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Type: Prelims Only

  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    MIT Research of Ionic Liquids (ILs)

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    MIT-led research suggests life may not need liquid water; ionic liquids (salts that stay liquid below 100°C) could support life on rocky super-Earths with volcanic activity and little water.

    About Ionic Liquids (ILs):

    • Overview: Salts in liquid form below 100°C, composed entirely of ions.
    • Properties: Non-volatile, non-flammable, thermally stable, and tunable as hydrophobic or hydrophilic.
    • Structure: Unlike water (neutral molecules), ILs consist of ions and ion pairs.
    • Electrochemical Use: Excellent electrolytes with broad electrochemical windows.
    • Applications: Used in synthesis, catalysis, electrochemistry, extraction, biotechnology, and as green alternatives to volatile solvents.

    Breakthrough Findings of MIT Study:

    • Life Without Water: Experiments showed life could potentially survive using ILs as solvents instead of water.
    • Natural Formation: Sulfuric acid mixed with nitrogen compounds can naturally form ILs.
    • Exoplanet Link: Such ILs may exist on rocky super-Earths with volcanic activity and thin atmospheres.
    • Venus Research Origin: Discovery emerged from studying Venus, where sulfuric acid clouds interact with organic molecules to form ILs.
    • Biological Relevance: ILs can provide stable environments for biomolecules, supporting metabolism.

    Significance of the Study:

    • Habitability Expansion: Broadens habitability definition beyond water-based models.
    • Biosignatures: Suggests new chemical markers for exoplanet life detection.
    • Venus Missions: Strengthens rationale for Venus’s exploration targeting IL-based chemistry.
    • Wider Habitable Zones: Implies more planets could host life than previously thought.
    [UPSC 2015] The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of:

    (a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth

    (b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available

    (c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space*

    (d) search for meteorites containing precious metals

     

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  • Judicial Pendency

    Supreme Court interventions in Civil–Criminal overlap Cases

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Why in the News?

    In August 2025, the Supreme Court intervened twice to prevent the misuse of criminal proceedings in essentially civil disputes.

    About Civil and Criminal Cases:

    • Civil cases involve disputes between individuals or organisations and are mostly governed by Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (CPC). The aim is to resolve rights and duties, usually through compensation (damages) or injunctions. Examples: property disputes, contract breaches, divorce, custody, money recovery.
    • Criminal cases involve offences against the state or society. The objective is punishment and deterrence. Initiated by the state prosecutor. Examples: theft, cheating, assault, murder.
    • Burden of proof:
      • Civil cases: Decided on a preponderance of probabilities (more likely than not).
      • Criminal cases: Guilt must be proven beyond reasonable doubt.
    • Dual Cases: Some acts can give rise to both civil and criminal liability. For dual proceedings, there must be proof of criminal intent before entering the commercial or personal relationship.
    • Timelines: Data from the National Judicial Data Grid (2025) shows civil cases are slower (avg. 4.91 years) compared to many criminal cases (70% disposed within a year).

    Recent Supreme Court Actions:

    • Rajasthan plywood dispute case (Aug 13, 2025): SC held there was no criminal breach of trust in a simple sale transaction. Denial of pre-arrest bail by the High Court was overturned.
    • Allahabad HC case (Aug 4, 2025): SC criticised a judge for allowing criminal proceedings in a business transaction dispute, calling it a “mockery of justice”. The judge was temporarily barred from handling criminal cases, later reinstated after CJI intervention.
      • The SC clarified that civil disputes cannot be turned into criminal prosecutions unless fraud or criminal intent is clearly shown.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to the ‘Gram Nyayalaya Act’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. As per the Act, Gram Nyayalayas can hear only civil cases and not criminal cases.

    2. The Act allows local social activists as mediators/reconciliators.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    In news: British Conquest of Sindh

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    The British conquest of Sindh in the 1840s was a key step in colonial expansion, reminding us that regions like Sindh, Punjab, and Bengal came under British rule long before the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan.

    British Conquest of Sindh:

    • Sindh was annexed by the British in 1843 after the battles of Miani and Dubbo.
    • The resistance was led by Hosh Muhammad Sheedi, a general of the Talpur army and member of the African-origin Siddi community.
    • His defiance symbolised the first major armed resistance to British expansion in northwest India.

    Political Background in Sindh:

    • Kalhora Dynasty (1701–1779): Founded by Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro, recognised by Mughals; ruled northern and central Sindh. Prosperous period but weakened by internal disputes.
    • Talpur Dynasty (1779–1843): Baloch Talpurs overthrew Kalhoras; consolidated Sindh under clan rule at Hyderabad and Khairpur.
    • Geopolitical Context: Sindh lay at the crossroads of British–French–Russian rivalry (The Great Game). Britain feared Russian advances through Iran and Afghanistan.
    • British Entry: East India Company forced treaties on Talpurs; captured Karachi (1839) after bombarding Manora fort.

    British Advance and the Fall of Sindh:

    • Battle of Miani (17 Feb 1843): British under Sir Charles Napier defeated Mir Nasir Khan Talpur near Hyderabad.
    • Battle of Dubbo (24 Mar 1843): Hosh Muhammad Sheedi allied with Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur of Mirpur Khas. Sheedi raised the war cry “Marvesoon par Sindh na desoon” (I may die but will not give up Sindh). He was killed in action.
    • British Annexation: After Dubbo, Sindh was annexed into the Bombay Presidency. Talpur rule ended.
    • Aftermath: Within a decade, Punjab too was annexed (1849), bringing all of northwest India under British rule.

    Legacy of Hosh Muhammad Sheedi:

    • Born into the household of Talpur rulers; of African-Siddi descent.
    • Valour acknowledged by both Indian and British chroniclers.
    • Became a folk hero of Sindh, remembered by Hindus and Muslims alike.
    • His legacy is central to the cultural memory of Sindh and highlights the role of the Siddi community in resisting colonialism.
    [UPSC 2007] The ruler of which one of the following States was removed from power by the British on the pretext of misgovernance?

    Options: (a) Awadh* (b) Jhansi (c) French (d) Satara

     

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    Red Fort as the Venue for Independence Day

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    On August 15, 2025, Prime Minister delivered the longest Independence Day speech (103 minutes) from the Red Fort, continuing a tradition started by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1947.

    The fort’s choice as the venue reflects its historic role as Delhi’s seat of power and symbol of sovereignty.

    About the Red Fort:

    • Construction: Built in 1648 by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad, his new capital.
    • Material: Enclosed by massive red sandstone walls with royal pavilions and apartments.
    • Water Feature: Contained the Nahr-i-Behisht (“Stream of Paradise”), a continuous water channel.
    • Architectural Value: Prime example of Mughal architecture, blending Islamic traditions with Indian craftsmanship.
    • Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007.

    Historical Significance of Delhi and Red Fort:

    • Delhi’s Role: Seat of power for nearly a thousand years, regarded as “capital of all Hindustan” by Babur.
    • Shahjahanabad: Inaugurated in 1648 with the Red Fort at its centre.
    • Symbol of Sovereignty: Even after Mughal decline, Delhi remained central; East India Company minted coins in the emperor’s name.

    1857 Revolt and British Authority:

    • Revolt Centre: Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared leader by sepoys in Delhi.
    • Aftermath: Fall of Delhi ended Mughal rule; Zafar was exiled.
    • Fort Damage: British converted Red Fort into a military garrison, destroying ~80% of interiors.
    • Imperial Authority: Delhi Durbars (1877, 1903, 1911) asserted British control before capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.

    Significance of Red Fort for Independence Day:

    • INA Trials: Held in Red Fort in 1946, igniting nationalist fervour.
    • 1947 Ceremony: Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the national flag on 15 August 1947 and gave the first Independence Day address.
    • Tradition: Since then, every Prime Minister hoists the flag and addresses the nation from its ramparts.
    • Symbolism: Site once stamped with colonial dominance, now reclaimed as a symbol of India’s sovereignty.
    [UPSC 2021] What was the exact constitutional status of India on 26th January, 1950?

    Options: (a) A democratic Republic (b) A Sovereign Democratic Republic* (c) A Sovereign Secular Democratic Republic (d) A Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic

     

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  • Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has recently called returning sterilised stray dogs to the streets under the Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program as “unreasonable and absurd” and ordered they be moved to shelters.

    About Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program:

    • Purpose: Humane, scientifically proven method to control stray dog populations and reduce rabies.
    • Legal Basis: First under Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2001 (under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960); updated as Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
    • Development: Created with support from the World Health Organization (WHO).
    • Core Method: “Catch–sterilise–vaccinate–release” model; prohibits relocation or culling.
    • Implementation: Managed by municipalities, municipal corporations, and panchayats.
    • Authorisation: Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct programs.
    • Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023:
      • Implemented to comply with Supreme Court guidelines in Writ Petition No. 691 of 2009.
      • Assigns responsibility to local bodies (municipalities, corporations, panchayats) to conduct ABC programs for sterilisation and immunisation of stray dogs.
      • Prohibits relocation of stray dogs as a means of population control; instead, they must be sterilised and returned to the same area.
      • Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct ABC programs.

    Key Features:

    • Sterilisation Target: Minimum 70% of stray dogs in an area within one reproductive cycle (~6 months).
    • Focus: Female sterilisation at a 70:30 female-to-male ratio.
    • Rabies Control: Mandatory rabies vaccination (ABC–ARV) for every sterilised dog.
    • Infrastructure: Kennels, veterinary facilities, vehicles, and hygienic shelters required.
    • Recordkeeping: Detailed records for catching, surgery, vaccination, and release.
    • Monitoring: State and local committees ensure compliance and handle complaints.
    • Legal Protection: Mass relocation or killing prohibited under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960.
    [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

    1. Every individual in the population is equally susceptible host for Swine Flu.

    2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu

    3. To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only  (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Tax Reforms

    New Income Tax Bill, 2025

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    Parliament has passed the Income-tax Bill, 2025, replacing the 1961 law with a leaner, simpler version free of redundant provisions and archaic language, effective April 1, 2026.

    About New Income Tax Bill, 2025:

    • Purpose: Replaces the Income Tax Act, 1961 after more than 60 years to simplify the law, remove redundant provisions, and modernise tax administration.
    • Effective Date: Comes into effect from April 1, 2026.
    • Structural Changes: Sections reduced from 819 to 536; chapters from 47 to 23.
    • Conciseness: Word count cut from 5.12 lakh to 2.6 lakh, with 39 tables and 40 formulas for clarity.
    • New Concept: Introduces “tax year” defined as April 1 to March 31.

    Key Features:

    • Refunds: Restores refund claims on belated returns by removing the earlier restriction.
    • Tax Collected at Source (TCS) Clarity: Nil TCS for Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS) remittances for education funded by financial institutions.
    • Corporate Tax: Corrects errors in inter-corporate dividend deduction for companies opting for concessional tax rates.
    • Alternate Minimum Tax (AMT) Alignment: Aligns AMT provisions for Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs) with existing rates.
    • Nil-Tax Deducted at Source (TDS) Certificate: Permits taxpayers with no liability to obtain a nil-TDS certificate.
    • Transfer Pricing: Clarifies transfer pricing provisions, set-off of losses, and alignment with Section 79 on “beneficial owner.”
    • Non-Profit Organisation (NPO) Benefit: Expands exemption to 5% of total donations, instead of only anonymous donations.
    • House Property Income: Clarifies 30% standard deduction after municipal taxes.
    • Search Definition: Retains “virtual digital space” definition to include cloud storage, email, and social media accounts.
    • Data Handling: Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) to be issued for handling personal digital data seized in searches.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements: Statement I: In India, income from allied agricultural activities like poultry farming and wool rearing in rural areas is exempted from any tax. Statement II: In India, rural agricultural land is not considered a capital asset under the provisions of the Income-tax Act, 1961.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    (a) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II explains Statement I

    (b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct but Statement II does not explain Statement I*

    (c) Statement I is correct but Statement II is not correct

    (d) Statement I is not correct but Statement II is correct

     

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    1950 Assam Earthquake and Future Seismic Risks in the Himalayas

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    Why in the News?

    75 years ago on August 15, 1950, a magnitude 8.6 earthquake — the strongest recorded on land — struck Northeast India and surrounding regions.

    1950 Assam Earthquake and Future Seismic Risks in the Himalayas

    About the Earthquake:

    • Magnitude: 8.6, the strongest recorded earthquake on land.
    • Impact Area: Tremors lasted 4–8 minutes, felt over 3 million sq. km in India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Tibet, and South China.
    • Casualties: Over 1,500 deaths in India and 4,000+ in Tibet; heavy livestock losses and infrastructure destruction.
    • Secondary Disasters: Triggered landslides blocking rivers, followed by devastating flash floods.

    Geological and Tectonic Setting:

    • Epicentre: 40 km west of Rima (Zayu), near India–Tibet border in the Mishmi Hills.
    • Tectonic Context: Located on Indian–Eurasian Plate boundary within Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (EHS), influenced by the Sunda Plate.
    • Fault Type: Strike-slip motion with thrust faulting — atypical for Himalayan quakes.
    • Plate Convergence: Eastern Himalayas converge at 10–38 mm/year vs. ~20 mm/year elsewhere.
    • Aftershocks: Indicated activation of multiple faults from the Syntaxial bend to Himalayan thrust faults in Arunachal Pradesh.

    Lessons and Future Risks:

    • Magnitude Potential: Confirms Himalayan segments can produce ≥8.6 magnitude events.
    • Central Himalayan Risk: Identified as likely site for similar future quake.
    • Vulnerability Today: Increased due to urbanisation and large infrastructure in seismic zones.
    • Infrastructure Safety: Necessitates strict norms for dams and high-risk projects in Eastern Himalayas.
    • Preparedness: Highlights need for seismic hazard mapping and disaster readiness.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.

    2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propogation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) Program

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The Trump administration seeks to end two NASA missions under the Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) program, which monitor global carbon dioxide emissions and plant health.

    About Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) Program:

    • Overview: A NASA Earth remote sensing initiative dedicated to monitoring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) from space.
    • Objective: Designed to enhance understanding of climate change by precisely tracking CO₂ sources and sinks.
    • Comprises three missions:
      • OCO-1: Launched in 2009 but failed shortly after launch.
      • OCO-2: Launched in July 2014 as a replacement.
      • OCO-3: Installed on the International Space Station in May 2019.

    Key Features:

    • Precision Measurement: Provides high-resolution global CO₂ data and maps of plant photosynthesis.
    • Dual Capability: Measures CO₂ levels and solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence to assess photosynthesis.
    • Applications: Detects drought, forecasts food shortages, identifies carbon sinks/sources, supports crop planning.
    • Global Reach: Tracks CO₂ distribution over continents, oceans, and remote ecosystems like Amazon and boreal forests.
    • Major Discoveries: Amazon rainforest now emits more CO₂ than it absorbs; boreal forests identified as major carbon sinks.
    • Policy Relevance: Supplies key data for climate treaties and greenhouse gas reporting.
    [UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?

    1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location

    2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location

    3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Judicial Reforms

    Removal of High Court Judges

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Why in the News?

    Lok Sabha Speaker has initiated removal proceedings against a Judge of the Allahabad High Court by admitting a motion signed by 146 members and forming a three-member inquiry committee.

    About Appointment of High Court Judges:

    • Constitutional Basis: Article 217 of the Constitution of India.
    • Appointing Authority: President of India, in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI), Governor of the concerned State, and Chief Justice of the concerned High Court.
    • Collegium System: The proposal is initiated by the High Court’s Chief Justice, forwarded through the Chief Minister and Governor, and decided by the CJI along with the two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
    • Chief Justice Posting Policy: Chief Justices are appointed from outside the State to ensure impartiality.
    • Transfers: The CJI and senior-most judges of the Supreme Court decide transfers to maintain judicial independence.

    Removal Process:

    • Grounds: Proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
    • Procedure: Impeachment process under Articles 124(4) and 217, and Section 3(2) of the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
    • Initiation: Motion signed by at least 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs.
    • Inquiry: 3-member committee comprising a Supreme Court judge, a Chief Justice of a High Court, and a distinguished jurist investigates the charges.
    • Voting Requirement: Two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament for removal.
    • In-House Mechanism: CJI can initiate internal inquiries and advise resignation in serious cases.

    Other Notable Cases:

    • Justice V. Ramaswami (1993): Faced impeachment for financial misconduct; motion failed in Lok Sabha.
    • Justice Soumitra Sen (2011): Resigned after Rajya Sabha voted for removal over fund misappropriation.
    • Justice K. Veeraswamy: Corruption case remained unresolved until his death.
    • Justice Shamit Mukherjee (2003), Justice Nirmal Yadav (2008), Justice S.N. Shukla (2017): Faced criminal charges for corruption after in-house inquiries.
    [UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:

    1. The mode of removal of a Judge of a High Court in India is the same as that of the removal of a Judge of the Supreme Court.

    2. After retirement from office, a permanent Judge of a High Court cannot plead or act in any court or before any authority in India.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Jallikattu Debate

    Dhiri Bull Fighting Festival of Goa

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    Many legislators of the Goa Assembly across party lines demanded the legalisation of Dhiri Bull Fighting in Goa.

    About Dhiri Bull Fighting:

    • Overview: Goan sport where two bulls lock horns in paddy fields or grounds.
    • Cultural Link: Associated with post-harvest feasts and church celebrations.
    • Nature of Contest: Bulls push until one retreats; no matadors or killing involved.
    • Event: Bulls given unique names, treated like local icons.
    • Betting: High-stakes wagers involve locals and Goan diaspora.

    Recent Controversy:

    • Legal Ban: Banned in 1997 under Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act after a fatality.
    • Judicial Position: Supreme Court upheld the ban; events continue secretly.
    • Political Push: Lawmakers (2024–25) seek legalisation for cultural/tourism value.
    • Proposed Model: Advocates want regulated events, citing Jallikattu’s example.

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