Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Microbes
Mains level: NA
Central idea
- Researchers conducted a genetic analysis of microbial communities on the South Col of Sagarmatha (Mount Everest).
- The article examines the human microbiota on the inhospitable slopes of Mount Everest esp. the South Col ridge.
Microbial Communities on the South Col
- Microbial communities were collected from sediment samples left by human climbers on the South Col, 7,900 meters above sea level (msl).
- The South Col is inhospitable due to low oxygen, strong winds, high levels of UV radiation, and temperatures below minus 15 degrees Celsius.
- Visible signs of life are absent above 6,700 msl except for a few species of moss and a jumping spider.
- Microbes are carried to high altitudes by birds, animals, winds, and dust particles.
Microbes found
- Using sophisticated methods such as 16S and 18S rRNA sequencing, the microbe hunters were able to identify the bacteria and other microorganisms found on the South Col.
- 16s rRNA is a component of the 30S subunit in prokaryotic ribosomes while 18s rRNA is a component of the 40S subunit in eukaryotic ribosomes.
- 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing is an amplicon sequencing technique used to identify and compare species of bacteria present within a given sample.
- 16S rRNA gene sequencing is used to study phylogeny and taxonomy of samples from complex microbiomes or environments that are difficult or impossible to study.
- Microbes like Modestobacter altitudinis and the fungus, naganishia, which are known to be UV-resistant survivors are found there.
History of Mount Everest and Naming
- Nepal’s eminent historian, late Baburam Acharya, gave the Nepali name Sagarmatha to Mount Everest in the 1960s.
- Andrew Waugh, British Surveyor General of India, discovered Mount Everest in 1847 and named it after his predecessor, Sir George Everest.
- Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematician and surveyor, was the first person to show that Mount Everest was the world’s highest peak in 1852, with the help of a special device.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Groundwater in India
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea: The Jal Shakti Ministry is working on an ambitious plan to deploy a vast network of groundwater sensors to continuously relay information on groundwater levels and contamination.
What is Groundwater?
- Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock.
- It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.
- Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone.
- Water can move through these materials because they have large connected spaces that make them permeable.
- Aquifers, hand-dug wells, and artesian wells are different types of sources of groundwater.
Sensors-based Groundwater Monitoring
- Under this new initiative, around 16,000-17,000 digital water level recorders will be connected to piezometers in the wells to transmit information digitally.
- In the next three years, the CGWB aims to increase its network from the existing 26,000 to about 40,000.
- When combined with similar networks possessed by other institutions, India will have about 67,000 digitally recordable units to monitor groundwater dynamics.
Significance of the move
- This would make groundwater visible much the same way as air quality and meteorological variables
- The information will be publicly accessible.
- It will potentially provide groundwater forecasts to farmers that would be useful for sowing and updated advisories that can influence groundwater extraction policies by states
Why monitor groundwater?
- Nitrate contamination – a result of the use of nitrogenous fertilizers – has been observed in some regions
- Groundwater contamination, mostly “geogenic” (natural), hasn’t significantly changed over the years.
- But nitrate contamination and fluoride and arsenic contamination have been observed in some regions and states.
Present system of monitoring
- The Central Groundwater Board currently relies on a network of about 26 thousand groundwater observation wells.
- It requires technicians to manually measure the state of groundwater in a region.
Groundwater Extraction in India
- The total annual groundwater recharge in the country has been assessed as 437.60 billion cubic meters (BCM)
- The annual extractable groundwater resource has been assessed as 398.08 bcm, with actual extraction of 239.16 bcm
- The average stage of groundwater extraction for the country as a whole works out to be about 60.08%, and anything above 70% is considered “critical”
Also read
Groundwater Extraction Lowest in 18 years
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CBAM
Mains level: Not Much
The Indian government will be analyzing how the European Union’s (EU’s) proposed carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM) will affect the Indian industry. The CBAM is set to start from October this year.
Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
| Proposed by |
European Union (EU) |
| Purpose |
To reduce carbon emissions from imported goods and prevent competitive disadvantage against countries with weaker environmental regulations |
| Objectives |
Reduce carbon emissions from imported goods
Promote a level playing field between the EU and its trading partners
Protect EU companies that have invested in green technologies |
How does CBAM work?
| Coverage |
Applies to imported goods that are carbon-intensive |
| Integration |
Covered by the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS), which currently covers industries like power generation, steel, and cement |
| Implementation |
CBAM taxes would be imposed on the carbon content of imported goods at the border, and the tax rates would be based on the carbon price in the EU ETS |
| Exemptions |
Possible exemptions for countries that have implemented comparable carbon pricing systems |
| Revenue Use |
Revenue generated from CBAM taxes could be used to fund the EU’s climate objectives, such as financing climate-friendly investments and supporting developing countries’ climate efforts |
Who will be affected by CBAM?
|
Details |
| Countries |
Non-EU countries, including India, that export carbon-intensive goods to the EU |
| Items |
Initially covers iron and steel, cement, aluminium, fertilisers, and electric energy production |
| Expansion |
The scope of the CBAM may expand to other sectors in the future |
Advantages of CBAM
- Encourages non-EU countries to adopt more stringent environmental regulations, reducing global carbon emissions.
- Prevents carbon leakage by discouraging companies from relocating to countries with weaker environmental regulations.
- Generates revenue that could be used to support EU climate policies.
Challenges with CBAM
- Difficulty in accurately measuring the carbon emissions of imported goods, especially for countries without comprehensive carbon accounting systems.
- Potential for trade tensions with the EU’s trading partners, especially if other countries implement retaliatory measures.
Conclusion
- The CBAM is a proposed policy by the EU to reduce carbon emissions from imported goods and to promote a level playing field between the EU and its trading partners.
- Although the CBAM has its challenges, it has the potential to incentivize non-EU countries to adopt more stringent environmental regulations and reduce global carbon emissions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Waterbodies definition, Key stats
Mains level: Water conservation efforts
The Ministry of Jal Shakti has recently released the report of the first census of waterbodies in India.
Waterbodies Census
- It is the first ever process of conducting a comprehensive survey of all the waterbodies in a particular region or country.
- The census aims to identify and classify different types of waterbodies like ponds, tanks, lakes, and reservoirs, among others.
- The information can help in the development of strategies for their conservation and management.
Major highlight: Definition of Waterbodies
- The census defines a waterbody as a unit bounded on all sides that is used for storing water for various purposes.
- These units can be either natural or man-made and may or may not have masonry work.
- Waterbodies are used for a variety of purposes, such as irrigation, industrial use, pisciculture, domestic and drinking water supply, recreation, religious purposes, and groundwater recharge.
- The report states that any structure that accumulates water from ice-melt, streams, springs, rain or drainage of water from residential or other areas or stores water by diversion from a stream, nala or river is also considered a waterbody.
Key facts: Distribution of Waterbodies
According to the report, India has 24.24 lakh water bodies like ponds, tanks, and lakes, with West Bengal having the highest number (7.47 lakh) and Sikkim having the least number (134).
| Waterbody Type |
Percentage of Total Waterbodies |
Number of Waterbodies |
| Ponds |
59.5% |
14,42,993 |
| Tanks |
15.7% |
3,81,805 |
| Reservoirs |
12.1% |
2,92,280 |
| Water Conservation Schemes/Percolation Tanks/Check Dams |
9.3% |
2,26,217 |
| Lakes |
0.9% |
22,361 |
| Others |
2.5% |
58,884 |
State-Wise Distribution of Waterbodies
- The report highlights that West Bengal has the highest number of ponds and reservoirs, while Andhra Pradesh has the highest number of tanks.
- Tamil Nadu has the highest number of lakes, and Maharashtra is the leading state with water conservation schemes.
- South 24 Parganas district in West Bengal has been ranked as the top district having the highest (3.55 lakh) number of waterbodies across the country.
Issues highlighted: Encroachment of Waterbodies
- Total 1.6% of waterbodies reported to be encroached
- 4% of encroached waterbodies in rural areas, 4.6% in urban areas
- 8% of encroached waterbodies have less than 25% area under encroachment
- 8% of waterbodies have more than 75% area under encroachment
Conclusion
- The census provides a comprehensive overview of the distribution of waterbodies in India, highlighting the states and districts with the highest number of waterbodies.
- The data on encroachment of waterbodies can help in identifying areas where conservation efforts are needed to protect these valuable resources.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Interstate border disputes
Central idea
- Ahave had a long-standing border dispute over 123 villages that are located in 12 districts of Arunachal and 8 districts of Assam.
- On April 21, 2022, an MoU was signed between the two states to resolve the dispute.
Genesis of the dispute
- The border dispute between Arunachal Pradesh and Assam has around 1,200 points of conflict along their 804 km boundary, which began in the 1970s and intensified in the 1990s.
- The issue goes back to 1873 when the British government introduced the inner-line permit, vaguely separating the plains from the frontier hills.
- In 1954, the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) was formed, and 3,648 sq. km of the “plain” area of Balipara and Sadiya foothills was transferred to the Darrang and Lakhimpur districts of Assam based on the 1951 report.
- Arunachal has been celebrating its statehood with an eye on China since 1987, and its people living in the transferred patches have been resentful, claiming that the transfer was done arbitrarily.
- However, their counterparts in Assam say the 1951 demarcation is constitutional and legal.
Past efforts to resolve the border issue
- Several efforts were made in the past to resolve the border dispute between Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
- In 1979, a high-powered tripartite committee was constituted to delineate the boundary, and around 489 km of the 800 km were demarcated by 1983-84.
- Further demarcation could not take place because Arunachal Pradesh did not accept the recommendations.
- The apex court appointed a local boundary commission in 2006 to resolve the dispute. However, nothing came of it.
Process leading up to the signing of the MoU
- Assam CM and Arunachal CM commenced CM-level talks over the border issue on January 24, 2022.
- In their second meeting on April 20, 2022, they made key decisions.
- The border issues between both the states would be confined to a list of 123 villages which Arunachal Pradesh had claimed before the Local Commission in 2007.
- A boundary line delineated by the high-powered tripartite committee in 1980 would be taken as the notified boundary, and all realignment would be done in relation to it.
- Both states would set up 12 regional committees covering the 12 districts of Arunachal Pradesh and the 8 counterpart districts of Assam for joint verification of the 123 villages.
Extent to which the issue has been resolved
- The MoU has resolved the dispute over 34 villages.
- The village boundaries of 49 of the remaining villages are unresolved.
- The MoU states that in these, the Regional Committees will finalize the boundaries within a period of six months “through continuous dialogue.”
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hooghly River
Mains level: Not Much
Central idea: The East-West Metro corridor, the second line of Kolkata’s Metro network that is currently under construction, will connect Kolkata and Howrah, and one of its highlights is India’s first underwater transport tunnel spanning the Hooghly river.
Hooghly River: Some facts
|
Description |
| Name |
Bhagirathi Hooghly River (Anglicized alternatively spelled Hoogli or Hugli) |
| Source |
Close to Giria, north of Baharampur and Palashi, in Murshidabad |
| Length |
260 km |
| Flows through |
West Bengal |
| Endpoint |
Bay of Bengal |
| Importance |
Lifeline for Kolkata, transportation route for goods and people, historical trade route, cultural and ecological resource |
| Challenges |
Changing course, frequent floods, pollution from industrial effluents and sewage |
| Additional Information |
A man-made canal called the Farakka Feeder Canal connects the Ganges to the Bhagirathi to bring the abundant waters of the Himalayan river to the narrow river that rises in West Bengal.
The main course of the Ganges then flows into Bangladesh as the Padma.
The Bhagirathi Hooghly River is also called the Ganga or the Kati-Ganga in the Puranas. |
About the East-West Corridor
- The East-West Corridor is expected to significantly ease congestion in the city.
- The line connects Kolkata’s IT hub of Salt Lake Sector V to the western suburb of Howrah.
- The eastern part of the East-West line is operational while the western portion of the corridor is underground.
- There are 12 stations on the entire route, including the country’s deepest, Howrah, at a depth of 33 meters.
Key feature: Underwater Tunnel
- The tunnels under the Hooghly River are 520 meters long and more than 30 meters below the river surface at its deepest point.
- The trains will have an operational speed of 80 km/h and will cover the half-kilometre stretch under the Hooghly in about 45 seconds.
- The underwater tunnels have an internal diameter of 5.55 meters and an external diameter of 6.1 meters.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Olive RIdley Turtles
Mains level: NA
Millions of baby Olive Ridley Turtles crawled towards the Bay of Bengal after emerging from eggshells along Odisha’s Rushikulyabeach in the Ganjam district.
Olive Ridley Turtles
|
Description |
| Scientific name |
Lepidochelys olivacea |
| Habitat |
Warm and tropical waters |
| Found in |
Pacific and Indian Oceans |
| Nesting sites |
Rushikulya rookery in Odisha |
| Largest mass nesting site |
Coast of Odisha in India |
| Conservation status |
Vulnerable in IUCN Red List |
| Listed in |
Schedule 1 in Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 |
Special feature: Mass nesting
| Notable behavior |
Arribadas |
| Nesting habits |
Synchronized mass nesting and return to the same beach where they hatched |
| Nest structure |
Conical nests about one and a half feet deep, dug with hind flippers |
| Incubation period |
45 to 60 days, influenced by temperature of the sand and atmosphere |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Garbh-INI Program
Mains level: NA
Central idea: The scientists working in the Garbh-Ini program have identified 19 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or genetic markers that are associated with preterm or premature birth.
What is Garbh-Ini?
- It is an interdisciplinary research program in India that focuses on the advanced research of birth outcomes.
- It is a collaborative initiative under the Department of Biotechnology.
- It is led by DBT-Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI) in the NCR Biotech cluster, Faridabad, in collaboration with DBT-NIBMG, Kalyani, DBT-Regional Centre for Biotechnology (RCB), Gurugram Civil Hospital, and other organizations.
- The program aims to use advanced technology to improve maternal and child health outcomes and address the high incidence of preterm births in India.
What are Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)?
- Genetic markers are specific sequences of DNA that can be used to identify an individual or a particular trait.
- Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the most common type of genetic variation that occurs in the DNA sequence.
- SNPs occur when a single nucleotide (A, C, T, or G) in the DNA sequence is altered.
- These changes can occur in any region of the genome and can be used as genetic markers to identify specific traits or disease susceptibility.
Significance of the Study
- The study is significant as it identifies 19 SNPs or genetic markers that are associated with preterm or premature birth.
- Out of these 19 SNPs, five were found to be associated with an increased risk of early preterm birth (birth before 33 weeks) and can be used to predict premature births.
- This is the first study in South Asia to identify genetic markers associated with preterm births, and it has significant implications for improving maternal and child health outcomes in India.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat Budget of Earth
Mains level: Read the attached story
The study published in the journal Earth System Science Data estimates that almost 90% of the warming that has occurred in the last 50 years has been absorbed by the ocean, with the remaining heat absorbed by the land, cryosphere and atmosphere.
Earth’s energy balance: A quick recap
- It is the balance between the amount of energy that Earth receives from the Sun and the amount of energy that Earth radiates back into space.
- It is also known as the radiation budget.
- The energy from the Sun that Earth receives is mainly in the form of visible light and ultraviolet radiation.
- This energy is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and atmosphere, which then radiate it back into space in the form of infrared radiation.
- The balance between incoming and outgoing radiation is crucial for maintaining the Earth’s temperature and climate.
- Any imbalance between the two can lead to global warming and climate change.
|
Description |
| Total incoming solar radiation |
Approximately 342 W/m² reaches Earth’s atmosphere |
| Albedo |
About 30% of incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space |
| Greenhouse effect |
Remaining 70% of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by Earth’s surface and atmosphere, creating the greenhouse effect |
| Atmospheric heat |
Atmosphere contains only 0.001% of Earth’s heat energy, but is crucial in regulating heat budget |
Key highlights of the Study: Heat Accumulation
- The study estimates that approximately 381 zettajoules (ZJ) of heat accumulated on the planet from 1971-2020 due to anthropogenic emissions.
- This roughly equals a heating rate of approximately 0.48 watts per square metre (Earth Energy Imbalance or EEI). EEI is the difference between incoming and outgoing solar radiation.
- According to the study, about 89% of the accumulated heat is stored in the ocean, 6% on land, a percent in the atmosphere, and about 4% available for melting the cryosphere.
Implications
(1) Land Heat Accumulation
- Heat accumulated on land drives up ground surface temperatures, which may increase soil respiration, releasing carbon dioxide in the process.
- Higher soil respiration will likely decrease soil water, depending on climatic and meteorological conditions and factors.
(2) Inland Water Bodies and Permafrost Thawing
- Heat storage within inland water bodies has increased to roughly 0.2 ZJ since 1960. For permafrost thawing, it was about 2 ZJ.
- The accumulation of heat in inland water increases lake water temperatures, making conditions ripe for algal blooms.
- Permafrost heat content could inject methane and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the researchers warned.
(3) Ocean and Troposphere heating
- The upper ocean (0-300 and 0-700 meters depth) has taken up a major fraction of heat, according to the new estimates.
- During 2006-2020, ocean warming rates for the 0-2,000 meters depth reached record rates of roughly 1.03 watts per square meter.
- The troposphere is also warming up due to increased heat accumulation.
(4) Cryosphere heating
- The cryosphere – the frozen water part of the Earth system – gained roughly 14 ZJ of heat from 1971-2020.
- Half of the uptake triggered the melting of grounded ice, while the remaining half is linked to the melting of floating ice.
- The Antarctic Ice Sheet contributed about 33% to the total cryosphere heat gain, while Arctic sea ice stood second, having contributed 26%.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: EELS Mission
Mains level: NA
NASA is developing a snake-like robot- Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor (EELS), which it says can boost space exploration through its diverse adaptability to various terrains.
Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor (EELS)
|
Details |
| Purpose |
Designed to explore internal and enclosed dynamic terrain structures to assess evidence for life. |
| Focus |
To explore ocean-world-inspired terrain, and besides Enceladus, it can explore Martian polar caps and descending crevasses in Earth’s ice sheets. |
| Enceladus and EELS system |
Enceladus is a small and icy body, and the Cassini spacecraft dubbed it to be one of the most scientifically interesting destinations in the solar system. |
| Scientific investigations |
Work is underway to identify high-priority and high-impact scientific investigations to show the capabilities of the snake-like robot. |
Features of EELS Robot
|
Details |
| Propulsion and gripping mechanism |
EELS robot has an actuation and propulsion mechanism, driven by power and communication electronics.
It uses a rotating propulsion unit that acts as tracks, while the gripping mechanism and propeller unit help it to access a plume vent exit. |
| Adaptability |
The robot’s adaptability to various terrains and its unique features make it capable of exploring areas that were once inaccessible. |
| Enceladus |
Geyser-like jets spew water vapor and ice particles from an underground ocean beneath Enceladus’s icy crust, making it a promising lead for NASA in its search for life. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: INIOCHOS-23
Mains level: NA
The Indian Air Force (IAF) will be participating in a multi-national air exercise called Exercise INIOCHOS-23, which will be hosted by the Greece Air Force.
Ex. INIOCHOS-23
- Exercise INIOCHOS-23 will be conducted at the Andravida Air Base in Greece.
- The IAF will be participating with four Su-30 MKI and two C-17 aircraft.
- The objective of the exercise is to enhance international cooperation, synergy, and interoperability among the participating Air Forces, as stated by the IAF in a statement.
Strategic significance
- The exercise will be conducted in a realistic combat scenario involving multiple types of air and surface assets
- This will provide valuable insight into each other’s best practices and enable the participating contingents to interact professionally.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Windfall Tax
Mains level: Not Much
The government has revised a windfall tax on domestically-produced crude oil. According to an official notification, the windfall tax rate of Rs 6,400 per tonne.
What is a Windfall Tax?
- Windfall taxes are designed to tax the profits a company derives from an external, sometimes unprecedented event — for instance, the energy price-rise as a result of the Russia-Ukraine conflict.
- These are profits that cannot be attributed to something the firm actively did, like an investment strategy or an expansion of business.
- The US Congressional Research Service (CRS) defines a windfall as an “unearned, unanticipated gain in income through no additional effort or expense”.
- One area where such taxes have routinely been discussed is oil markets, where price fluctuation leads to volatile or erratic profits for the industry.
Features of Windfall Tax
- Imposed on unanticipated and unearned gains: Windfall tax is imposed on the profits or gains that a company earns from external events or factors beyond their control, which they did not actively seek or pursue.
- One-time tax: It is typically imposed as a one-time tax retrospectively, over and above the normal rates of tax, and is not a regular or ongoing tax.
- Imposed on specific sectors or industries: Windfall taxes are usually imposed on specific sectors or industries where there is a significant increase in profits due to external factors such as price fluctuations, supply disruptions, or changes in regulations.
- Rationale for imposition: The imposition of windfall taxes is based on the rationale of redistributing unexpected gains, funding social welfare schemes, and creating a supplementary revenue stream for the government.
- Design problems: Introducing windfall taxes may suffer from design problems, given their expedient and political nature.
- Potential impact on investment: Windfall taxes may lead to uncertainty in the market and negatively impact future investment, as companies may feel uncertain about investing in a sector with an unstable tax regime.
When did India introduce this?
- In July 2022, India announced a windfall tax on domestic crude oil producers who it believed were reaping the benefits of the high oil prices.
- It also imposed an additional excise levy on diesel, petrol and air turbine fuel (ATF) exports.
- Also, India’s case was different from other countries, as it was still importing discounted Russian oil.
How is it levied?
- Governments typically levy this as a one-off tax retrospectively over and above the normal rates of tax.
- The Central government has introduced a windfall profit tax of ₹23,250 per tonne on domestic crude oil production, which was subsequently revised fortnightly four times so far.
- The latest revision was on August 31, when it was hiked to ₹13,300 per tonne from ₹13,000.
Reasons for re-introduction
- There have been varying rationales for governments worldwide to introduce windfall taxes like:
- Redistribution of unexpected gains when high prices benefit producers at the expense of consumers,
- Funding social welfare schemes, and
- Supplementary revenue stream for the government
Issues with imposing such taxes
- Design problems: Windfall taxes may suffer from design problems, given their expedient and political nature. There is also the issue of determining what constitutes true windfall profits and who should be taxed, which raises questions about the threshold for exemption of smaller companies.
- Potential impact on investment: Windfall taxes may lead to uncertainty in the market and negatively impact future investment, as companies may feel uncertain about investing in a sector with an unstable tax regime.
- Internalization of potential taxes: Introducing a temporary windfall profit tax may reduce future investment since prospective investors may internalize the likelihood of potential taxes when making investment decisions.
- Threshold for exemption of smaller companies: Determining the threshold for exemption of smaller companies raises questions about which companies should be taxed and what level of profit is normal or excessive.
- Difficulty in determining true windfall profits: There is also the issue of determining what constitutes true windfall profits, as it may be challenging to differentiate between profits attributable to external events versus those attributable to a company’s active investment strategy or business expansion.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Web 3.0
Mains level: Not Much
Central idea: The article discusses the key features of Web3, including its decentralized nature, peer-to-peer transactions, and greater control over data and digital assets for users.
What is Web3?
- Web3, also known as Web 3.0, is the next generation of the World Wide Web that emphasizes decentralization, security, and user privacy.
- It is essentially a vision of the internet where users have more control over their data, identities, and online interactions.
- It is built on blockchain technology, which enables peer-to-peer transactions without the need for intermediaries such as banks, governments, or other third parties.
- This decentralized approach to the web allows for greater transparency and trust, as well as more secure and private transactions.
- Web3 technologies include blockchain platforms like Ethereum, IPFS (InterPlanetary File System) for distributed file storage, decentralized identity systems like uPort, and decentralized marketplaces like OpenBazaar.
Features of Web 3
Feature
|
Web3
|
Web2
|
|
Centralisation
|
Decentralised |
Centralised |
|
Intermediaries
|
Peer-to-peer |
Rely on intermediaries |
|
Data ownership and control
|
Users have control |
Large corporations have control |
Challenges for Web3:
|
Challenge
|
Scalability
|
Current blockchain infrastructure can only handle a limited number of transactions per second. |
User Adoption
|
Despite being around for over a decade, blockchain technology is still relatively unknown to the general public. |
Interoperability
|
Web3 is being developed by different organisations, each with their own unique vision for the technology, leading to challenges in integration. |
Complexity
|
Technical expertise is required to use and understand Web3, which may be a barrier for some users. |
Examples of Web3 use:
|
Use
|
|
Cryptocurrencies
|
Built on blockchain technology, cryptocurrencies enable secure, decentralised transactions without the need for intermediaries. |
|
Decentralised Finance
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Aims to build a new financial system on top of blockchain technology. DeFi applications enable users to borrow, lend, and trade crypto. |
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Decentralised storage
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Used to create decentralised social networks and develop decentralised identity verification systems. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: YZ Ceti exoplanet , Exoplanets
Mains level: NA
Central idea: Astronomers have detected a repeating radio signal from the YZ Ceti exoplanet that suggests the presence of a magnetic field around it.
What is YZ Ceti b?
- YZ Ceti b is an earth-sized exoplanet (a planet that orbits a star other than our sun).
- It is located barely 12 light-years from Earth, and it rotates around a small red dwarf star called YZ Ceti.
How was the discovery made?
- The researchers had to make multiple rounds of observations before they could detect the radio signals from the star YZ Ceti, which seemed to match the orbital period of the planet YZ Ceti b.
- From this, they deduced that the signals were a result of the interaction between the planet’s magnetic field and the star.
Why does the magnetic field matter?
- Intense bursts of energy from the YZ Ceti star-exoplanet exchange produce spectacular auroral lights, similar to the energy surges from the sun that disrupt telecommunications on earth.
- The radio waves confirmed the existence of an exoplanetary magnetic field.
- This can only be produced if the exoplanet orbits very close to its parent star and has its own magnetic field to influence the stellar wind and generate the signals.
What’s the implication for YZ Ceti b?
- The small orbit of YZ Ceti b indicates that the planet takes just a couple of earth days to circle its star.
- Nearly half of all the stars visible in the sky could potentially harbor rocky, earth-sized planets in habitable orbits around them.
- Astronomers indicated that the possibility of the existence of a magnetic field on the Earth-like exoplanet, called YZ Ceti b, probably hints at the habitability of life on that planet.
How common are such magnetic fields?
- Planetary scientists have never been able to identify magnetic fields on smaller, rocky exoplanets until now.
- The survival of a planet’s atmosphere may depend on its having, or not having, a strong magnetic field, since the field protects its atmosphere from being eroded by the charged particles blowing in from its star.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Stablecoins
Mains level: Read the attached story
The US Congress (Parliament) has made another attempt to create a legislative framework for the increasingly popular stablecoins, a sort of cryptocurrency that is pegged to a particular commodity or currency.
What are Stablecoins?
- Stablecoins are cryptocurrencies designed to maintain a stable value, typically by being pegged to a stable asset such as the US dollar.
- Investing in stablecoins can help mitigate market volatility because they are less susceptible to price fluctuations than other cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin or Ethereum or any other.
Types of stablecoins
| Fiat-backed stablecoins |
Backed by reserves of fiat currency held in a bank account or other secure location. Example: Tether (USDT) |
| Commodity-backed stablecoins |
Backed by reserves of a physical commodity, such as gold or silver. Example: PAX Gold (PAXG) |
| Algorithmic stablecoins |
Use algorithms or smart contracts to maintain a stable value. Example: Dai stablecoin (DAI) |
How can Stablecoin mitigate market volatility?
|
Explanation |
| Hedging against volatility |
- Help investors hedge against volatility and reduce their risk exposure.
- Pegged to a stable asset, which can provide a haven during market turbulence.
- If the value of Bitcoin or Ethereum drops suddenly, investors can move their funds into stablecoins to protect their portfolio from further losses.
|
| Greater flexibility in transferring funds |
- Greater flexibility and convenience compared to traditional fiat currencies.
- Quickly and easily transferred between wallets and exchanges, making them ideal for cross-border transactions.
- Investors take advantage of investment opportunities in other markets and avoid currency exchange fees and delays.
|
| Arbitrage trading |
- Used for arbitrage trading, which involves buying an asset in one market and selling it in another market for a higher price.
- As stablecoins are pegged to a stable asset, investors can quickly move funds between exchanges without worrying about price fluctuations, making arbitrage trading easier and potentially more profitable.
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What are the risks?
|
Explanation |
| Stability of the asset |
- Stablecoins are reliant on the stability of the asset they are pegged to.
- If the value of that asset drops, it can lead to a drop in the stablecoin’s value as well.
- This could result in losses for investors who hold the stablecoin.
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| Transparency and regulation |
- There are concerns over the transparency and regulation of stablecoin issuers.
- This could result in a loss of trust in the stablecoin and a subsequent drop in its value.
- There is no proper regulation and oversight.
- There is a risk that stablecoin issuers may engage in fraudulent or unethical behaviour, which could lead to losses for investors.
- It is important for investors to carefully assess the reputation and credibility of the stablecoin issuer before investing in a stablecoin.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: EMIC Waves
Mains level: Indian Antarctic Program
Central idea
- Scientists working at the Indian Antarctic Station, Maitri, have identified and probed Electromagnetic Ion Cyclotron (EMIC) waves to study their characteristics.
- The study aims to understand the impact of energetic particles in the radiation belts on low orbiting satellites.
About Indian Antarctic Station, Maitri
|
Description |
| Name |
Maitri Antarctic Station (Friendship Research Centre) |
| Establishment |
1984 |
| Location |
Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica |
| Distance from other stations |
5 km away from Novolazarevskaya Station |
| Purpose |
Conducting scientific research as part of the Indian Antarctic Programme |
| Features |
Second permanent research station of India in Antarctica |
| Named by |
Then-PM Indira Gandhi |
| First camp commander |
Squadron Leader D.P. Joshi |
| First huts |
Completed in 1989 by the IV Antarctica Expedition |
What are EMIC Waves?
- Electromagnetic Ion Cyclotron (EMIC) waves are a type of plasma wave that occurs in the Earth’s magnetosphere.
- They are caused by the interaction of energetic particles in the radiation belts with the Earth’s magnetic field.
- These waves have frequencies in the range of a few hundred hertz to a few kilohertz and are known to play an important role in the acceleration and loss of energetic particles in the Earth’s magnetosphere.
- The study of EMIC waves is important for understanding the effects of space weather on satellite communication and navigation systems.
Identification and study of EMIC waves
- A team of scientists from the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) analysed data collected between 2011 and 2017 by the Induction Coil Magnetometer.
- The device was installed at the Indian Antarctic station Maitri to bring out several aspects of the ground observation of the EMIC waves.
Significance of the study
- This study is important to improve our understanding of EMIC wave modulation and how they interact with energetic particles that impact satellites and their communication.
- It could help understand the impact of energetic particles in the radiation belts on low orbiting satellites and lead to improved satellite communication systems.
Back2Basics: Indian Antarctic Programme
- It is a scientific program run by the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
- It was launched in 1981 and since then India has been operating research stations in Antarctica.
- It gained global acceptance with India’s signing of the Antarctic Treaty and subsequent construction of the Dakshin Gangotri Antarctic research base in 1983, superseded by the Maitri base from 1989.
- The program conducts research in areas such as geology, oceanography, atmospheric sciences, and earth sciences.
- India currently operates two permanent research stations in Antarctica – Maitri and Bharati.
- The program also has plans to set up a third research station called ‘Siddhanta’ in the coming years.
- Apart from conducting research, the program also engages in logistics support, environmental monitoring, and outreach activities.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: TeLEOS-2 Satellite, PSLV
Mains level: NA
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) will launch Singapore’s TeLEOS-2 satellite this week, from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.
What is TeLEOS-2?
- TeLEOS-2 is a Singaporean Earth Observation satellite built by ST Electronics (Satellite Systems).
- It carries a made-in-Singapore Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) capable of providing 1 m resolution data.
- It will be equipped with a 500 GB onboard recorder for recording the data captured and a high speed 800 Mbps downlink.
- In 2015, ISRO launched TeLEOS-1, the first Singapore commercial Earth Observation Satellite, which was launched into a low Earth orbit for remote sensing applications.
- ISRO has so far launched nine satellites belonging to Singapore.
About the launch vehicle: PSLV-CA
- The PSLV-CA was manufactured by ISRO with the first launch on 2007-04-23.
- CA means “Core Alone”, model premiered on 23 April 2007.
- PSLV-CA has 15 successful launches and 0 failed launches with a total of 15 launches.
- The CA model does not include the six strap-on boosters used by the PSLV standard variant.
- The fourth stage of the CA variant has 400 kg less propellant when compared to its standard version.
- It currently has the capability to launch 1,100 kg to a 622 km Sun-synchronous orbit.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: JC Bose and his contributions
Mains level: NA
Central idea
- A recent discovery by researchers from Tel Aviv University in Israel, that plants make distinct sounds in the ultrasonic range when faced with stress, made headlines around the world.
- However, Indians who had grown up hearing about Jagadish Chandra Bose’s work, more than a century ago, on plant physiology and their ability to feel pleasure and pain, were not surprised.
|
Details |
| Who was JC Bose? |
– Born in 1858 in Mymensingh, Bengal.
– A polymath who made significant contributions to physics, biophysics, and plant physiology
– Graduated from Calcutta University with honors in physics and studied in London and Cambridge. |
| Notable works |
– Developed sensitive instruments for wireless telegraphy and demonstrated the first-ever wireless transmission of microwaves in 1895.
– Showed that plants produce electrical signals in response to stimuli and made significant contributions to biophysics. |
| Recognition & Controversy |
– Despite his contributions, he was not awarded a Nobel Prize, which many believe he deserved.
– Refused to obtain patents for his work and rejected the idea of making money from science.
– Claimed that even inanimate inorganic matter could respond to stimulus and regarded plants as intermediates in a continuum between animals and non-living materials, which was not easily accepted by his contemporaries. |
| Legacy and Significance |
– Founded the Bose Institute, a premier research institute in India.
– The crater Bose on the Moon is named after him.
– Regarded as one of India’s greatest scientists, and his legacy continues to inspire future generations of scientists. |
| Significance |
– Bose’s work on plant physiology and biophysics was ahead of his time and not fully understood by his contemporaries.
– However, over the years, much of his work has been confirmed. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Consumer Confidence Index (CCI)
Mains level: Not Much
Central idea
- The Consumer Confidence Survey was conducted in the first half of March 2023 across 19 cities.
- This article analyses the survey results, released this month, and breaks down the findings under different sections.
What is Consumer Confidence Survey?
- The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) conducts a Consumer Confidence Survey to measure consumers’ perceptions of the prevailing economic situation.
- The survey is conducted across various cities and measures consumer confidence on parameters such as the economy, employment, price, income, and spending.
- The survey consists of questions regarding consumers’ sentiments over various factors in the current situation and future.
Here are a few parameters that help aggregate overall confidence:
- Spending: The consumer is asked about the willingness to spend on major consumer durables, purchasing vehicles, or real estate. This measures the overall spending scenario on necessities as well as luxuries for the next quarter.
- Employment: The consumer is asked about current and future ideas on employment situations, joblessness, job security, which reflects the sentiments of the current or expected employment in the country.
- Inflation: The consumer is asked about interest rates and levels of prices of all goods, tracking the price expected by consumers and their spending on basic necessities.
About the Consumer Confidence Index (CCI)
- CCI is a survey that is conducted every two months to measure how optimistic or pessimistic the consumers are regarding their financial situation.
- The index measures the change in consumer perception on the financial situation in the last year and the future expectations index measures what the consumer thinks about his financial situation in the coming one year.
- The main variables of the survey are: Economic situation, Employment, Price Level, Income and Spending.
Current perceptions of the survey
- The survey estimates current perceptions and a year-ahead expectations on the economy, employment, price, income, and spending.
- The results show that consumer confidence continues to recover from its historic low of mid-2021, but still remains pessimistic at 87.0, a 2.2 point increase from previous results.
- The assessment of inflation conditions improved for the current period reflecting a higher confidence in prevailing economic conditions.
- With regards to spending, sentiments were positive with signs of improvement compared to the last round conducted in January 2023.
What does this imply?
- The survey shows that while consumer confidence is slowly recovering, it still remains pessimistic.
- The survey results indicate positive sentiments on employment and spending, but a marginal dip in the country’s future economic situation.
- Credit growth numbers indicate a rise in consumer spending.
- The upcoming state and general elections could have an impact on the economy, and it remains to be seen how it will play out.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian Exports
Mains level: Not Much
Central idea: The article discusses the top exporting districts in India and their contribution to the country’s overall exports. It also provides information on the top exported commodities in each district.
Top Exporting Districts in India
| Rank |
District |
State |
Share of India’s Exports |
| 1 |
Jamnagar |
Gujarat |
24% |
| 2 |
Surat |
Gujarat |
4.5% |
| 3 |
Mumbai Suburban |
Maharashtra |
4.5% |
| 4 |
Dakshina Kannada |
Karnataka |
– |
| 5 |
Devbhumi Dwarka, Bharuch, Kachchh |
Gujarat |
– |
| 6 |
Mumbai |
Maharashtra |
– |
| 7 |
Kancheepuram |
Tamil Nadu |
– |
| 8 |
Gautam Buddha Nagar |
Uttar Pradesh |
– |
Top Exporting Districts in Each State
- Map 1 shows the district that formed the highest share of a State’s exports in FY23.
- The size of the circle in the map corresponds to the value of exports.
- Most top exporting districts in the north-eastern States formed as much as 90% of a State’s exports, while some top exporting districts formed only around 20% of a State’s exports.
Top Exported Commodities
- Jamnagar’s dominance can be attributed to the fact that it formed a lion’s share of India’s surging petroleum exports, while Kancheepuram’s most exported commodity was smartphones.
- Map 1 also lists the top exported commodity of the top exporting districts in each State.
Top Exporting Districts for Each Commodity
- Maps 2A-2F show the top five exporting districts for the top six commodities exported by India.
- They include petroleum products, precious stones and jewellery, rice, wheat and other cereals, smartphones and electronic parts, vehicles other than railways, and pharmaceutical products.
Share of Top Exporting Commodity
- Table 3 shows the share of the top exporting commodity of the top exporting district in India’s total exports.
- For instance, Jamnagar’s petroleum products export formed 67% of India’s total exports for that commodity, while Surat’s precious stones and jewellery exports formed 36% of India’s total exports for that commodity.
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