Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Watermeal
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Scientists from Thailand are conducting groundbreaking research into the potential of watermeal, the world’s smallest flowering plant, as a source of nutrition and oxygen for astronauts.
What are Watermeal?
- Watermeal, a member of the Araceae family, stands out as the smallest flowering plant globally.
- It manifests as minuscule green seeds.
- Watermeal thrives in a variety of environments, from temperate to sub-tropical and tropical regions. It finds its home on the surface of lakes, ponds, and marshes.
- Distinctive Features:
- Measuring less than 1 millimeter, watermeal is incredibly tiny.
- This free-floating plant lacks both roots and leaves.
- It consists of a solitary, oval, or spherical frond that gracefully floats on the calm or slow-moving waters.
- Watermeal gives birth to the world’s smallest fruit, known as a utricle.
- Surprisingly, watermeal is a nutritional powerhouse, boasting the status of a complete protein, as it contains all nine essential amino acids.
- Under certain circumstances, watermeal can become invasive, forming dense mats that blanket entire water surfaces.
How it can assist Space Nutrition?
- Compact Growth: Its microscopic size allows for efficient cultivation within confined spacecraft environments.
- Nutritional Richness: As a complete protein, it offers astronauts a sustainable source of essential amino acids.
- Oxygen Generation: Watermeal photosynthesizes, producing oxygen that can be vital for life support systems in space.
- Space Farming: Cultivating watermeal in space could reduce the need for transporting perishable food items from Earth, making missions more self-sustaining.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Atmospheric Perturbations around the Eclipse Path (APEP) Mission
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- NASA is set to launch on a groundbreaking mission known as Atmospheric Perturbations around the Eclipse Path (APEP).
- The project is spearheaded by an Indian-origin engineering physics professor.
Exploring the APEP Mission
- Triple Rocket Launch: The APEP mission involves the deployment of three meticulously equipped rockets, each armed with an array of cutting-edge scientific instruments.
- Objective: The primary mission objective is to unravel the enigma of how the upper atmosphere reacts during a solar eclipse, particularly during the pivotal moments of sudden light reduction.
- Ionospheric Dynamics: Solar eclipses trigger profound transformations in the ionosphere, generating cascading waves throughout this atmospheric layer.
- Comprehensive Measurements: The mission’s scientific instruments will meticulously measure variations in electric and magnetic fields, density, and temperature.
- Launch Location: APEP will be launched from the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, with a specific focus on exploring the ionosphere.
- Impact on Satellite Communications: NASA postulates that the ionosphere’s temperature and density will diminish during the eclipse, leading to disruptive wave-like disturbances that could affect GPS and satellite communications.
Mission Process
- Strategic Rocket Positioning: The three rockets will be strategically positioned just beyond the path of annularity, where the Moon directly aligns with the Sun.
- Simultaneous Measurements: NASA’s paramount goal is to attain the first-ever simultaneous measurements from multiple locations within the ionosphere during a solar eclipse.
- Precision of Rockets: Rockets offer precision in launching at precisely the right moment and probing lower altitudes inaccessible to orbiting satellites.
- Sounding Rockets’ Selection: The APEP mission team opted for sounding rockets due to their unparalleled ability to pinpoint and measure specific spatial regions with exceptional accuracy.
- Multi-Altitude Data: These rockets are adept at capturing data at varying altitudes as they ascend and descend during their suborbital flights.
- Altitude Range: Data collection will span altitudes ranging from 45 to 200 miles (70 to 325 kilometres) above the Earth’s surface along the rockets’ flight trajectories.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: R21/Matrix-M Vaccine
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- In a momentous development in the fight against malaria, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a recommendation for the R21/Matrix-M malaria vaccine on October 2.
- This pioneering vaccine, developed by the University of Oxford and manufactured by India’s Serum Institute, has already gained approval for use in children under 36 months in Nigeria, Ghana, and Burkina Faso.
R21/Matrix-M Vaccine
- Extensive Testing: The vaccine’s efficacy was rigorously assessed in a phase-3 trial involving 4,800 children across five sites in Mali, Burkina Faso, Kenya, and Tanzania. These sites vary in malaria transmission intensity and seasonality.
- Blind Trial: Participants were randomly assigned to receive either the malaria vaccine or a control (approved rabies vaccine) in a double-blind study, ensuring impartiality.
- Multi-Dose Regimen: The vaccination schedule comprised three doses administered 4 weeks apart, with a booster shot administered 12 months after the last dose.
- Strategic Timing: Primary vaccinations occurred before the malaria season in seasonal transmission regions or at any time of the year in perennial transmission regions.
Impressive Results
- According to preprint data (pending peer review), the vaccine demonstrated a remarkable efficacy of 75% in children aged 5-36 months in seasonal malaria regions and 68% in perennial malaria regions after one year.
- Notably, children aged 5-17 months, more vulnerable to severe malaria, exhibited even higher vaccine efficacy of 79% in seasonal regions and 75% in perennial regions.
- Vaccine efficacy remained substantial for 18 months, further reinforced by a booster dose administered 12 months after the primary series.
Seasonality Matters
- Optimal Timing: Results suggest that the vaccine performs more effectively in regions with seasonal malaria compared to perennial transmission areas.
- Seasonal Patterns: In seasonal sites, 82% of malaria episodes occurred in the first six months of follow-up, while only 26% occurred in the initial six months in perennial sites.
- Vaccination Timing: Since the vaccine is administered just before the malaria season, its protection is more pronounced when malaria is seasonal.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Atto-Physics
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Anne L’Huillier, Pierre Agostini, and Ferenc Krausz.
- It cited their pioneering work in attosecond science, enabling the study of electron dynamics in matter at an unprecedented timescale of one quintillionth of a second, or 10^-18 seconds.
What is Attosecond?
- Definition: An attosecond is a minuscule unit of time, equal to one quintillionth of a second (10^-18 seconds). It is the timescale at which electron properties change.
- Attosecond Science: Attosecond science, or attophysics, focuses on generating ultra-short light pulses and employing them to investigate rapid processes, such as those involving electrons.
Atto-Physics: The science behind
- High-Harmonic Generation: Researchers, including Anne L’Huillier, discovered that passing an infrared light beam through a noble gas resulted in emitted light with frequencies that were multiples of the beam’s frequency. This phenomenon, known as high-harmonic generation, paved the way for attosecond pulse generation.
- Wave Mechanics: Attosecond pulse production is rooted in wave mechanics. The emitted light is a consequence of electrons gaining and losing energy as they interact with oscillating electric and magnetic fields in the light beam.
- Constructive Interference: Attosecond pulses are produced through constructive interference when peaks of different overtones merge. Destructive interference occurs when peaks align with troughs, leading to the cancellation of signals.
Producing Attosecond Pulses
- Interference Combinations: Researchers manipulate interference combinations of multiple overtones to generate attosecond pulses with durations of a few hundred attoseconds.
- Precise Frequency Range: Attosecond pulses are produced when the beam’s frequency falls within a specific plateau range, as dictated by interference effects.
Measuring Attosecond Pulses: RABBIT Technique
- Pierre Agostini and his colleagues developed the RABBIT (Reconstruction of Attosecond Beating by Interference of Two-photon Transitions) technique.
- It involves measuring electrons kicked out from noble gas atoms by attosecond pulses and a longer-duration pulse, providing insights into pulse properties, including duration.
Applications of Attophysics
- Solar Power Enhancement: Attosecond studies have refined our understanding of the photoelectric effect, a fundamental process in solar power generation. Insights gained from atto-physics could lead to improved solar technologies.
- Electron-Dependent Fields: Attophysics impacts various scientific disciplines where electron properties play a crucial role, spanning physics, chemistry, and biology. By studying electron behavior at attosecond timescales, researchers can unlock new possibilities and applications.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Xenotransplantation
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- A groundbreaking study published in Nature showcases a remarkable feat by successfully modifying pig genomes and transplanting kidney grafts from these genetically engineered pigs into non-human primates.
- This preclinical achievement holds great promise, potentially advancing the prospects of using genetically modified pig kidneys for human transplantation.
About Xenotransplantation
- Xenotransplantation Potential: The concept of transplanting animal organs into humans, known as xenotransplantation, offers a potential solution to the chronic shortage of transplantable organs worldwide.
- Pig Donors Show Promise: Pigs are emerging as promising donor animals. However, several significant hurdles, including organ rejection and the risk of zoonosis (transmission of animal viruses to humans), must be overcome for this approach to be considered clinically viable.
Recent advances
- Genome Alterations for Success: Led by Wenning Qin in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the research team took a giant stride by introducing 69 genomic edits into a donor pig, a Yucatan miniature pig.
- Eliminating Glycan Antigens: Three glycan antigens, culprits for organ rejection, were removed, paving the way for successful transplantation.
- Human Transgenes Introduced: Seven human transgenes were strategically inserted into the pig’s genome to reduce the primate immune system’s hostility.
- Porcine Retrovirus Gene Deactivated: The scientists also inactivated all copies of the porcine retrovirus gene.
Advancement achieved so far
- Glycan Antigens Identified: Prior research pinpointed three glycan antigens in pigs that trigger rejection when recognized by human antibodies.
- Zoonotic Concerns: The porcine endogenous retrovirus has raised concerns about the potential transmission of animal viruses to humans during transplantation.
- Extended Graft Survival: Kidney grafts from genetically engineered pigs exhibited remarkable longevity, far surpassing previous attempts.
- Enhanced Immunity: Kidney grafts with glycan antigen knockouts and human transgene expression survived significantly longer than those with only glycan antigen knockouts (176 days versus 24 days).
- Immune Suppression Support: Combining these genetically modified grafts with immunosuppressive treatment resulted in long-term survival for the primate recipients, with survival durations extending up to an impressive 758 days.
A Step Closer to Clinical Trials
- Promising Outlook: This groundbreaking research underscores the potential of pig organs for future human transplantation, addressing the organ shortage crisis.
- Clinical Trials on the Horizon: The successful preclinical study brings the possibility of clinical testing of genetically engineered pig renal grafts within reach, marking a crucial milestone in organ transplantation.
Issues with Xenotransplantation
- Animal rights: Many, including animal rights groups, strongly oppose killing animals to harvest their organs for human use.
- Decreased life expectancy: In the 1960s, many organs came from the chimpanzees, and were transferred into people that were deathly ill, and in turn, did not live much longer afterwards.
- Religious violations: Certain animals such as pork are strictly forbidden in Islam and many other religions.
- Informed consent: Autonomy and informed consent are important when considering the future uses of xenotransplantation.
- Persistent threats of zoonosis: The safety of public health is a factor to be considered. We are already battling the biggest zoonotic disease threat.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Digital India Act (DIA)
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- India’s ‘Digital India’ initiative is set to receive a significant boost with the introduction of the Digital India Act 2023 (DIA).
- This legislation, replacing the two-decade-old Information Technology Act of 2000, reflects India’s commitment to creating a future-ready legal framework for its rapidly expanding digital ecosystem.
- The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MEITY) has taken a proactive approach to navigate the complexities of the digital age and ensure robust regulation and governance.
Adapting to a Changing Digital Landscape
- Challenges of the IT Act (2000): The IT Act of 2000 was crafted during the infancy of the internet, making it inadequate to address the evolving digital environment.
- Explosive Growth: India’s internet user base has grown from 5.5 million to 850 million, accompanied by shifts in technology, user behavior, and emerging threats.
Key Provisions of the Digital India Act (DIA)
- Online Safety and Trust: DIA prioritizes online safety and trust while remaining adaptable to market dynamics and international legal principles.
- Responsible Technology Adoption: It provides guidelines for the responsible use of technologies like artificial intelligence and blockchain, promoting ethical practices and accountability.
- Open Internet: DIA upholds the concept of an open internet while ensuring necessary regulations to protect users.
- Know Your Customer (KYC) for Wearable Devices: It mandates stringent KYC requirements for wearable devices, reinforced by criminal law sanctions.
- Review of Safe Harbour Principle: The DIA contemplates a review of the “safe harbour” principle, potentially altering online accountability standards.
Challenges and Concerns
- Impact on Innovation: Stricter regulations, especially in emerging technologies, might discourage entrepreneurial initiatives and deter foreign investments.
- Freedom of Expression: Reviewing the “safe harbour” principle could lead to cautious behavior among online platforms, potentially affecting freedom of expression.
- Enforcement Challenges: Effective enforcement will require significant resources, expertise, and infrastructure, and striking a balance among various stakeholders presents a challenge.
Conclusion
- The Digital India Act 2023 represents a progressive step toward a secure, accountable, and innovative digital future for India.
- It acknowledges the dynamic nature of the digital age and has the potential to shape the nation’s digital landscape for generations to come.
- As consultations and discussions continue, vigilance and adaptability will be essential to mitigate unintended consequences and ensure a balanced approach to regulation in the digital arena.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Money Bill and related provisions and procedure
Mains level: Money Bill debate and Supreme Court in interpretations
What’s the news?
- In recent years, some major legislations have been passed via the money bill route. Now a seven-judge SC bench will hear a challenge to the Centre’s use of money bills for passing important laws.
Central idea
- In a significant development, the Chief Justice of India announced that a seven-judge bench will be constituted to address a series of pleas challenging the government’s use of the money bill route to enact certain key legislations. This move comes in response to mounting concerns about the validity and constitutional propriety of this legislative procedure.
- A money bill is a type of legislative proposal that is defined and governed by Article 110 of the Indian Constitution.
What constitutes a money bill?
- Subject: A bill is considered a money bill if it exclusively deals with specific financial matters outlined in Article 110(1)(a) to (g) of the Indian Constitution. These matters include taxation, government borrowing, and the appropriation of money from the Consolidated Fund of India, among others.
- Introduction in Lok Sabha: Money bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha, which is the lower house of India’s Parliament. They cannot originate in the Rajya Sabha, which is the upper house.
- Exclusion of Rajya Sabha Consent: Unlike ordinary bills, money bills do not require the consent or approval of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The Lok Sabha has the exclusive authority to pass or reject money bills.
- Final Decision of the Speaker: Article 110(3) of the Constitution states that if any question arises whether a bill is a money bill or not, the decision of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha on this matter shall be final.
- Judicial Scrutiny: While the Constitution grants the Speaker the final authority in deciding whether a bill is a money bill, the Indian judiciary has the power to review and examine the Speaker’s decision for compliance with constitutional provisions.
Challenged Legislations
- Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) Amendments:
- In July 2022, a three-judge bench composed of Justices A. M. Khanwilkar, Dinesh Maheshwari, and CT Ravikumar upheld the PMLA and the extensive powers of the Enforcement Directorate (ED).
- However, they left the validity of amendments to the PMLA via the Money Bill route open for review by a larger Constitution bench.
- The Finance Acts passed in 2015, 2016, 2018, and 2019 introduced significant changes to the PMLA, raising questions about the constitutionality of their passage.
- Aadhaar Act:
- The Aadhaar case marked a significant challenge to the categorization of a bill as a money bill.
- In 2018, the Supreme Court, in a 4:1 majority, ruled in favor of the government, declaring the Aadhaar Act a valid money bill under Article 110 of the Constitution.
- Notably, Justice Chandrachud dissented, condemning the government’s action as a fraud on the Constitution and subterfuge.
- Tribunal Reform:
- In the case of Roger Matthew vs. Union of India in November 2019, the Supreme Court confronted the issue of changes in the service conditions of tribunal members introduced as a money bill in the Finance Act, 2017.
- While a five-judge bench deemed the law unconstitutional for impinging on judicial independence, it referred the money bill aspect to a larger constitution bench.
- This move also cast doubt on the correctness of the five-judge Constitution Bench’s 2018 verdict upholding the Aadhaar Act as a money bill.
The Larger Bench and Implications
- Constitutional Significance: The cases involve the interpretation of Article 110 and the determination of whether specific bills genuinely qualify as money bills. The decisions reached by the larger bench will establish crucial precedents in constitutional law.
- Clarifying Legislative Boundaries: The larger bench’s decisions will play a pivotal role in clarifying the boundaries of legislative power in India. It will provide guidance on when a bill can be categorized as a money bill and, consequently, whether it requires the consent of the Rajya Sabha.
- Impact on Challenged Legislations: The decisions of the larger bench will directly impact the validity of specific legislations challenged for being passed as money bills. For instance, in the case of amendments to the PMLA, the outcome will determine the fate of these amendments and whether they must undergo further scrutiny in both houses of Parliament.
- Judicial Review of Speaker’s Decision: The larger bench’s deliberations may provide further clarity on the extent of judicial review over the Speaker’s decision regarding the classification of bills as money bills.
Conclusion
- The announcement of a seven-judge bench by CJI Chandrachud signals a substantial step toward addressing these concerns and providing clarity on the boundaries of this legislative process, which has far-reaching implications for India’s legal and political framework.
Also read:
Money Bills vs Finance Bills: What are the differences, what the court has ruled
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ARTIP
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- India’s Automated Radio Telescope Image Processing Pipeline (ARTIP) technology has been instrumental in facilitating remarkable discoveries from distant galaxies observed by South Africa’s MeerKAT Telescope.
- MeerKAT acts as a precursor to the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) Telescope, known for its outstanding sensitivity and sky survey capabilities.
- ARTIP’s cutting-edge image data processing is vital for harnessing MeerKAT’s potential for groundbreaking research.
What is ARTIP?
- Development by Thoughtworks: ARTIP was developed by global technology consultancy firm Thoughtworks at its India offices in Bengaluru and Pune.
- Automation of Data Processing: Since 2017, this collaboration has aimed to automate various critical processes, including data processing, flagging, calibration, and imaging.
How ARTIP operates?
- Configurability: ARTIP is highly configurable and customizable, designed to process MeerKAT-generated data. While initially configured for MeerKAT, its adaptability allows it to process data from uGMRT and VLA class telescopes.
- Pipeline Components: It consists of four individual sub-pipelines, including calibration, cube imaging, continuum imaging, and diagnostics, each serving different stages of the data processing workflow.
- Calibration (ARTIP-CAL): This component calibrates data against known astronomical sources and extracts the target source of interest.
- Cube Imaging (ARTIP-CUBE): The calibrated target is then used to generate sky images using this component.
- Continuum Imaging (ARTIP-CONT): This pipeline focuses on generating images from the calibrated data.
- Diagnostics (ARTIP-DIAGNOSTICS): Providing analysis insights into data processing and quality, it functions as a quality assurance pipeline.
Impactful Discoveries by ARTIP
- Hydroxyl Radical (OH) Detection: ARTIP has contributed to significant discoveries, including the detection of the hydroxyl radical (OH), an essential chemical species found throughout the atmosphere in a distant galaxy.
- Identification of Hydrogen Atoms: It has also played a crucial role in identifying massive hydrogen atoms (Rydberg atoms) in another distant galaxy.
- Scientific Recognition: The MALS data processing with ARTIP has received recognition in the international astronomical journal, Proceedings of Science, for its contributions to these discoveries.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PUSA-44
Mains level: Stubble burning control measures
Central Idea
- Punjab CM recently announced the state’s decision to ban the cultivation of the PUSA-44 paddy variety starting from the next agricultural season.
- This move has raised questions about why such a popular paddy variety is facing a ban and what implications it holds for the state’s agriculture.
About PUSA-44
- Origin: Developed in 1993 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), PUSA-44 gradually gained popularity among Punjab’s farmers.
- Rapid Adoption: Due to its high yield, Punjab’s farmers started cultivating it on a larger scale, covering 70 to 80 percent of the area under paddy cultivation.
Yield Comparison
- High Yield: Farmers favor PUSA-44 for its impressive yield, producing nearly 85 to 100 quintals per acre compared to other varieties’ 28 to 30 quintals per acre.
- Economic Advantage: The higher yield translates to increased income, with potential earnings of Rs 15,000 to 22,000 per acre above the Minimum Support Price (MSP).
Reasons for Ban
- Long Maturity Period: PUSA-44 requires around 160 days to mature, significantly longer than other varieties, necessitating 5-6 additional cycles of irrigation.
- Groundwater Depletion: Punjab faces severe groundwater depletion, and with an expanding area under paddy, the government aims to conserve water resources by banning PUSA-44.
- Stubble Burning: PUSA-44’s extended maturity period exacerbates the issue of stubble burning. The narrow timeframe between harvesting and wheat sowing makes stubble management challenging, leading to increased incidents of stubble burning.
- Air Pollution: Stubble burning contributes to severe air pollution in North India during the winter, impacting public health.
Impact of PUSA-44 on Stubble Burning
- Harvest Timing: PUSA-44 is harvested just before the wheat sowing season, leaving a limited window for stubble disposal.
- Stubble Quantity: PUSA-44 generates approximately 2 percent more stubble than shorter-duration varieties, compounding the stubble burning problem.
- High-Incidence Districts: Several districts in Punjab, including Barnala, Sangrur, Ludhiana, Moga, Patiala, Fatehgarh Sahib, Muktsar, Bathinda, Faridkot, and Mansa, witness higher stubble-burning incidents, coinciding with the PUSA-44 harvest.
Stubble Burning Statistics
- Burning Incidents: In 2022, several districts experienced a high incidence of stubble burning, primarily linked to the PUSA-44 harvest.
- Persistence: Stubble burning typically began in the third week of October, coinciding with the PUSA-44 harvest, and continued until November 25.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: TRAI
Mains level: OTT Regulations
Central Idea
- The Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) has issued an interim order clarifying that Over the Top (OTT) platforms, such as Hotstar, fall outside the jurisdiction of the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI).
- Instead, they are governed by the Information Technology Rules, 2021, established by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY).
Context for TDSAT’s Decision
- The All India Digital Cable Federation (AIDCF) initiated the petition, alleging that Star India’s free streaming of ICC Cricket World Cup matches on mobile devices through Disney+ Hotstar is discriminatory under TRAI regulations.
- This is because viewers can only access matches on Star Sports TV channels by subscribing and making monthly payments.
Diverging Opinions on OTT Regulation
- IT Ministry vs. DoT: The IT Ministry contends that internet-based communication services, including OTT platforms, do not fall under the jurisdiction of the DoT, citing the Allocation of Business Rules.
- DoT’s Draft Telecom Bill: The DoT proposed a draft telecom Bill that classifies OTT platforms as telecommunications services and seeks to regulate them as telecom operators. This move has encountered objections from MeitY.
TRAI’s Attempt at OTT Regulation
- Changing Stance: TRAI, after three years of maintaining that no specific regulatory framework was required for OTT communication services, began consultations on regulating these services.
- Consultation Paper: In June, TRAI released a consultation paper seeking input on regulating OTT services and exploring whether selective banning of OTT services could be considered as an alternative to complete Internet shutdowns.
- Telecom Operators’ Demand: Telecom operators have long advocated for “same service, same rules” and have pushed for regulatory intervention for OTT platforms.
Significance of TDSAT’s Order
- TDSAT decision holds significance due to ongoing debates over the regulation of OTT services.
- TRAI and the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) have been attempting to regulate OTT platforms, while the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology opposes these efforts.
Recommendations and Monitoring
- In September 2020, TRAI recommended against regulatory intervention for OTT platforms, suggesting that market forces should govern the sector.
- However, it also emphasized the need for monitoring and intervention at an “appropriate time.”
Conclusion
- The recent TDSAT ruling on OTT platform jurisdiction adds complexity to the ongoing debate over the regulation of these services in India.
- While TRAI and the DoT seek regulatory measures, the IT Ministry contends that such services fall outside the purview of telecommunications regulation.
- The evolving landscape highlights the need for a nuanced approach to balance the interests of various stakeholders, including telecom operators, government authorities, and the broader public.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hakki- Pikki Tribe
Mains level: NA
Central idea: Thirty-one tribals belonging to the ‘Hakki-Pikki’ community from Karnataka are stranded in Sudan due to violent clashes between a paramilitary force and the country’s armed forces.
Who are the Hakki-Pikkis?
|
Description |
| Origin |
Migrated from northern India to Karnataka. |
| Traditional Occupation |
Traditionally known for bird hunting, which was later outlawed. |
| Language |
Indo-Aryan language called ‘Vaagri’ and use Kannada for daily business. |
| Location |
Predominantly found in Shivamogga, Davanagere, and Mysuru districts of Karnataka |
| Lineage |
A matriarchal community, where women have an important role in decision-making. |
| Traditional Knowledge |
Known for selling indigenous medicines developed based on their knowledge of plants and herbs. |
Language and UNESCO Listing
- ‘Vaagri’ has been listed as one of the endangered languages by UNESCO.
- This indicates that the language is at risk of becoming extinct in the future, highlighting the importance of preserving and promoting it.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Colachel
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Battle of Colachel in 1741, where King Marthanda Varma led the Travancore army against the Dutch East India Company, marked a significant turning point in India’s history.
- It was the first instance of an Asian kingdom defeating a European power, effectively halting Dutch colonial ambitions in India.
- This battle also had profound implications for the formation of the unified Travancore state.
Travancore’s Complex Landscape Before 1741
- Fragmented Territories: Travancore, formerly known as Thiruvithamcode, was not a unified state but a network of south Malabar temple states and settlements, characterized by fragmented territories and chieftaincies.
- Marthanda Varma’s Leadership: Born in 1705, Marthanda Varma ascended to power and set his sights on unifying the kingdom by annexing neighboring regions and eliminating internal opposition.
- Territorial Expansion: His ambition to expand threatened neighboring rulers in Kayamukulam, Kollam, Attingal, and others, leading them to seek Dutch intervention against Varma.
- English Connection: Varma’s military relations with the English, who supplied weaponry, further strained Dutch-Travancore relations.
Factors Leading to the Battle
- Dutch Resistance: The Dutch, perturbed by Varma’s expansion and territorial disputes, prepared their forces in Colachel to counter Travancore.
- Internal Conflicts: Some Dutch officials, including Carl August Duijvenschot, defected to Travancore due to internal conflicts within the Dutch ranks.
- Neighboring Rulers’ Instigation: Cochin and Kayamukulam rulers instigated the Dutch against Varma to safeguard their borders.
Battle of Colachel: Unfolds
- Dutch Aggression: In February 1741, the Dutch initiated attacks on several villages and the Travancore army, committing atrocities and plundering the region.
- Varma’s Response: Marthanda Varma deployed his military commander, Rama Iyer Dalawah, to confront the Dutch and protect his kingdom.
- International Support: The French supported Varma against the Dutch, and even the English participated in the siege of Colachel alongside Varma’s forces.
Siege and Surrender
- Long Siege: The continuous attacks and siege depleted Dutch supplies and manpower, leading to a dire situation.
- Explosion and Surrender: On August 5, 1741, a gunpowder explosion occurred in Colachel, devastating the Dutch. Two days later, they surrendered.
- Outcome: Only 24 Dutchmen survived, and Travancore captured 389 muskets, cannons, and swords.
- Mukkuvar Community: The Mukkuvar fishermen community, by refusing to assist the Dutch with fortifications and supplies, played a crucial role in Travancore’s victory.
Aftermath and Legacy
- Resilience to Colonial Rule: The victory at Colachel bolstered Varma’s expansion plans and resistance to colonial rule.
- Dutch Retreat: The Dutch never fully recovered from their defeat and signed the Treaty of Mavelikkara in 1753, ending their dominance on the Kerala coast.
- De Lannoy’s Contribution: Eustachius De Lannoy, captured during the battle, played a vital role in training Travancore’s army and fortifying the region. He was conferred the title ‘Valia Kappithan’ (senior admiral) and served Travancore for 36 years.
Back2Basics: Colonization of India
| Colonial Power |
Arrival Year |
Departure Year |
| Portuguese |
Arrived in 1498 through Vasco da Gama’s voyage. |
Departed in 1961 (Goa), with gradual integration of smaller settlements into India over subsequent years. |
| Dutch |
Established presence in 1602. |
Departed in 1802, with the formal cession of their Indian territories to the British through the Treaty of Amiens. |
| British |
British East India Company granted a charter in 1600.
The first factory was established in Surat in 1619. |
Departed in 1947 when India gained independence.
It also led to Partition of India and creation of Pakistan. |
| French |
Established the first trading post in 1668. |
Departed in 1954 with the formal handover of Pondicherry and other French settlements to India. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rooppur Nuclear Plant
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Bangladesh marked a significant milestone in its energy journey with the arrival of the first uranium delivery for its Russia-backed nuclear power plant.
- This $12.65-billion project aims to strengthen the nation’s energy grid, plagued by chronic blackouts.
- Moscow is funding 90% of the project’s cost through a loan, a testament to the close relationship between Russia and Bangladesh.
Rooppur Nuclear Plant
- Construction of the Rooppur nuclear plant in Rooppur village, west of Dhaka, began in 2017.
- It consists of twin 1,200-megawatt units, with the first unit set to begin operations in the coming year, and both expected to be fully operational by 2025.
- It will become Bangladesh’s largest power station in terms of generating capacity once fully operational.
Bangladesh’s Pursuit of Moscow’s Friendship
- Loan Repayment Challenges: US sanctions on Russian entities, including state nuclear agency Rosatom, had previously delayed construction due to Bangladesh’s inability to make loan repayments in US currency.
- Chinese Yuan Payment: In April, Bangladesh agreed to make payments exceeding $300 million in Chinese Yuan to bypass the sanctions, although these payments are yet to be made.
Bangladesh’s Energy Imperatives
- Overcoming Energy Challenges: Bangladesh faces severe energy shortages, with daily power blackouts lasting up to 13 hours, affecting the lives of millions.
- Reducing Fossil Fuel Reliance: The country aims to reduce its dependency on fossil fuels by embracing nuclear energy and other cleaner sources.
- Climate Change Mitigation: Bangladesh presents its nuclear energy ambitions as part of its strategy to combat climate change and reduce carbon emissions significantly by 2030.
Challenges and Concerns
- Safety and Waste Disposal: There remain concerns about the safety risks and disposal of nuclear waste associated with nuclear energy projects.
- Time-Consuming Construction: Nuclear plants take many years to build, compared to more swiftly deployable renewable energy sources.
- Energy Mix: The nation’s energy journey is a complex blend of diplomacy, economics, and environmental considerations, aimed at securing a sustainable energy future.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sammakka-Sarakka Tribal University
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal to set up a central Sammakka-Sarakka Tribal University in Telangana.
- The establishment of this University was a commitment made by the Central government under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, of 2014.
- Both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana were promised support to establish a tribal university each.
Legend of Sammakka and Sarakka
- Sammakka-Sarakka: The university is named after Sammakka-Sarakka, a revered mother-daughter duo among the local tribal community.
- Historical Significance: Sammakka was married to Pagididda Raju, a feudal chief of the Kakatiyas dynasty, and had two daughters, Sarakka and Nagulamma, along with a son named Jampanna. The legend revolves around their battle against local rulers in protest against taxing the Koya people.
- Sammakka Saralamma Jatara: This biennial festival, held in Mulugu, commemorates the 13th-century battle of the mother-daughter duo. It is considered one of the world’s largest tribal gatherings.
- Evolution of the Festival: Initially, only around 2,000 people, primarily from the Koya tribe, attended the festival. However, over time, it transformed into a large Hindu religious event, with millions of devotees attending.
- Political and Social Impact: The festival gained immense political and social significance, leading to its declaration as a state festival in 1996. Infrastructure development, including a motorable road, further boosted its popularity.
Significance of Sammakka and Sarakka
- Massive Footfall: The festival attracts around 1.5 crore devotees from various tribal and non-tribal communities, including those from multiple states such as Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Jharkhand.
- Ministry of Tribal Affairs Participation: The Ministry of Tribal Affairs and the Telangana state government actively participate in the festival, with significant financial support.
- Infrastructure Development: Funds have been allocated for community shelters and infrastructure in and around Medaram, the festival’s location.
- Tribal Circuit Development: The Ministry of Tourism sanctioned funds for the integrated development of the tribal circuit, including the temple of Sammakka-Sarakka.
Significance of Mulugu
- Population and Demographics: Mulugu, a reserved Scheduled Tribes (ST) assembly seat, has a population of approximately 2.6 lakhs, with a 75% ST population as per the 2011 Census.
- UNESCO World Heritage Site: The UNESCO World Heritage Site of Ramappa Temple, located about 15 km from Mulugu, adds to the area’s cultural richness.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Positive Indigenisation List (PIL)
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Defence Minister unveiled the fifth Positive Indigenisation List (PIL) consisting of 98 items to be procured by the armed services from domestic suppliers over specified timelines.
- Additionally, he launched the Indian Navy’s updated indigenisation roadmap, known as Swavlamban 2.0.
What is Positive Indigenisation List (PIL)?
- The Positive Indigenisation List consists of items that can only be procured by the Indian armed forces from domestic manufacturers, including those from the private sector or DPSUs.
- This move is part of the government’s efforts to reduce the reliance on imported arms and promote indigenous manufacturing of defense equipment.
- This concept was rolled out in the Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020.
- It emphasizes import substitution of components for major systems, vital platforms, weapon systems, sensors, and munitions that are expected to translate into firm orders within the next five to ten years.
Items on the Indigenisation List
- Diverse Range: The PIL includes a wide range of items such as futuristic infantry combat vehicles, articulated all-terrain vehicles, various types of unmanned aerial vehicles, precision kill systems for artillery, test equipment for guided weapon systems, radars, armour plates for helicopter cabins, automated mobile test systems, and more.
- Strategic Importance: These items are crucial for bolstering the country’s defence capabilities and reducing reliance on foreign sources. They contribute to India’s quest for self-reliance in the defence sector.
Swavlamban 2.0: Industry Challenges and Initiatives
- 76 Challenges: At the Swavlamban 2.0 seminar, Defence Minister Singh also launched 76 challenges for industry participants under the 10th Defence India Start-up Challenges (DISC-10) and Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX).
- Global Collaboration: The event marked the launch of two INDUS X challenges, a collaboration between iDEX and the U.S. Department of Defence, showcasing India’s commitment to fostering global partnerships for technological advancement.
Vision of Self-Reliance
- Navy’s Commitment: Indian Navy is committed to becoming fully self-reliant by 2047, aligning with India’s 100th Independence anniversary.
- Strategic Importance: The COVID-19 pandemic and global conflicts have underscored the significance of self-reliance, especially in the defence sector. Dependence on external sources for defence needs is considered a strategic vulnerability that needs to be addressed.
- Achievements: The Navy’s efforts in promoting indigenous innovation have yielded significant results, including technological agreements, partnerships with MSMEs and start-ups, and an expanding ecosystem of defence suppliers.
Way forward
- Future Goals: The Indian Navy has set ambitious targets to develop futuristic technologies in collaboration with domestic MSMEs and start-ups, aligning with its commitment to self-reliance.
- Expanding Ecosystem: The Navy’s initiatives have brought over 100 new firms into the defence ecosystem, with procurement orders already signed and more in the pipeline.
- A Strong Bharat: The vision is to build a force that represents a strong and developed Bharat, utilizing unique concepts and capabilities made in India for India.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quantum Dots
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry has been awarded to Moungi G. Bawendi, Louis E. Brus and Alexei I. Ekimov for the discovery and synthesis of quantum dots.
About the Nobel Laureates
- Alexei Ekimov: Born in 1945 in the former USSR, Ekimov earned his PhD in 1974 from Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute. He was formerly the Chief Scientist at Nanocrystals Technology Inc., New York, USA.
- Louis Brus: Born in 1943 in Cleveland, USA, Brus obtained his PhD in 1969 from Columbia University, where he is a professor.
- Moungi Bawendi: Born in 1961 in Paris and raised in France, Tunisia, and the US, Bawendi earned his PhD in 1988 from the University of Chicago. He is a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA.
What are Quantum Dots?
- Quantum dots (QDs) are man-made nanoscale crystals celebrated for their unique optical and electronic properties.
- They can transport electrons and emit diverse colors when exposed to UV light.
- These artificially synthesized semiconductor nanoparticles found their origins in theoretical concepts in the 1970s, followed by successful synthesis in the early 1980s.
- Small semiconductor particles exhibit quantum effects, altering their optical properties based on size.
Working Principle
- Size Matters: Quantum dots manipulate light emission based on size, as energy levels are linked to wavelength (color). By controlling particle size, they can emit or absorb specific colors of light.
- Versatile Structures: Quantum dots come in diverse forms, with properties determined by factors like size, shape, composition, and structure. They can be employed as active materials in single-electron transistors and offer vast application potential.
Contributions of Ekimov, Brus, and Bawendi
- Ekimov’s Soviet Discovery: Ekimov’s initial discoveries in this field, dating back to 1981, were pioneering but remained largely unknown due to the Iron Curtain’s restrictions.
- Glass Coloration Mystery: Ekimov’s work began with the curious phenomenon of glass coloration. He explored how particle size influenced the color imparted to glass during its formation, leading to a size-dependent quantum effect discovery.
- Brus’s Independent Revelation: Unaware of Ekimov’s work, Brus, in the U.S., was working with cadmium sulfide particles to harness solar energy. He observed that smaller particles absorbed light at different wavelengths, demonstrating the size-dependent quantum effect.
- Bawendi’s Innovations: Bawendi improved particle creation methods, enhancing the perfection of nanocrystals and enabling the exploration of quantum dots’ unique properties by more chemists.
Applications of Quantum Dots
- In Electronics: Quantum dots play a crucial role in QLED technology, used in computer and television screens. They also adjust the light in LED lamps, offering various color temperatures.
- Biochemistry and Medicine: Quantum dots are used in biochemistry to map cells and organs, and doctors explore their potential for tracking tumor tissue in the body. Chemists leverage their catalytic properties to drive chemical reactions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Subatomic Motion, Nobel Prize
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Anne L’Huillier, Pierre Agostini, and Ferenc Krausz have been honored the 2023 Physics Nobel Prize for their groundbreaking experiments, providing humanity with new tools to explore the inner workings of electrons within atoms and molecules.
Measuring Rapid Electron Processes
- Tracking electron movement: Their work has enabled the creation of extremely short pulses of light, lasting only ato-seconds (1×10−18 of a second), allowing for the measurement of the lightning-fast processes through which electrons move or change energy.
- Observing Subatomic Motion: Electrons, the tiny particles that orbit the nucleus within atoms, move at astonishing speeds, making real-time observation impossible.
- High-Shutter-Speed Analogy: The trio’s research can be likened to a high-shutter-speed camera freezing motion to capture clear images. Similarly, they’ve achieved the ability to “freeze” electron movement using ultra-short light pulses.
Their Journey to Success
- Anne L’Huillier’s Discovery: In 1987, L’Huillier discovered that laser light waves interacting with noble gases could provide some electrons with extra energy, which was then emitted as light. She continued to develop this concept.
- Pierre Agostini’s Breakthrough: In 2001, Agostini successfully generated consecutive light pulses, each lasting just 250 attoseconds.
- Ferenc Krausz’s Contribution: Simultaneously, Krausz’s experiments isolated single light pulses lasting 650 attoseconds, providing invaluable insights into atomic processes.
Significance of their Work
- Unveiling Electron World: Atto-second physics, as their work is known, has opened doors to understanding mechanisms controlled by electrons.
- Eva Olsson’s Insight: According to Eva Olsson, Chair of the Nobel Committee for Physics, this breakthrough allows us to comprehend electron-driven phenomena and explore their practical applications.
- Potential Medical Application: Studying molecular-level changes in blood using these techniques could aid in disease identification.
- Advanced Electronics: A deeper understanding of electron can contribute to the development of more efficient electronic devices.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UAPA
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Allegations against NewsClick: The FIR against NewsClick alleges illegal funding from China, routed through the United States.
- UAPA Provisions: The FIR invokes various sections of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), with a primary focus on Section 16, which deals with punishment for terrorist acts.
Understanding UAPA Provisions
*Section 15 – Definition of “Terrorist Act”
- Section 15 of the UAPA defines “terrorist act” and prescribes imprisonment for at least five years to life. In cases where the act results in death, the punishment is either death or imprisonment for life.
- This section encompasses serious and violent acts with the potential to threaten India’s unity, integrity, security, economic security, or sovereignty.
- It includes actions such as the use of explosives, causing death or damage to property, disruption of essential services, and damaging monetary stability through counterfeiting.
Other UAPA Provisions Invoked
- Section 13 – Unlawful Activities: This section deals with unlawful activities and their consequences.
- Section 17 – Raising Funds for Terrorist Acts: It addresses raising funds for terrorist activities.
- Section 18 – Conspiracy: This section covers conspiracy related to terrorist acts.
- Section 22 (C) – Offences by Companies, Trusts: This provision pertains to offenses committed by companies and trusts.
- IPC Sections Invoked: Additionally, the FIR includes IPC sections 153 A (promoting enmity between different groups) and 120B (criminal conspiracy).
Understanding the UAPA Framework
- Unique Criminal Law Framework: The UAPA provides an alternative criminal law framework that differs from the general principles of criminal law.
- Enhanced State Powers: Compared to the Indian Penal Code (IPC), the UAPA grants the state greater powers.
- Bail Provisions: The UAPA has stringent conditions for bail and relaxes timelines for the state to file chargesheets.
- Denying Bail: To deny bail under the UAPA, the court must establish a “prima facie” case against the accused.
- Prima Facie Definition: In 2019, the Supreme Court defined “prima facie” narrowly, meaning that the court must not analyze evidence or circumstances but must consider the “totality of the case” presented by the state.
- Section 43D(5): This section specifies that a person accused of an offense under Chapters IV and VI of the UAPA shall not be released on bail or their own bond if the Public Prosecutor hasn’t been heard on the application for release.
- Court’s Opinion: The court may deny bail if it finds reasonable grounds to believe that the accusation against the accused is prima facie true.
Conclusion
- The FIR against NewsClick under the UAPA underscores the seriousness of the allegations and the complex legal framework surrounding such cases.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lal Bahadur Shastri
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- October 2 is a day of double celebration as India remembers the birth anniversaries of two iconic leaders: Mahatma Gandhi, the ‘Father of the Nation,’ and Lal Bahadur Shastri, former Prime Minister.
- Both leaders made significant contributions to India’s freedom struggle and early years of nation-building.
Lal Bahadur Shastri: A Man of Humble Origins
[A] Rising from Modest Beginnings
- Early Struggles: Born in 1904 in Mughalsarai, Uttar Pradesh, Shastri faced adversity early in life, with his father passing away shortly after his birth.
- Simplicity: Raised in a lower-middle-class environment, he possessed only two kurtas and dhotis, symbolizing his humble beginnings.
- A Change of Name: In a demonstration of his early social consciousness, Shastri dropped his birthname “Varma.” In 1925, he acquired the title of ‘Shastri’ (one who knows the Shastras) from the Kashi Vidyapeeth in Benaras, adding it to his name.
[B] Resignation and Accountability
- A Serious Accident: While serving as the Union Minister for Railways and Transport in 1956, a tragic railway accident in Telangana resulted in the loss of 112 lives.
- Owning Responsibility: Deeply affected by the tragedy, Shastri took moral responsibility and tendered his resignation to Prime Minister Nehru. Although Nehru initially did not accept it, Shastri resigned again after another railway accident in Tamil Nadu in November 1956, further solidifying his moral stature.
[C] Championing the Slogan ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan’
- A Return to Cabinet: Shastri made a comeback to the Union Cabinet, serving in roles such as Home Minister and Commerce and Industry Minister.
- Language Assurance: In response to concerns about Hindi domination, he assured the continued use of English as an official language alongside Hindi.
- Economic Challenges: In 1965, faced with economic stagnation and growing food demand, Shastri called upon farmers to increase production, traders to maintain fair prices, and consumers to exercise restraint. He coined the famous slogan, ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan (Hail the soldier, hail the farmer!).’
[D] Leadership during the 1965 India-Pakistan War and Tashkent Agreement
- Unforeseen Conflict: The 1965 war with Pakistan erupted as Pakistan launched attacks in Jammu and Kashmir, believing India to be vulnerable after the 1962 war with China.
- Firm Response: Shastri approved an Indian counterattack, leading to hostilities on both sides.
- Tashkent Declaration: Soviet Premier Aleksey Kosygin invited Shastri and Pakistan President General Ayub Khan to Tashkent, Uzbekistan, where they signed the Tashkent Declaration on January 10, 1966, committing to long-term peace.
- Sudden Passing: Tragically, Shastri passed away due to a heart attack the following day in Tashkent, leaving behind speculation about the circumstances. However, available evidence suggests it was a natural death, dispelling doubts of external factors.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: mRNA Vaccines, Nobel Prize
Mains level: Vaccine development for COVID
Central Idea
- Katalin Kariko and Drew Weissman, the 2023 medicine Nobel laureates, have earned acclaim for their groundbreaking contributions to the field of mRNA technology.
- Their work has transformed our understanding of mRNA’s interaction with the immune system, leading to the rapid development of vaccines, particularly during the Covid-19 pandemic.
What is mRNA?
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a single-stranded RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid) molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA strands of a gene.
- The mRNA is an RNA version of the gene that leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm where proteins are made.
- During protein synthesis, an organelle called a ribosome moves along the mRNA, reads its base sequence, and uses the genetic code to translate each three-base triplet, or codon, into its corresponding amino acid.
What are mRNA vaccines?
- Such vaccines make use of the messenger RNA molecules that tell the body’s cells what proteins to build.
- The mRNA, in this case, is coded to tell the cells to recreate the spike protein of the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which causes Covid-19.
- It is the spike protein — which appears as spikes on the surface of the coronavirus — that initiates the process of infection; it allows the virus to penetrate cells, after which it goes on to replicate.
- A coronavirus vaccine based on mRNA, once injected into the body, will instruct the body’s cells to create copies of the spike protein.
- In turn, this is expected to prompt the immune cells to create antibodies to fight it.
- These antibodies will remain in the blood and fight the real virus if and when it infects the human body.
What are other types of vaccines?
(1) Vector vaccine:
- In this type of vaccine, genetic material from the COVID-19 virus is placed in a modified version of a different virus (viral vector).
- When the viral vector gets into your cells, it delivers genetic material from the COVID-19 virus that gives your cells instructions to make copies of the S protein.
- Once your cells display the S proteins on their surfaces, your immune system responds by creating antibodies and defensive white blood cells.
- If you later become infected with the COVID-19 virus, the antibodies will fight the virus.
(2) Protein subunit vaccine:
- Subunit vaccines include only the parts of a virus that best stimulate your immune system.
- This type of COVID-19 vaccine contains harmless S proteins.
- Once your immune system recognizes the S proteins, it creates antibodies and defensive white blood cells.
- If you later become infected with the COVID-19 virus, the antibodies will fight the virus.
Back2Basics: Ribo Nucleic Acid (RNA)
- RNA is an important biological macromolecule that is present in all biological cells.
- It is principally involved in the synthesis of proteins, carrying the messenger instructions from DNA, which itself contains the genetic instructions required for the development and maintenance of life.
- In some viruses, RNA, rather than DNA, carries genetic information.
- The type of RNA dictates the function that this molecule will have within the cell.
- Aside from the coding region of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules that will be translated into proteins, other cellular RNA elements are involved in different processes.
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