- Originally planned to explore the five outer planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) with four complex spacecraft, NASA changed its approach due to budget constraints.
- The agency decided to send two identical probes, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, initially slated to explore only Jupiter and Saturn. In 1974, they were redirected to explore Uranus and Neptune as well.
- The Voyager spacecraft took advantage of a rare alignment of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune that occurs once every 175 years.
- This alignment allowed the spacecraft to harness the gravity of each planet, enabling them to swing from one to the next using minimal fuel.
Features of the Voyager
- Identical Design: Both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are equipped with 10 different instruments to carry out various experiments. These instruments include cameras for celestial imaging, infrared and ultraviolet sensors, magnetometers, plasma detectors, and cosmic-ray sensors.
- Nuclear Power Source: As their missions involved traveling far from the Sun, the spacecraft relied on a small nuclear power plant fueled by the radioactive decay of plutonium pellets, providing hundreds of watts of power.
- Golden Phonograph Records: Each spacecraft carries a golden phonograph record, intended as a time capsule for any extraterrestrial life that might encounter the probes in the distant future. The record contains images, natural sounds, music, greetings in multiple languages, and instructions for playing it.
Notable Achievements of Voyager Spacecraft
- Jupiter Encounter: Voyager 1 reached Jupiter on March 5, 1979, followed by Voyager 2 on July 9. Among the exciting discoveries were active volcanoes on Jupiter’s moon, Io, and three new moons: Thebe, Metis, and Adrastea.
- Saturn Revelations: Voyager 1 passed by Saturn’s moon, Titan, revealing it was not the largest moon in the solar system, as previously thought. Titan’s atmosphere was found to be composed mainly of nitrogen, and it likely had clouds and methane rain.
- Uranus Exploration: Voyager 2 arrived at Uranus in 1986, providing stunning photographs and confirming that its main constituents are hydrogen and helium. The spacecraft discovered 10 new moons, two new rings, and made significant observations about Uranus’s atmosphere.
- Neptune Flyby: Voyager 2 became the first human-made object to fly past Neptune in 1989. It discovered new moons and rings, observed the Great Dark Spot—a massive spinning storm on Neptune—and measured winds blowing at 1,100 kph.
Continuing Journey Among the Stars
- Entering Interstellar Space: Both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 officially entered interstellar space in 2012 and 2018, respectively. These milestones helped astronomers define the edge of interstellar space, around 18 billion kilometers from the Sun.
- Communication Loss and Hope: Voyager 2 recently experienced a glitch after a faulty command, affecting its ability to receive commands and transmit data. However, the “heartbeat” signal detected by NASA assures that the spacecraft is still operational, and scientists hope to regain full communication soon.
- Silent Journey: While most instruments on the spacecraft are no longer operational, both Voyagers will continue their silent journey among the stars, powered by their small nuclear power sources. Eventually, their missions will end.
Conclusion
- Voyager 2, a symbol of human ingenuity and exploration, continues its journey through the cosmos, exploring distant planets and paving the way for future space missions.
- Despite communication loss, the spacecraft’s “heartbeat” signal signifies its resilience and ongoing operation, reminding us of the indomitable spirit of human curiosity.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vivad se Vishwas II Scheme
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- The Centre has launched the Vivad se Vishwas II scheme, a one-time settlement scheme, to effectively resolve pending contractual disputes with vendors or suppliers to the government and its undertakings.
Vivad se Vishwas II Scheme
- The scheme was announced in the Union Budget 2023-24.
- It aims to settle government and government undertakings’ contractual disputes wherein arbitral awards are challenged in courts.
- The Vivad Se Vishwas I scheme was announced under Union Budget 2020 to reduce ongoing legal disputes under direct taxation.
- Around 150,000 cases were resolved with the recovery of about 54 per cent of the amount under litigation.
- The scheme was started in March 2020, and closed on March 31, 2021.
Key details about the Scheme
- Deadline and Guidelines: The scheme sets an October 31 deadline for firms to submit their claims for consideration. The Department of Expenditure had earlier issued guidelines for its operation in late May.
- Eligibility: The scheme applies to domestic contractual disputes where one of the parties is either the Government of India or an organization working under its control.
- Cut-off Dates: To be considered for settlement, an arbitral award must have been secured by the aggrieved party by January 31, 2023, while the cut-off date for court orders is set at April 30.
- Graded Settlement Terms: The scheme offers graded settlement terms based on the pendency level of the disputes. For cases involving court awards, the settlement amount offered to the contractor can be up to 85% of the net amount awarded or upheld by the court. For arbitral awards, the threshold is “up to” 65% of the net amount.
- Processing and Registration: Eligible claims shall be processed only through the Government e-Marketplace (GeM), which has developed a dedicated web-page for implementing this scheme. For Ministry of Railways’ contractors, claims can be registered on the Indian Railways E-Procurement System.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The Union Cabinet approved amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act to allow commercial mining of lithium and five more minerals.
- This move is aimed at increasing the exploration and mining of these valuable resources from newly discovered mines by opening them to private sector participation.
Mining of Critical Minerals
- Minerals Removed from Atomic Minerals List: The law removes lithium, beryllium, titanium, niobium, tantalum and zirconium from the list of atomic minerals, which previously restricted their exploration and mining to state-run companies only.
- Private Sector Participation: With the removal of these minerals from the atomic minerals list, private companies can now participate in the exploration and mining processes.
Why such move?
- New Lithium Reserves in J&K: Earlier this year, lithium reserves were discovered in the federally administered region of Jammu and Kashmir. The government plans to find more reserves later this year.
- Expected Increase in Exploration and Mining: The government expects a significant increase in the exploration and mining activities of these minerals across the country due to private sector involvement.
Significance of Private Sector Involvement
- Force Multiplier: The involvement of private companies is seen as a “force multiplier” as it is expected to boost the production of these critical minerals, meeting the growing demands of the country.
- Increased Production Capacity: The participation of private players is likely to lead to increased production capacity, enabling India to meet the rising demand for electric vehicle batteries and other industrial applications.
Need for Vigorous Exploration and Production
- Meeting Growing Demands: India’s increasing focus on electric vehicles and other technological advancements necessitates a robust supply of critical minerals. Vigorous exploration and production are crucial to fulfill the country’s requirements.
Conclusion
- The passage of the law by India’s Parliament marks a significant step towards increasing the exploration and mining of critical minerals, including lithium, for electric vehicle batteries and other industrial applications.
- By allowing private sector participation, the government aims to bolster the production capacity and meet the growing demands of the country, ensuring a sustainable and technologically advanced future.
Also read:
Discovery of Lithium Deposits in J&K
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 370
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Supreme Court deliberated on the President’s power to declare Article 370 of the Constitution, which granted special status to J&K, inoperative after the dissolution of the State’s Constituent Assembly in 1957.
- The court questioned whether the Constituent Assembly’s dissolution nullifies the substantive part of Clause 3 in Article 370.
- Senior counsel argued that Article 370 cannot be revoked after the Constituent Assembly’s dissolution, but the court questioned the extent of the President’s powers.
Also read:
[Burning Issue] Reorganization of Jammu and Kashmir
Historical Context of Article 370
- The Constituent Assembly of J&K was a temporary body convened for drafting the State’s Constitution, becoming functus officio after its completion.
- Article 370 was considered “temporary” because it allowed the people of J&K to determine their Constitution and the jurisdiction of Union of India.
- The collaborative relationship between the Union and J&K, with constant dialogue and parliamentary laws applying to J&K through Constitution Orders, was disrupted by the abrogation of special constitutional status in 2019.
Contentions raised against A370 Revocation
- Constituent Assembly’s Role: The provision requiring the J&K Constituent Assembly’s recommendation for abrogation has no application, given its specific purpose was to draft the State’s Constitution.
- Impact on Democracy: The argument raised concerns about silencing the people’s will in J&K, where representative democracy had been absent for five years. The State’s unique relationship with India was emphasized.
- Parliament’s Authority: The counsel questioned Parliament’s authority to declare itself the legislature of J&K and abrogate Article 370, asserting that Parliament could not act outside the Constitution.
- Temporary Provision: It was clarified that Article 370 was mentioned as a “temporary” provision because it allowed the people of J&K to determine their future through their Constituent Assembly.
Conclusion
- The Supreme Court’s examination of the President’s power over Article 370 after the Constituent Assembly’s dissolution raises significant questions about the unique constitutional structure and the collaboration between the Union and J&K.
- The verdict will determine whether Article 370 remains operative and its implications on the historical relationship between the State and the Union.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Superconductivity
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Recently, two South Korean researchers sparked excitement in the physics community by claiming to have achieved Superconductivity at room temperature.
- They claim to have developed a lead-based compound exhibiting superconducting properties at normal room temperature and pressure (NTP) conditions.
NTP (Normal Temperature and Pressure):
Normal Temperature: Defined as 20 degrees Celsius (20°C) or 293.15 Kelvin (K).
Normal Pressure: Defined as 1 atmosphere (atm) or 101.325 kilopascals (kPa), which is the same pressure as STP.
NTP is another standard set of conditions used for specific applications, but it is less commonly used than STP.
STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure):
Standard Temperature: Defined as 0 degrees Celsius (0°C) or 273.15 Kelvin (K). At this temperature, the average kinetic energy of gas molecules is minimal.
Standard Pressure: Defined as 1 atmosphere (atm) or 101.325 kilopascals (kPa). This is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level.
STP is often used to express gas properties and perform calculations under uniform conditions to allow for meaningful comparisons between different gases or processes. |
What is Superconductivity?
- Zero Resistance: Superconductivity occurs when a material offers almost zero resistance to the flow of electric current, enabling energy-efficient electrical appliances and lossless power transmission.
- Magnetic Behavior: Superconductors also display fascinating behavior under magnetic fields, enabling technologies like MRI machines and superfast Maglev trains.
Exploring the Material LK-99
- Apatite Structure: The Korean group utilized copper-substituted lead apatite, a phosphate mineral with unique tetrahedral motifs, to create LK-99.
- Superconducting Behavior: LK-99 displayed essential superconducting properties, with almost zero resistance to current flow and sudden emergence of resistance above a critical current threshold.
- Magnetic Resilience: LK-99 retained superconductivity even under the presence of a magnetic field until reaching a critical threshold.
Current Superconductors and Their Limitations
- Earlier Discoveries: In the 1980s, scientists found copper oxide materials exhibiting superconductivity above -240°C. Subsequent research yielded limited success in achieving higher temperatures.
- Extreme Conditions: Existing superconductors operate at extremely low temperatures, often below -250°C, close to absolute zero (-273°C).
- Critical Temperatures: Materials like Mercury, Lead, and Aluminum, Tin, and Niobium exhibit superconductivity at critical temperatures just above absolute zero.
- High-Temperature Superconductors: Some materials, labelled ‘high-temperature’ superconductors, display superconducting properties below -150°C.
Scientific Community’s Response
- Cautious Optimism: The scientific community responded cautiously to the claims of LK-99’s room-temperature superconductivity, given previous controversies and unverified claims.
- Technical Errors: Some data in the research papers raised questions and were deemed “sloppy” or “fishy” by independent scientists.
- Replication Efforts: Numerous research groups worldwide are attempting to reproduce the results to validate the claim.
- Mixed Perspectives: The authors’ unwavering confidence in their work contrasts with certain aspects of the research that appear hurried or contentious.
Conclusion
- The search for room-temperature superconductors represents a holy grail in science, promising immense rewards and recognition.
- Although the recent claim by South Korean researchers has captured attention, it awaits rigorous validation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Anna Bhau Sathe
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Telangana CM has expressed a desire to see social reformer, writer, and folk poet Anna Bhau Sathe honoured with the prestigious Bharat Ratna award.
Who was Anna Bhau Sathe?
- Anna Bhau Sathe, born Tukaram Bhaurao Sathe on August 1, 1920, in Maharashtra’s Wategaon village, emerged as a prominent figure in the field of literature, poetry, and social activism.
- His journey from humble beginnings in a Dalit family to becoming a prolific writer and folk poet is a testament to his indomitable spirit and commitment to social reform.
Early Life and Struggles
- Mumbai Sojourn: In 1930, Sathe’s family moved to Mumbai, where he worked as a porter, hawker, and cotton mill helper, enduring the hardships of working-class life.
- Labour Activism: His participation in the 1934 workers’ strike, led by the Lal Bawta Mill Workers Union, marked the beginning of his engagement in labor and social issues.
- Learning to Read and Write: Denied schooling due to his Dalit identity, Sathe joined labor study circles where he learned to read and write.
Evolution as a Writer
- Early Poetry: His first poem, focusing on the menace of mosquitoes in the labour camp, laid the foundation for his future creative endeavours.
- Cultural Group: Sathe formed the Dalit Yuvak Sangh, a cultural group that composed poems reflecting workers’ protests and agitations.
- Influence of Progressive Writers: The Progressive Writers Association’s national formation, with writers like Premchand and Faiz Ahmad Faiz, exposed him to translated Russian works, inspiring him to write plays, stories, and novels.
Wide-ranging Impact of His Work
- Spreading Awareness: Together with his group, Sathe travelled across Mumbai, raising awareness about workers’ rights and social issues.
- Prolific Output: Over 49 years, he authored 32 novels, 13 collections of short stories, four plays, a travelogue, and 11 ballads (povadas).
- Cinematic and International Recognition: Several of his works were adapted into films, and some were translated into other languages, including Russian. His “Bangalchi Hak” was presented at London’s Royal Theatre.
- Depiction of Social Realities: Sathe’s literature delved into the caste and class realities of Indian society during his time.
Left-leaning Ideology and Russian Connection
- Influence of Marxism: While influenced by Marxism, he also depicted the harsh realities of the caste system in his work.
- The Lal Bawta Kala Pathak: In 1943, Sathe founded this group, which toured Maharashtra, performing programs on caste atrocities, class conflict, and workers’ rights.
- Dedication to Dr. Ambedkar: His most famous novel, “Fakira,” was dedicated to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, reflecting his commitment to the Dalit cause.
Russian Inspiration
- Maxim Gorky’s Influence: Often referred to as the “Maxim Gorky of Maharashtra,” Sathe drew inspiration from Gorky’s work “The Mother” and the Russian Revolution, evident in his writings.
- Visit to Russia: In 1961, Sathe travelled to Russia with a group of other Indians, fostering his connection with Russian culture.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GI Tag
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Geographical Indications Registry in Chennai recently granted the prestigious Geographical Indication (GI) tag to many distinctive products from across India.
GI Tags for Rajasthani Crafts
- Udaipur Koftgari Metal Craft: This traditional craft involves ornamenting weapons with intricate designs, gold and silver wire embedding, and polishing. The process results in exquisite and finely crafted metalware.
- Bikaner Kashidakari Craft: Traditional craftspeople from the Meghwal community in Bikaner and nearby districts create this craft on cotton, silk, or velvet. The intricate fine stitches and mirror-work are mainly used for marriage-related objects and are believed to ward off the ‘evil eye.’
- Jodhpur Bandhej Craft: Known for its vibrant and colorful appeal, Bandhej is an ancient Rajasthani art of tying and dyeing textiles. The fabrics, including muslin, silk, and voile, are tied with cotton thread before dyeing.
- Bikaner Usta Kala Craft: Also known as gold nakashi or gold manauti work, this craft is characterized by the use of untreated raw camel hide. The skilled Dapgar community of leather craftspeople meticulously processes and molds the leather to create durable and golden-hued products.
Other GI Tagged Products
- Jalesar Dhatu Shilp (Uttar Pradesh): This craft from Jalesar in Uttar Pradesh’s Etah district involves making decorative metal craft and brassware, including ghungrus (anklets) and ghantis (bells). The Thatheras community, residing in the Hathuras locality, is responsible for creating these beautiful metal products.
- Goa Mankurad Mango (Goa): Also known as malcorada, cardozo mankurad, corado, and Goa mankur, this variety of mango was granted a GI tag. The All Goa Mango Growers Association filed the application for this mango, which holds historical significance with its Portuguese-inspired name.
- Goan Bebinca (Goa): Known as the ‘queen of Goan desserts,’ Bebinca is a traditional Indo-Portuguese pudding. The All Goa Bakers and Confectioners Association filed the application for the GI tag.
- Kanniyakumari Matti banana (TN): It is a banana variety grown in the Kanniyakumari district of Tamil Nadu, India. It is known for its unique sweet taste and small size. It is cultivated in the southernmost part of India, and its retail market value has increased. The variety is in high demand, especially in the Thiruvananthapuram region of Kerala, where it is exported to Gulf countries. The banana is used in the making of “panchamirtham.”
Back2Basics: Geographical Indication (GI)
- A GI is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation that are due to that origin.
- Nodal Agency: Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry
- India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 w.e.f. September 2003.
- GIs have been defined under Article 22 (1) of the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.
- The tag stands valid for 10 years.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Akira Ransomware
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Computer Emergency Response Team of India (CERT-In) issued a warning about the Akira ransomware, a highly dangerous cyber threat that has been wreaking havoc on corporate networks worldwide.
What is the Akira Ransomware?
- Encryption and Data Theft: Akira ransomware encrypts sensitive data on targeted devices and appends the “akira” extension to filenames, making the files inaccessible to users.
- Shadow Volume Deletion: The ransomware deletes Windows Shadow Volume copies, hindering data recovery options for affected organizations.
- Ransom Demands: The ransomware operators extort victims by demanding a double ransom for decryption and recovery, threatening to leak sensitive data on their dark web blog if payment is not made.
Infection and Working Mechanism
- Spread Methods: Akira ransomware is primarily distributed through spear-phishing emails with malicious attachments, drive-by downloads, and specially crafted web links. It also exploits insecure Remote Desktop connections to infiltrate systems.
- Selective Encryption: The ransomware avoids encrypting specific system folders to maintain system stability.
- Negotiation Process: Each victim is given a unique negotiation password to communicate with the ransomware gang via the threat actor’s Tor site.
Major targets
- Corporate Networks: Akira ransomware targets corporate networks across various sectors, including education, finance, real estate, manufacturing, and consulting.
- Data Exfiltration: In addition to encryption, the threat actors steal sensitive corporate data, using it as leverage in their extortion attempts.
Protective Measures against Akira Ransomware
- Regular Backups: Maintain up-to-date offline backups to ensure data recovery in case of an attack.
- System Updates: Regularly update operating systems and networks, and implement virtual patching for legacy systems.
- Email Authentication: Establish Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting, and Conformance (DMARC), Domain Keys Identified Mail (DKIM), and Sender Policy Framework (SPF) to prevent email spoofing and spam.
- Strong Authentication: Enforce strong password policies and multi-factor authentication (MFA) to secure user accounts.
- Data Encryption: Implement data-at-rest and data-in-transit encryption to protect sensitive information.
- Attachment Blocking: Block suspicious attachment file types like .exe, .pif, or .url to prevent malicious downloads.
- Security Audits: Conduct regular security audits, especially for critical networks and database servers, to identify vulnerabilities.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kuril Islands
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Russia’s invasion of Ukraine is ongoing, leading to challenges in resource allocation along its western border.
- Japan sees a chance to reclaim the Kuril Islands, also known as the Northern Territories in Japan, which were seized by Soviet forces during WWII.
About Kuril Islands
- The Kuril Islands, also known as the Kurile Islands, are a volcanic archipelago situated in the northern Pacific Ocean.
- They stretch from the northeastern tip of Hokkaido, Japan, to the southernmost tip of Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula.
- It consist of 56 islands, with Iturup, Kunashir, Shikotan, and Habomai being the most significant.
- The Kuril Islands are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area with intense volcanic and seismic activity, due to the movement of tectonic plates.
- The islands are home to several active volcanoes, with some of the notable ones being Alaid, Ebeko, and Chikurachki.
What is the dispute?
- The islands have been a subject of territorial dispute between Russia and Japan since the end of World War II.
- After the war, the Soviet Union took control of the Kuril Islands, leading to the displacement of around 17,000 Japanese residents who were living there.
- Japan claims the southernmost islands (Iturup, Kunashir, Shikotan, and Habomai) and refers to them as the “Northern Territories.”
- Russia maintains sovereignty over the islands and considers them an integral part of its territory.
- The territorial dispute has hindered the signing of a formal peace treaty between Russia and Japan to officially end World War II hostilities.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Zero FIR
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Recent incidents of violence and crime in Manipur have brought the concept of the ‘Zero First Information Report (FIR)’ into the spotlight.
- The Supreme Court has sought for all data regarding such FIRs in Manipur Gangrape Incidence.
What is Zero FIR?
- Provision and Purpose: Zero FIR allows any police station to register an FIR for a cognisable offence without assigning a regular FIR number initially.
- No diary: Whereas FIRs have serial numbers assigned to them, zero FIRs are assigned the number ‘0’. Hence the name.
- Swift Action: The relevant police station subsequently registers a fresh FIR and commences the investigation.
- Focus on Victims: It is designed to expedite complaint lodging, particularly for serious crimes involving women and children, without the need to approach multiple police stations.
- Preserving Evidence: Early registration helps prevent the loss or tampering of crucial evidence and witnesses.
- Transferred Jurisdiction: The Zero FIR is later transferred to the relevant police station where the offence occurred or where the investigation should be conducted.
How does it work?
- After a police station registers a zero FIR, it has to transfer the complaint to a police station that has the jurisdiction to investigate the alleged offence.
- Once a zero FIR is transferred, the police station with the appropriate jurisdiction assigns it a serial number, thereby converting it into a regular FIR.
Legal Provisions for Zero FIR
The provision of Zero FIR finds support in various judgments and recommendations.
- Satvinder Kaur vs. State (1999): The Delhi High Court held that a woman has the right to lodge her complaint from any place other than where the incident occurred.
- Justice Verma Committee (2012): The introduction of Zero FIR was based on the recommendation of the Justice Verma Committee, which was formed in response to the 2012 Nirbhaya gangrape case.
- Lalita Kumari vs. Govt. of UP (2014): The Supreme Court ruled that registration of an FIR is mandatory when information discloses the commission of a cognizable offence.
Back2Basics: First Information Report (FIR)
- Essential Document: An FIR is a written document prepared by the police upon receiving information about a cognisable offence.
- What is a cognisable offences? It is when an officer can arrest a suspect without a court’s warrant if/she has “reason to believe” that the person committed the offence and arrest is necessary based on certain factors.
- Triggering Investigation: It serves as the first step towards initiating the investigation process and subsequent police actions.
- Registration for Cognizable Offences: Section 154(1) of the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC) empowers the police to register an FIR for cognizable offences.
- Punishment for Non-Registration: Section 166A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) provides punishment for public servants failing to record information related to a cognizable offence, with imprisonment of up to two years and a fine.
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