Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ahilyabai Holkar, Ahmednagar
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Government decision: Ahmednagar district was renamed after Punyashlok Ahilya Devi Holkar.
- Support from officials: Government officials express gratitude and believe it enhances district honour.
- Previous discussions: Maharashtra Education Minister planned to rename the city as ‘Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Nagar’.
Origin and History of Ahmednagar
- Ancient references: Ahmednagar was mentioned in reference to Mauryan Emperor Ashok (240 BC).
- Rule of prominent kingdoms: Rashtrakuta Dynasty, Western Chalukyas, and Delhi Sultanate.
- Emergence of Ahmednagar: Revolt led to the establishment of Bahmani kingdom, with Ahmednagar as one of the five independent kingdoms.
Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah and Ahmednagar
- PM of Bahmani Sultanate: Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah assumed the position in 1486.
- Victory and city foundation: Defeated the king of Bahmani kingdom and founded Ahmednagar in 1494.
- Unifying communities: Gained loyalty of Muslims, Maratha peasants, and warriors.
Ahilyabai Holkar: Early Life and Marriage
- Remarkable upbringing: Ahilyabai born in Chondi village, received rare education.
- Marriage to Khande Rao: Malhar Rao Holkar arranged the marriage after being impressed by Ahilyabai’s devotion.
Administration and Temple-building
- Assumption of power: Ahilyabai took control of Malwa after her husband’s death in 1754.
- Effective governance: Excelling in administration and military strategies under her father-in-law’s guidance.
- Temple restoration: Notable efforts in restoring Hindu temples, earning respect as a capable ruler.
Legacy of Ahilyabai Holkar
- Recognizing achievements: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s inauguration of Samudra Darshan Path and Somnath Exhibition Gallery.
- Symbol of inspiration: Somnath temple built by Ahilyabai Holkar in 1783, representing triumph of truth and faith.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Utkarsh 2.0 initiative, LPPS
Mains level: Cashless payments
Central Idea
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed the development of a Light weight and Portable Payment System (LPSS).
Light weight and Portable Payment System (LPSS)
- LPSS is referred to as a “bunker” equivalent, to ensure uninterrupted digital payments during exigencies such as natural calamities or war.
- This system will operate independently of existing payment technologies like UPI, NEFT, and RTGS.
- It can be operated from anywhere by a minimal staff during exigencies.
- It will process critical transactions, such as bulk payments and interbank payments, during extreme and volatile situations.
- The system operates on minimalistic hardware and software and is activated only when needed.
Why such move?
- As part of the Utkarsh 2.0 initiative, the RBI is working on strengthening the oversight framework for Centralised Payment Systems, including NEFT and RTGS.
- The initiative aims to enhance the existing payment systems and introduce new functionalities to improve efficiency and reliability.
Importance of an LPSS
- Near-zero downtime: The RBI aims to create a payment system that can operate on minimalistic hardware and software, ensuring near-zero downtime of the payment and settlement system in the country.
- Continuous liquidity pipeline: The lightweight system will facilitate uninterrupted functioning of essential payment services like bulk payments, interbank payments, and provision of cash to participant institutions, thereby keeping the liquidity pipeline of the economy alive and intact.
- Stability of the economy: It is expected to process critical transactions, including government and market-related transactions that are crucial for maintaining the stability of the economy.
- Enhancing public confidence: The resilient nature of the system will act as a bunker equivalent in payment systems, enhancing public confidence in digital payments and financial market infrastructure, even during extreme conditions.
Differences between LPSS and UPI
- Existing payment systems: The RBI acknowledges the availability of various payment systems in India for individuals and institutions, each with its distinct character and application.
- Handling large transaction volumes: Conventional systems like RTGS, NEFT, and UPI are designed to handle large volumes of transactions while ensuring sustained availability, relying on complex wired networks and advanced IT infrastructure.
- Vulnerability to catastrophic events: However, catastrophic events such as natural calamities and war can temporarily render these payment systems unavailable by disrupting the underlying information and communication infrastructure.
- Preparedness for extreme situations: To address this vulnerability, the RBI believes it is prudent to be prepared with a lightweight payment system capable of functioning in extreme and volatile situations.
Conclusion
- The RBI has not provided a specific timeline for the launch of the lightweight payment and settlements system.
- However, the concept serves as a crucial step towards ensuring the resilience of the payment ecosystem during emergencies.
- Further research and development efforts are necessary to bring this system to fruition and enhance the overall stability and confidence in digital payments in India.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exoplanet TOI4603b
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- A new Jupiter-size exoplanet with the highest density known till this date has been discovered by an international team of scientists at the Exoplanet Research Group of the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad.
- Massive giant exoplanets are defined as those with a mass greater than four times that of Jupiter.
About the Exoplanet TOI4603b
- The exoplanet is found around the star called TOI4603 or HD 245134.
- It has a mass 13 times greater than that of Jupiter and a density of approximately 14 g/cm3.
- Initially, NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) declared TOI4603 as a possible candidate to host a secondary body of unknown nature.
- Using PARAS, scientists confirmed the secondary body as a planet, and it was named TOI 4603b or HD 245134b.
- The exoplanet is located 731 light years away and orbits a sub-giant F-type star TOI4603 every 7.24 days.
Note: An exoplanet, short for “extra-solar planet,” is a planet that orbits a star other than our Sun. These planets are located outside of our solar system and are not part of our planetary system.
Unprecedented Density and Proximity
- TOI 4603b is one of the most massive and densest giant planets discovered to date.
- It orbits very close to its host star at a distance less than 1/10th the distance between our Sun and Earth.
- Comparisons between the TOI-4603 star-planet system and the Sun-Mercury and Sun-Jupiter systems highlight the close proximity of TOI-4603 b to its star.
- The exoplanet is situated more than 50 times closer to its star than Jupiter is to the Sun.
- TOI-4603b is 13 times more massive than Jupiter.
Utilization of Indigenous Technology
- The discovery of this massive exoplanet was made using the indigenously made PRL Advanced Radial-velocity Abu-sky Search spectrograph (PARAS) at the 1.2 m telescope of PRL at its Gurushikhar Observatory in Mt. Abu.
- The mass of the planet was measured precisely using PARAS.
Uniqueness of the Discovery
- The planet falls into the transition mass range of massive giant planets and low-mass brown dwarfs, with masses ranging from 11 to 16 times the mass of Jupiter.
- Only fewer than five exoplanets are currently known in this mass range.
- The rarity of such discoveries makes this finding significant.
Insights into Formation and Evolution
- The exoplanet has a surface temperature of 1670 K and is likely undergoing high-eccentricity tidal migration with an eccentricity value of approximately 0.3.
- The detection of such systems provides valuable insights into the formation, migration, and evolution mechanisms of massive exoplanets.
India’s Contribution to Exoplanet Discoveries
- This marks the third exoplanet discovery by India and the PRL scientists using the PARAS spectrograph and the PRL 1.2m telescope.
- Previous discoveries include K2-236b in 2018 and TOI-1789b in 2021.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chytridiomycosis
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- A multinational study has recently published a breakthrough method in the journal Transboundary and Emerging Diseases to detect all known strains of the amphibian chytrid fungus.
- This method will enhance our ability to detect and research the disease and work towards finding a widely available cure.
Chytridiomycosis: The deadly frog disease
- Chytridiomycosis, also known as chytrid, is a fungal disease that has been decimating frog populations worldwide for the past 40 years.
- The disease has caused severe declines in over 500 frog species and led to 90 extinctions, making it the deadliest animal disease known.
How does it infect?
- Chytrid infects frogs by reproducing in their skin, damaging their ability to balance water and salt levels.
- The mortality rate is extreme, and the disease has affected a high number of species, causing devastating declines and extinctions.
- The disease originated in Asia and spread globally through amphibian trade and travel.
Limitations in diagnosis
- Researchers traditionally used swabs and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) tests, similar to COVID-19 testing, to detect chytrid in frogs.
- The existing qPCR test could not detect chytrid strains from Asia, limiting research efforts.
New and Improved qPCR Test
- Researchers in India, Australia, and Panama have developed a new qPCR test that can detect strains of chytrid from Asia.
- The test is also more sensitive, allowing for the detection of low infection levels and expanding the range of species that can be studied.
- The test can also detect a closely related species of chytrid that infects salamanders.
Understanding natural immunity in frogs
- Some amphibian species, even those without an evolutionary history with chytrid, do not become sick when carrying the fungus, indicating natural immune resistance.
- Frog immunity is complex, involving anti-microbial chemicals, symbiotic bacteria, white blood cells, antibodies, and more.
- Research in Asia, where chytrid declines have not been observed, may provide insights into how resistance evolves and aid in finding a cure for affected regions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Shenzhou-16, Gaganyan
Mains level: Manned missions to Space
Central Idea
- China has achieved a successful launch of the Shenzhou-16 spacecraft carrying three astronauts to the Tiangong space station.
What is Shenzhou-16?
- Shenzhou-16 spacecraft is part of Chinese manned spaceflight missions and was designed to transport astronauts to the Tiangong space station.
- This mission marks an important step in China’s space exploration efforts, with the crew set to conduct a range of tests and experiments during their five-month stay.
- The Tiangong space station, operated by the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA), is an integral part of China’s ambitious space program and aims to be a hub for scientific research.
Astronauts on Shenzhou-16
- The crew of the Shenzhou-16 mission consists of three astronauts: Jing Haipeng as the leading commander, Zhu Yangzhu, and Gui Haichao.
- Jing Haipeng is an experienced senior spacecraft pilot and one of China’s first batch of astronaut trainees.
- Zhu Yangzhu, a postdoctoral fellow in aerodynamics and former university teacher, will serve as a spaceflight engineer.
- Gui Haichao is the first Chinese civilian to travel to space and will be responsible for overseeing science experiments at the space station.
Objectives of the Mission
- The Shenzhou-16 crew will replace the previous crew from the Shenzhou-15 mission that has been aboard the Tiangong space station since November.
- The new crew will carry out large-scale tests and experiments in various fields, including the study of quantum phenomena, high-precision space time-frequency systems, verification of general relativity, and the origin of life.
- These scientific endeavors are expected to lead to significant achievements during the crew’s five-month stay.
About the Tiangong Space Station
- The Tiangong space station, operated by the CMSA, was developed by China after being barred from collaborating with NASA due to concerns of espionage.
- The station’s first module entered orbit in 2021, with two more modules added subsequently.
- China’s long-term plan is to expand the station, with the next module set to dock and create a cross-shaped structure.
- The Tiangong space station aims to become a leading outpost for scientific research once the International Space Station’s operations conclude in 2030.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Findings at Purana Qila
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Delhi’s Purana Qila, also known as the Old Fort, is a historic site with a rich and diverse past.
- Recent excavations have shed light on its continuous history since the pre-Mauryan era.
About Purana Qila
- The origins of Purana Qila date back to antiquity, with the exact foundation period unknown.
- It was later rebuilt by Sher Shah Suri and Mughal emperor Humayun.
- The fort holds immense cultural and historical importance, and many believe it to be the site of Indraprastha mentioned in the Mahabharata.
- The fort, believed to be the location of the ancient city of Indraprastha, showcases architectural remnants from various periods, including the Mughal and Rajput eras.
Architectural marvels at Purana Qila
- Purana Qila’s architectural features include walls that rise to a height of 18 meters, spanning approximately 1.5 kilometers.
- It boasts three arched gateways, including the Bara Darwaza, the south gate (Humayun Gate), and the Talaqi Gate.
- The fort’s Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque, built by Sher Shah Suri in 1541, showcases pre-Mughal architecture with its pointed arches and elegant prayer niches.
- The Sher Mandal, a double-storeyed octagonal tower, served as Humayun’s private observatory and library.
- It features decorative plaster-work and remnants of stone shelving for books.
Recent excavation discoveries
- Excavations have uncovered significant artifacts, including shards of Painted Gray Ware pottery dating from 1200 BC to 600 BC, indicating the pre-Mauryan period.
- Other discoveries include a 900-year-old Vaikuntha Vishnu from the Rajput period, a terracotta plaque of Goddess Gaja Lakshmi from the Gupta period, and a 2,500-year-old terracotta ring well from the Mauryan period.
- Numerous beads, seals, copper coins, and a bone needle have also been found, highlighting the site’s role as a center for trade activities.
Cultural chronology and preservation
- The ongoing excavation aims to establish a complete chronology of the site, spanning different historical periods from the Kushan to the Mughal era.
- The remains of Purana Qila will be preserved, conserved, and transformed into an open-air museum to showcase the rich historical legacy of Delhi.
- The excavated artifacts will also be displayed to delegates attending the G-20 summit, further promoting the cultural heritage of the site.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NAVIC
Mains level: Indigenous GPS
Central Idea
- The Indian Space Research Organisation has successfully launched its fifth satellite of 2023.
- A 2,232-kilogram satellite named NVS-1 was launched into space as part of the NavIC
What is NAVIC?
- NavIC is a regional satellite navigation system consisting of seven satellites in orbit that provide positioning, navigation, and timing services to various sectors, including civil aviation and the military.
(1) Origins and Motivation:
- The idea of NAVIC emerged in the early 2000s as IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System) to address India’s need for an independent navigation system for strategic and civilian purposes.
- The motivation behind NAVIC was to reduce dependence on foreign systems like GPS and enhance national security, sovereignty, and economic growth.
(2) Satellite Deployment:
- The NAVIC constellation consists of a total of 7* satellites.
- The first satellite, IRNSS-1A, was launched in July 2013, followed by subsequent launches of IRNSS-1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F, and IRNSS-1I.
- Each satellite is placed in a geostationary orbit or an inclined geosynchronous orbit, providing continuous coverage over the Indian landmass and surrounding regions.
(3) Renaming to NAVIC:
- In 2016, the system was officially named NAVIC, which stands for Navigation with Indian Constellation.
- The name change aimed to create a distinct brand identity for the Indian regional navigation system.
Key Features and Technical Details
(1) Coverage Area:
- NAVIC provides coverage within India and extends up to 1,500 kilometres beyond its borders.
- The system covers the Indian landmass, as well as the Indian Ocean region.
(2) Satellite Configuration:
- The NAVIC satellites are equipped with atomic clocks to provide accurate timing signals.
- They transmit signals on different frequencies, including L5 and S bands, for enhanced accuracy and reliability.
(3) Applications and Services:
- NAVIC has a wide range of applications, including terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation.
- It is utilized in various sectors such as transportation, agriculture, disaster management, surveying, and geodetic applications.
- The system supports position determination, velocity measurement, and time synchronization services.
About NVS-1 Satellite
- NVS-1 is part of the second-generation NavIC satellite series and ensures continuity of existing services while introducing new services in the Li band.
- The satellite features two solar arrays generating up to 2.4 kW of power, a lithium-ion battery for eclipse support, and thermal management and propulsion systems.
- Notably, NVS-1 includes a Rubidium atomic clock developed in-house by the Space Applications Centre, showcasing India’s technical expertise in this advanced technology.
India’s launch capabilities and recent missions
- The NVS-1 launch marks the second successful mission in a month and the fifth launch of the year for ISRO.
- In April, ISRO completed the PSLV-C55 mission, deploying two satellites, including TeLEOS-2 with a synthetic aperture radar payload.
- The PSLV-C55 mission highlighted collaboration between India and Singapore in space exploration and technology.
*Note: The numbers of satellites in this constellation is disputed. It is given as 7 and 8 on different sources. Total Nine satellites were launched out of which the very first (IRNSS-1A) is partially failed because of some issue in its Atomic Clock. Another and the last satellite had a launch failure. Hence the number 7/8.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tripitaka
Mains level: Democracy in Indian Civilizations
Central Idea
- The construction and history of the Indian Parliament building serve as a reminder of India’s rich democratic traditions.
- Dr BR Ambedkar, the Chairman of the Drafting Committee for the Indian Constitution, highlighted the presence of democratic aspects in Indian history that predate Western influence.
Democratic Traditions in Ancient India
- Ambedkar had challenged the notion that India’s parliamentary procedures were borrowed from European countries.
- Ambedkar referred to the Vinay–pitaka, a Theravada Buddhist scripture, as evidence of existing democratic procedures in India.
- The scripture regulated meetings of the Bhikkhus Sangh (monks) and included rules for debates, motions, and voting through a secret ballot system.
Comparison with Western Democracies
- Ambedkar acknowledged the importance of contributions made by Western democracies in moving away from autocracy and religious dominance.
- He highlighted the separation of Church and State in Western societies and the transition to secular laws created by the people rather than divine or religious authorities.
Caution against Failure to Address Defects
- Ambedkar pointed out the tendency of ancient societies to neglect repairing their own defects, leading to their decay.
- He criticized the Indian society’s reliance on divine laws established by figures like Manu and Yajnavalkya, which hindered the ability to address societal issues.
Conclusion
- While acknowledging India’s rich democratic history, it is essential to continue building and strengthening democratic institutions to address the evolving needs and challenges of society.
- This includes fostering an introspective approach, embracing inclusive governance, and upholding the principles of secularism, equality, and social justice.
Back2Basics: Tripitaka
- The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon, is a collection of sacred Buddhist scriptures that form the foundational texts of the Theravada Buddhist tradition.
- It is divided into three sections, known as the Tripitaka, which literally means “Three Baskets.”
History and significance
- The Tripitaka was orally transmitted from the time of Gautama Buddha in the 5th century BCE until it was eventually written down in the 1st century BCE.
- It holds immense historical and religious significance as it contains the teachings, discourses, rules, and guidelines given by the Buddha and his prominent disciples.
Composition of the Tripitaka:
(1) Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline):
- Comprises the rules and guidelines for monastic discipline in the Buddhist community.
- Provides detailed instructions on the conduct and behavior expected from monks and nuns.
- Covers various aspects, including ethical guidelines, disciplinary codes, and procedures for resolving disputes.
- Offers insights into the monastic life, the organization of the Sangha (monastic community), and the role of the monastic code in maintaining harmony and ethical conduct.
(2) Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses):
- Contains the discourses and teachings delivered by Gautama Buddha and his close disciples.
- Includes a vast collection of discourses covering a wide range of topics, such as ethics, meditation, philosophy, and social issues.
- Consists of individual suttas (discourses) grouped into different collections or Nikayas, such as the Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (Middle-Length Discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourses), and Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical Discourses).
- Presents the Buddha’s profound teachings on the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, dependent origination, and other core concepts of Buddhism.
(3) Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings):
- Provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of Buddhist philosophy and psychology.
- Explores the nature of mind, consciousness, and reality in intricate detail.
- Presents the teachings in a more technical and analytical manner, offering an advanced understanding of Buddhist concepts.
- Divided into seven books, known as the Abhidhamma books, which delve into topics such as consciousness, mental factors, elements, and the path to liberation.
- Offers a deep exploration of the ultimate nature of existence and the workings of the mind.
Features and Characteristics
- Authenticity and Authority: The Tripitaka is regarded as the most authoritative and authentic collection of Buddhist scriptures in the Theravada tradition.
- Canonical Language: The texts are primarily written in Pali, an ancient Indian language close to the language spoken during the Buddha’s time.
- Extensive Coverage: The Tripitaka covers a wide range of topics, offering comprehensive guidance for practitioners in various aspects of life.
- Preservation of Early Buddhist Teachings: The Tripitaka is believed to preserve the original teachings of the Buddha, providing insights into his wisdom and teachings.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Foucault Pendulum
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- The Foucault pendulum is a device that proves the Earth’s rotation and has been installed in the new Parliament building in New Delhi.
- It was designed and installed by the National Council of Science Museums (NCSM), Kolkata.
Foucault Pendulum: A Unique Invention
- Historical Context: In 1851, the Foucault pendulum experiment conclusively demonstrated the Earth’s rotation, settling debates about the planet’s movement.
- Leon Foucault: The French scientist invented the Foucault pendulum and invited scientists and the public to witness the Earth’s rotation through the experiment.
- Working: The pendulum consists of a heavy iron ball suspended by a steel wire and swings in a plane, mimicking the Earth’s rotation on its axis.
- Exhibition at the Pantheon: The demonstration took place at the Pantheon in Paris, where the ball’s motion represented the Earth’s rotation.
Significance
- Earth’s Rotation as a Scientific Fact: The Foucault pendulum experiment solidified the understanding that the Earth rotates on its axis.
- Supporting Astronomical Studies: The knowledge of the Earth’s rotation is crucial for studying various astronomical phenomena, such as day and night cycles and seasonal changes.
- Continual Scientific Inquiry: The Foucault pendulum experiment encouraged further research into the Earth’s rotation and its implications for our understanding of the universe.
Modern Applications and Further Exploration
- Educational Installations: The inclusion of a Foucault pendulum in the new Parliament building in New Delhi provides an opportunity for public education and scientific engagement.
- Technological Advancements: Advances in technology, such as precision instruments and digital monitoring, can enhance the accuracy and impact of Foucault pendulum installations.
- Continued Research: Ongoing scientific studies and experiments can deepen our understanding of the Earth’s rotation and its relationship to other celestial bodies.
- Space Exploration: Exploring the Earth’s rotation from space can offer unique perspectives and insights into its dynamics.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NARCO test
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Wrestlers at Jantar Mantar expressed their willingness to undergo narco analysis test.
- One of them emphasized that the test should be monitored by the Supreme Court.
What is a Narco Test?
- In a ‘narco’ or narcoanalysis test, a drug called sodium pentothal is injected into the body of the accused.
- This transports the accused to a hypnotic or sedated state, in which their imagination is neutralised.
- In this hypnotic state, the accused is understood as being incapable of lying, and is expected to divulge information that is true.
- Sodium pentothal or sodium thiopental is a fast-acting, short duration anaesthetic, which is used in larger doses to sedate patients during surgery.
- It belongs to the barbiturate class of drugs that act on the central nervous system as depressants.
Difference from Polygraph Tests
- It is important to differentiate narco-analysis tests from polygraph tests, as they serve different purposes.
- Polygraph tests rely on physiological responses to detect lies, measuring variables such as blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration, and sweat gland activity while the suspect is being questioned.
- In contrast, narco-analysis tests induce a hypnotic state through the administration of drugs, aiming to weaken the subject’s resolve to lie.
Reasons to use such tests
- In recent decades, investigating agencies have sought to employ these tests in investigation, which are sometimes seen as being a “softer alternative” to torture or “third degree” to extract the truth from suspects.
- However, neither method has been proven scientifically to have a 100% success rate, and remain contentious in the medical field as well.
Restrictions on these tests
- No self-incrimination: The Bench took into consideration international norms on human rights, the right to a fair trial, and the right against self-incrimination under Article 20(3) of the Constitution.
- Consent of the accused: In ‘Selvi & Ors vs. State of Karnataka & Anr’ (2010), a Supreme Court Bench comprising then CJI ruled that no lie detector tests should be administered “except on the basis of consent of the accused”. The subject’s consent should be recorded before a judicial magistrate, the court said.
- Legal assistance to such convicts: Those who volunteer must have access to a lawyer, and have the physical, emotional, and legal implications of the test explained to them by police and the lawyer.
- Guidelines at place: It said that the ‘Guidelines for the Administration of Polygraph Test on an Accused’ published by the National Human Rights Commission in 2000, must be strictly followed.
Previous Cases and Supreme Court Ruling
- Narco analysis tests have been employed in significant cases like the 2002 Gujarat riots, the Abdul Karim Telgi fake stamp paper scam, the Nithari killings case in 2007, and the 26/11 Mumbai terror attack case involving Ajmal Kasab.
- However, it was in 2010 that the Supreme Court delivered a ruling addressing the legality and admissibility of narco tests.
- According to the Supreme Court ruling in “Selvi & Ors vs State of Karnataka & Anr” (2010), lie detector tests should not be administered without the consent of the accused.
- The ruling emphasized that those who volunteer for the test must have access to legal counsel and be fully informed about the physical, emotional, and legal implications of the test.
Court Decisions and Examples
- The Supreme Court, relying on its 2010 ruling, rejected a petition to produce narco-test reports in the case of Aarushi Talwar, deeming it an attempt to delay the trial proceedings.
- In 2019, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) wanted to conduct narco-analysis tests on a former Punjab National Bank (PNB) staffer involved in an alleged fraud case, but the manager did not provide consent.
- Last year, a Delhi court allowed a narco test on Aaftab Poonawalla, a murder suspect, after he voluntarily consented and acknowledged the potential consequences.
Legal Position before Supreme Court Ruling
- In 2006, the Madras High Court stated that scientific tests could be used by investigating agencies when the accused did not come forward with the truth, as it did not violate testimonial compulsion.
- Similarly, the 2008 Delhi High Court ruling in “Sh. Shailender Sharma vs State & Another” acknowledged the need for thorough investigations and stated that narco-analysis tests do not suffer from constitutional infirmities.
Can the results of these tests be considered as “confessions”?
- Not a confession: Because those in a drugged-induced state cannot exercise a choice in answering questions that are put to them.
- Assumed as evidence: However, any information or material subsequently discovered with the help of such a voluntarily-taken test can be admitted as evidence.
- Supports investigation: It reveals the location of, say, a physical piece of evidence (which is often something like a murder weapon) in the course of the test.
Way Forward
- Evaluate the demand and implications of narco analysis tests in legal proceedings, considering both the benefits and ethical concerns.
- Engage in a broader discussion on the forced intrusion into an individual’s mental processes and its impact on human dignity and rights.
- Explore alternative methods of gathering evidence while ensuring constitutional rights are respected and upheld.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: XPOSAT, Polarimetry
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is partnering with the Raman Research Institute (RRI) in Bengaluru to develop the X-Ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat), set to launch later this year.
What is XPoSat?
- XPoSat aims to study various dynamics of bright astronomical X-ray sources in extreme conditions.
- It is India’s first polarimetry mission and the world’s second, with NASA’s Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) being the other major mission launched in 2021.
- IXPE carries three state-of-the-art space telescopes to observe polarized X-rays from neutron stars and supermassive black holes, providing insights into the geometry and inner workings of the light source.
XPoSat Payloads
- XPoSat will carry two scientific payloads in a low Earth orbit.
- The primary payload, POLIX, will measure the polarimetry parameters of X-rays, observing approximately 40 bright astronomical sources across different categories during the mission’s planned five-year lifetime.
- The XSPECT (X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing) payload will provide spectroscopic information on how light is absorbed and emitted by objects, allowing observations of X-ray pulsars, black hole binaries, low-magnetic field neutron stars, and more.
X-Rays in Space
- X-rays in space have higher energy and shorter wavelengths, ranging from 0.03 to 3 nanometers.
- X-rays are emitted by objects with temperatures in the millions of degrees Celsius, such as pulsars, galactic supernova remnants, and black holes.
- Polarized light, consisting of organized moving electric and magnetic waves, plays a role in X-ray observations, and polarized lenses are used by fishermen to reduce glare from sunlight.
Significance of Polarimetry
- Polarimetry involves measuring the angle of rotation of the plane of polarized light as it passes through certain transparent materials.
- XPoSat’s primary payload, POLIX (Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays), developed by RRI and UR Rao Satellite Centre, will measure the degree and angle of polarization in X-rays from astronomical sources.
- The emission mechanisms of various astronomical sources are complex, and understanding them poses challenges that polarimetry can help address.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UDAN 5.1
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The Ministry of Civil Aviation has launched UDAN 5.1, an extension of the Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS) – Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagrik (UDAN), to enhance connectivity to remote areas of India.
What is UDAN 5.1?
- This round specifically focuses on helicopter routes, aiming to achieve last mile connectivity.
- It allows operators to operate routes where one of the origin or destination locations is in a priority area, such as hilly regions, islands, or North East states.
Features of the scheme
- Expanded Scope of Operations: Operators can now operate routes where one of the origin or destination locations is in a priority area, compared to the previous requirement of both points being in priority areas.
- Reduced Airfare Caps: Airfare caps for helicopter flights have been reduced by up to 25%, making flying in helicopters more affordable for passengers.
- Increased Viability Gap Funding (VGF) Caps: VGF caps for operators using single and twin-engine helicopters have been substantially increased to enhance the financial viability of operating the awarded routes.
- Coverage Expansion: UDAN 5.1 aims to cover a significantly larger number of routes compared to previous rounds, further extending the benefits of air connectivity to unserved regions.
Importance of UDAN 5.1
- Democratization of Air Travel and Last-Mile Connectivity: UDAN 5.1 reflects the deeper democratization of air travel, with a focus on providing last-mile connectivity to remote regions of India.
- Consultations and Stakeholder Engagement: The current version of the scheme has been designed after extensive consultations with all stakeholders, including helicopter operators.
Way Forward
- Successful Implementation: Ensure effective implementation of UDAN 5.1, considering the expanded scope of operations, reduced airfare caps, and increased VGF caps.
- Collaboration with Operators: Foster collaboration and engagement with helicopter operators to optimize last-mile connectivity and promote the growth of the helicopter segment in the civil aviation industry.
- Monitoring and Evaluation: Establish a robust monitoring and evaluation mechanism to assess the impact of UDAN 5.1 on remote regions, air travel affordability, and economic development.
- Promoting Tourism: Leverage the increased helicopter penetration to boost tourism in remote areas, thereby supporting the hospitality industry and local economies.
- Future Expansion: Continuously assess the potential for further expansion of the UDAN scheme, considering new routes and modes of transportation to improve connectivity to underserved regions of India.
Back2Basics:All Versions of UDAN Scheme
|
Launch Date |
Focus Category |
Distance Length Cap |
Viability Gap Funding Cap |
Exclusivity |
Period |
| UDAN 1.0 |
April 27, 2017 |
Category 1 (19-78 Seats) |
500 km |
70% for Cat-1, 90% for Hilly States, J&K, Ladakh, NE and Island regions |
3 years |
10 years |
| UDAN 2.0 |
November 16, 2018 |
Category 1 (19-78 Seats) |
500 km |
Same as UDAN 1.0 |
3 years |
10 years |
| UDAN 3.0 |
November 8, 2019 |
Category 1 (19-78 Seats) |
800 km |
Same as UDAN 1.0 |
3 years |
10 years |
| UDAN 4.0 |
December 3, 2020 |
Category 1 (19-78 Seats) |
1,200 km |
Same as UDAN 1.0 |
1 year |
10 years |
| UDAN 5.0 |
September 1, 2021 |
Category 2 (20-80 Seats) and 3 (>80 Seats) |
No restriction |
60% for Priority Areas, 20% for Non-Priority Areas |
1 year |
10 years |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sengol
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Prime Minister is set to install the ‘Sengol,’ a historical sceptre from Tamil Nadu, in the new Parliament building, which will be inaugurated on May 28, 2023.
What is Sengol?
- Sengol is a historical sceptre that holds significant cultural and historical value in Tamil Nadu.
- Derived from the Tamil word “Semmai,” meaning “Righteousness,” Sengol represents a symbol of justice and good governance.
- In the Chola era, the transfer of power from one king to another was sanctified with the sceptre being handed over as a symbol of authority and the responsibility to rule with fairness and justice.
- It gained prominence during the transfer of power from the British to the Indian people at the time of India’s independence.
History: Traditional Chola Practice and Symbolism
- Historical Practice: The presentation of the Sengol aligns with a traditional Chola practice where Samayacharyas (spiritual leaders) led the coronation of kings, sanctifying the transfer of power and symbolically recognizing the ruler.
- Symbol of Justice and Good Governance: The Sengol, a symbol of justice and good governance, holds cultural significance as recorded in ancient Tamil texts like Silapathikaram and Manimekalai.
Sengol’s recent context and creation
- Lord Mountbatten’s Question: Prior to Independence, Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, asked Nehru about the ceremony that should symbolize the transfer of power.
- Inspiration from Chola Dynasty: Rajagopalachari, the last Governor-General of India, suggested a ceremony from the Chola dynasty, where the transfer of power was sanctified and blessed by high priests.
- Manufacturing the Sengol: Rajagopalachari approached Thiruvaduthurai Atheenam, a renowned Shaivite mutt in Tamil Nadu’s Tanjore district, which commissioned the creation of the Sengol from Chennai-based jewellers, “Vummidi Bangaru Chetty.”
- Craftsmanship: Vummidi Ethirajulu and Vummidi Sudhakar skillfully crafted the five-foot-long Sengol, featuring a symbolic ‘Nandi’ bull representing justice.
Significance of the ‘Sengol’
- Symbolic importance: Derived from the Tamil word “Semmai,” meaning “Righteousness,” the ‘Sengol’ represents a significant historical symbol of Independence.
- Marks Transfer of Power: On August 14, 1947, Pandit Nehru, the first PM, received the ‘Sengol’ from the Adhinam of Tamil Nadu, marking the shift of power from the British to the Indian people.
The Handover Ceremony
- Arrival of the Sengol: Three individuals, including the deputy high priest of the Adheenam, a Nadaswaram player, and an Oduvar (singer), brought the newly made Sengol from Tamil Nadu.
- The Ceremony: On August 14, 1947, the Sengol was handed over to Lord Mountbatten during a procession, and later taken to Jawaharlal Nehru’s house, where it was officially presented to him.
- Sacred Song and Attendees: A special song composed by the 7th-century Tamil saint Tirugnana Sambandar, as specified by the high priest, accompanied the ceremony. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, India’s first president, and other dignitaries were present during the event.
Ceremonial Procession and Tamil Traditions
- Grand Procession: The Sengol will be ceremoniously transported to the House in a grand procession.
- Musical Ensemble: Traditional Nadaswaram musicians, playing Tamil Nadu’s iconic instrument, will lead the procession, and PM is expected to walk alongside them, embracing Tamil culture.
- Adheenams and Sanctification: Adheenams, priests from Shaivite mutts in Tamil Nadu, will be present in the Lok Sabha’s Well. They will sanctify the Sengol with holy water after Prime Minister Modi greets them, honoring Tamil traditions.
- Oduvars and Sacred Recitation: Tamil temple singers known as Oduvars will recite the “Kolaru Padhigam” lyrically, while the Nadaswaram musicians enchant with their soulful music.
Conclusion
- The Sengol continues to be revered as a representation of India’s independence and serves as a tangible reminder of the country’s rich cultural heritage and the values it upholds.
- Its installation in the new Parliament building further emphasizes its importance and aims to educate and inspire people about this historical event and the principles it embodies.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Supercomputing
Mains level: National Supercomputing Mission
Central Idea
- India is set to significantly enhance its supercomputing capabilities by installing an 18-petaflop system this year.
- This development aims to improve complex mathematical calculations, particularly in weather forecasting, by providing greater processing power and accuracy.
Understanding Supercomputers
- A supercomputer is a high-performance computer capable of processing massive amounts of data at extraordinary speeds.
- Performance is measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) rather than million instructions per second (MIPS).
- Supercomputers have the ability to perform trillions (peta) of FLOPS.
India’s Journey in Supercomputing
- India’s supercomputing journey began in the late 1980s when the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) was established in response to technology embargoes imposed by the United States.
- Since then, India has steadily progressed, unveiling the PARAM 800 in 1991, which was the world’s second-fastest supercomputer at the time.
- The National Supercomputing Mission (NSM), launched in 2015 with a budget of ₹4,500 crore, has been instrumental in propelling India’s supercomputing capabilities.
- The mission aims to create a network of supercomputers across academic and research institutions in the country, supporting academia, researchers, MSMEs, and startups.
Current Supercomputing Infrastructure
- India’s most powerful civilian supercomputers, Pratyush and Mihir, have a combined capacity of 6.8 petaflops.
- Pratyush is located at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) in Pune, while Mihir is housed at the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) in Noida.
- These supercomputers became operational in 2018 after an investment of ₹438 crore.
- Both institutions are affiliated with the MoES.
Acquisition of New Supercomputers
- The new supercomputers, sourced from French corporation ATOS, were procured as part of a deal signed between the Indian and French governments in December 2018.
- The Government aims to acquire high-performance computers worth ₹4,500 crore by 2025, with an estimated cost of ₹900 crore for the new earth-sciences Ministry computers.
Enhanced Capabilities and Future Outlook
- Upgrading the supercomputing systems every 4-5 years is essential to improve performance.
- The new system will enhance resolution from the current 12×12 km to 6×6 km, providing greater clarity and accuracy in local weather forecasts.
- The ultimate goal is to represent areas using 1 km-square grids, enabling the prediction of rapidly evolving weather phenomena such as cloudbursts.
- The current fastest high-performance computing system in the world is the Frontier-Cray system at Oakridge National Laboratory in the United States, with a peak speed of 1 exa-flop (equivalent to 1,000 petaflops).
Way forward
To further enhance India’s supercomputing capabilities and maintain technological advancements, the following steps can be considered:
- Continued investment in research and development to stay at the forefront of supercomputing technology.
- Collaboration with international partners and organizations to leverage global expertise.
- Encouraging academia, researchers, MSMEs, and startups to utilize the supercomputing infrastructure for scientific breakthroughs and innovation.
- Strengthening the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) by expanding its network and providing adequate resources.
- Regularly upgrading supercomputing systems to keep up with evolving computational demands and maintain competitiveness on a global scale.
Also in news
Recently, India’s AI Supercomputer ‘AIRAWAT’ has been ranked at No. 75 in the world at the International Supercomputing Conference (ISC 2023) in Germany.
About Airawat
- The supercomputer ‘AIRAWAT’ has recently been named in the 61st edition of the Top 500 Global Supercomputing List.
- Installed at C-DAC in Pune, ‘AIRAWAT’ is an AI supercomputer implemented under the National Program on AI by the Government of India.
- The manufacturer of ‘AIRAWAT’ is Netweb Technologies.
- ‘AIRAWAT’ PSAI stands out as India’s largest and fastest AI supercomputing system, boasting an impressive speed of 13,170 teraflops.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Smart Cities Mission
Mains level: Urban transformation initiatives
Central Idea
- The Union Urban Affairs Ministry announced that significant progress has been made under the Smart Cities Mission, with more than 90% of the allocated funds being utilized and 73% of the projects already completed.
Why discuss this?
- The projects were supposed to be completed within five years of the selection of the city.
- However, in 2021 the Ministry changed the deadline for all cities to June 2023, which was earlier the deadline for Shillong alone.
What is Smart Cities Mission?
- The Smart Cities Mission is an initiative of the Union Housing and Urban Affairs Ministry that was launched by PM on June 25, 2015.
- Cities across the country were asked to submit proposals for projects to improve municipal services and to make their jurisdictions more liveable.
- Between January 2016 and June 2018 (when the last city, Shillong, was chosen), the Ministry selected 100 cities for the Mission over five rounds.
How does it work?
- Each smart city has created a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) responsible for planning, appraising, approving, releasing funds, implementing, and managing, operating, monitoring, and evaluating development projects.
- The SPV is led by a full-time CEO and includes nominees from the Central and State governments, as well as the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) on its Board.
Monitoring and Reporting
- The implementation of the SCM is overseen by an Apex Committee, led by the Secretary of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.
- The committee utilizes the Real Time Geographical Management Information System (GMIS) to provide regular reports on project progress.
Features of the mission
- Smart Infrastructure: Upgrading urban systems, including transportation, water, and waste management.
- E-Governance: Digital platforms for transparent government services and citizen engagement.
- Smart Solutions: Integration of IoT and data analytics to optimize urban systems.
- Sustainability: Green initiatives, renewable energy, and eco-friendly practices.
- Social and Economic Development: Affordable housing, healthcare, and fostering entrepreneurship.
- Data-Driven Decision Making: Utilizing data for evidence-based planning and resource allocation.
Progress status
(1) Funds Utilization
- As of May 1, a total of ₹38,400 crore was released for the Smart Cities Mission.
- Out of this amount, ₹35,261 crore has already been utilized for various projects.
- The utilization of funds accounts for over 90% of the allocated budget.
(2) Project Completion
- The Smart Cities Mission encompasses approximately 7,800 projects, valued at ₹1.8 lakh crore.
- Among these projects, more than 5,700, valued at ₹1.1 lakh crore, have been completed.
- The remaining projects are expected to be completed by June 30, 2024.
- Currently, only 22 out of the 100 designated cities have successfully concluded all projects under the mission.
Conclusion
- By emphasizing effective funds utilization and project completion, the government intends to transform cities into smarter, more sustainable, and citizen-centric urban spaces.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Comb Jellies, Neurons, Neural Network
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Comb jellies, or ctenophores, are marine animals with jelly-like bodies and iridescent combs.
- They represent an ancient animal lineage and have a distinct nervous system.
- A recent study published in Science examined the comb jelly nervous system and made surprising discoveries.
What are Comb Jellies?
- Comb jellies, also known as ctenophores, are marine animals that belong to the phylum Ctenophora. They are fascinating creatures with a unique and delicate appearance.
- Despite their name, comb jellies are not actually true jellyfish.
- They have a gelatinous, transparent body that is often luminescent and adorned with rows of cilia, or comb-like structures, which give them their characteristic shimmering appearance.
Findings of the new study
- The researchers aimed to investigate how nerve net neurons in comb jellies connect.
- Contrary to expectations, synapses (junctions between neurons) were absent in the nerve net.
- Instead, nerve-net neurons were continuously connected by a single plasma membrane.
Significance of ctenophores
- In the 1950s, electron microscopy confirmed the separate-cell nature of neurons connected by synapses.
- Ctenophores challenge this notion by having a syncytial nerve net, as observed in the new study.
- Ctenophores attracted attention due to their status as a potential early animal lineage.
- Whole-genome sequencing studies supported the theory that ctenophores branched off early in animal evolution.
Evolution of ctenophore nervous systems
- The evolution of ctenophore nervous systems remains unclear to biologists.
- Leonid Moroz proposed a controversial theory of independent nervous system evolution in ctenophores and other animals.
- Ctenophores exhibit a unique nervous system lacking classical neurotransmitter pathways and common neuronal genes.
- The absence of muscle-based movement and reliance on cilia might have driven the evolution of a different signal conduction system.
Questions for further research
- Researchers aim to study the development of nerve net neurons in ctenophores.
- They seek to determine if adult ctenophores retain syncytial nerve nets or develop synapses.
- The uniqueness of ctenophore nervous systems provides valuable insights into the evolution of the nervous system.
- Comparative analyses of unique animal systems like ctenophores aid in understanding neuronal function and treating disorders.
Conclusion
- Understanding the functional and evolutionary significance of syncytial nerve net neurons in ctenophores requires further research.
- This study serves as a crucial foundation for investigating the evolution of nervous systems in animals.
- Comparative studies on small marine creatures like ctenophores offer insights into the fundamental principles of brain function.
Key Terminologies
- Ctenophores: Another term for comb jellies, referring to marine animals belonging to the phylum Ctenophora.
- Nerve Net: The diffuse nervous system found in comb jellies, composed of interconnected neurons.
- Synapses: Junctions between neurons that allow for communication and transmission of signals in most animals, including humans.
- Plasma Membrane: The outer membrane of a cell that separates its internal components from the external environment.
- Neurotransmitter Pathways: The specific chemical signals used by neurons to communicate with each other in the nervous system.
- Syncytial Nerve Net Neurons: Neurons within the nerve net of comb jellies that are interconnected without the presence of synapses.
- Colloblasts: Specialized cells in comb jellies used for capturing prey by producing adhesive substances.
|
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PARAKH
Mains level: Curriculum harmonization
Central Idea
- The Ministry of Education has organized a workshop in New Delhi to discuss the unification of 60 school examination boards operating across different states and union territories.
- The key component of this plan is PARAKH, the National Assessment Centre established under the National Council of Educational Research and Training.
What is PARAKH?
- PARAKH stands for Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development.
- It is an organization created to bring school boards from various states and union territories onto a unified platform.
- It has been launched as part of the implementation of the National Education Policy (NEP)-2020.
- It acts as a constituent unit of the NCERT.
- It is tasked with holding periodic learning outcome tests like the National Achievement Survey (NAS) and State Achievement Surveys.
- It will work on three major assessment areas: large-scale assessments, school-based assessment, and examination reforms.
Key objectives of PARAKH
- Uniform Norms & Guidelines: Setting comprehensive norms, standards, and guidelines for student assessment and evaluation in all recognized school boards.
- Enhance Assessment Pattern: Encouraging school boards to adopt assessment patterns aligned with the skill requirements of the 21st century.
- Reduce Disparity in Evaluation: Establishing uniformity across state and central boards, which currently employ different evaluation standards, resulting in significant score disparities.
- Benchmark Assessment: Developing a benchmark assessment framework to move away from rote learning and align with the objectives of the NEP 2020.
Outcomes of the recent workshop
(1) Establishing Equivalence of Boards
- The Centre is planning for the equivalence of boards to facilitate seamless transitions for students across different boards or regions.
- The objective is to align curriculum standards, grading systems, and evaluation methodologies to enhance the credibility and recognition of certificates and grades obtained across boards.
(2) Moving away from Rote Examination Culture
- The workshop highlighted the need to reassess the prevailing rote examination culture in the education system.
- There is a growing realization that holistic assessments, considering various dimensions of a student’s abilities and potential, are equally important.
(3) Standardization and Fairness in Assessments
- The discussion emphasized the importance of well-designed and standardized question papers to ensure fairness and consistency across schools and boards.
- Striking a balance between formative and summative assessments was identified as a means to reduce the burden of high-stakes examinations while effectively measuring student progress.
Conclusion
- PARAKH’s significance lies in its potential to bring about transformative change, facilitating collaboration, and benchmarking assessments.
- It is an important step towards creating a standardized and equitable assessment system, providing students with a fair platform to demonstrate their abilities and skills.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Neanderthals , Read the attached story
Mains level: Evolutionary features of Humans
Central Idea
- The human nose has historical and cultural importance beyond its practical functions.
- Different societies have their own standards of beauty related to nose shape and proportion.
- The nose is significant in art, literature, and remnants of ancient civilizations.
Who were the Neanderthals?
|
Description |
| Time Period |
Lived approximately 400,000 to 40,000 years ago during the Middle Paleolithic and Late Pleistocene epochs |
| Physical Appearance |
Robust build with a barrel-shaped chest, shorter limbs, and distinctive anatomical features such as pronounced brow ridges and a projecting mid-face |
| Tools and Technology |
Skilled toolmakers who used a variety of tools made from stone, bone, and antler |
| Culture and Behavior |
Complex social structures and likely lived in small groups or bands, exhibited advanced hunting techniques, made use of fire, and engaged in symbolic expressions through personal ornamentation and cave art |
| Adaptation to Environments |
Adapted to cold and temperate environments, had robust bodies, large noses, and other physiological characteristics were advantageous for survival in harsh conditions |
| Interactions with Modern Humans |
Interbred with early modern humans who migrated out of Africa. As a result, some individuals today carry a small percentage of Neanderthal DNA in their genomes, particularly in non-African populations |
| Extinction |
Around 40,000 years ago |
| Scientific Significance |
Closest extinct relatives, and understanding their anatomy, behavior, and interactions with modern humans helps reconstruct our shared past |
Genetic association study on Human Nose
- A recent study used 2D images and automated measurements of facial landmarks to conduct a genetic association study.
- The study involved over 6,000 Latin American individuals and identified 42 new genetic loci associated with the human nose.
- Some of these loci, including 1q32.3, were replicated in other populations like Asians, Europeans, and Africans.
Role of Neanderthal Genes and ATF3 Gene
- The genetic locus 1q32.3, associated with midface height, has contributions from Neanderthals.
- The ATF3 gene, located in this locus, is regulated by FOXL2, which is involved in skull and face development.
- Changes in nose shape may have evolutionary implications, helping humans adapt to different climates.
Neanderthal Genomes and Human Traits
- Genomic loci from Neanderthals and Denisovans have influenced various traits and diseases in modern humans.
- Evidence suggests these genomic contributions affect pathogen response, skin conditions, blood conditions, cancers, and mental health.
- Understanding the genetic interactions between archaic and modern human genomes aids in comprehending genetic diversity and adaptability.
Human Origins and Interbreeding
- Human migrations out of Africa, interbreeding with Neanderthals and Denisovans, and extinct archaic hominids have shaped human traits.
- Recent studies highlight that early humans diverged in Africa from multiple ancestral roots, with varying degrees of genetic components from archaic humans in different populations.
Implications and Future Research
- Studying the interbreeding event and its consequences deepens our understanding of genetic heritage.
- The knowledge gained could lead to new avenues for disease study, treatment, and appreciation of human genetic diversity.
- Continued research on the interplay between archaic and modern human genomes is an exciting frontier in genomics.
Key Terminologies
Loci/Locus: The position of a specific gene on a chromosome.
Introgression: The transfer of genetic information between different species or populations through interbreeding.
Neanderthals: Archaic hominids closely related to modern humans, believed to have interbred with early humans.
Denisovans: A subspecies of archaic humans who lived until around 30,000 years ago.
Genomic Loci: Specific locations on chromosomes associated with certain traits or characteristics. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Radiometric Dating , Calcium 41
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea: A recent study has shown that Calcium-41 can be used in a similar way as Carbon-14 in carbon dating, but with several advantages.
Carbon Dating and its limitations
- Carbon-14 is an unstable and weakly radioactive isotope of carbon.
- It has a half-life of 5,700 years and is used to estimate the age of carbon-based materials.
- Radiocarbon dating provides objective age estimates for materials from living organisms.
- Carbon-14 cannot determine the age of objects older than approximately 50,000 years.
- Three techniques are used to measure carbon-14 content: gas proportional counting, liquid scintillation counting, and accelerator mass spectrometry.
Introducing Calcium-41
- Calcium-41 is a rare long-lived radioisotope of calcium with a half-life of 99,400 years.
- It is produced through cosmic ray interactions in the soil and is found in the Earth’s crust.
- Calcium-41 occurs less frequently than carbon-14.
Method used: Atom Trap Trace Analysis (ATTA)
- ATTA is a technique proposed by researchers at the University of Science and Technology of China.
- It is based on laser manipulation and detection of neutral atoms.
- The sample is vaporized, and the atoms are laser-cooled and loaded into a light and magnetic field cage.
- By tuning the laser’s frequency, Calcium-41 atoms can be detected through electron transitions.
Significance and Applications
- ATTA can detect one Calcium-41 atom in every 10^16 calcium atoms in seawater with 12% precision.
- It is selective and avoids confusion with potassium-41 atoms.
- ATTA can be adapted to study other isotopes, such as argon-39, krypton-81, and krypton-85.
- The applications of ATTA and Calcium-41 include dating rocks covered by ice and exploring Earth-science applications.
Also read:
What is Carbon Dating? How does it work?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Human Pangenome Map
Mains level: Genetic studies
Central Idea
- A study published in the Nature journal presents a pangenome reference map built using genomes from 47 anonymous individuals.
- The individuals included in the study are from various regions, including Africa, the Caribbean, Americas, East Asia, and Europe.
Understanding Genomes and Reference Genomes
- The genome refers to the collection of all genes and regions between genes found in our chromosomes.
- Each chromosome is composed of millions of nucleotides (A, T, G, and C) arranged in different combinations.
- Genome sequencing helps understand genetic diversity and susceptibility to diseases.
- A reference genome is a map used to compare newly sequenced genomes and identify differences.
- The first reference genome, created in 2001, had limitations and did not represent human diversity accurately.
What is Pangenome Map?
- The new study focuses on building a pangenome map, which is a graph representing genetic diversity among individuals.
- Pangenome maps use long-read DNA sequencing technologies to assemble sequences accurately.
Importance of Pangenome Map
- Although humans are more than 99% similar in their DNA, there is still a 0.4% difference between individuals.
- A complete and error-free pangenome map helps understand genetic differences and human diversity.
- It aids in identifying genetic variants linked to health conditions, such as the discovery of 150 new genes associated with autism.
- The current pangenome map lacks representation from certain populations, including Indians.
Implications for Indian Genomes
- The pangenome map, despite not including Indian genomes, will assist in mapping Indian genomes against existing reference genomes.
- Future pangenome maps with Indian genome data will provide insights into disease prevalence, rare gene discovery, diagnostic methods, and drug development.
Key Terminologies
Genome: The complete set of genes and regions between genes in an organism.
Reference Genome: A map used to compare newly sequenced genomes and identify differences.
Pangenome: A graph representing genetic diversity among individuals rather than a linear sequence.
Nucleotides: The building blocks of DNA (A, T, G, C).
Long-Read DNA Sequencing: A technology that produces longer and contiguous DNA strands for more accurate sequencing. |
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