From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Trinidad and Tobago
Why in the News?
The government of Trinidad and Tobago declared a state of emergency on December 30, 2024, in response to escalating violence in the Caribbean nation.
About Trinidad and Tobago
Geography:
Located in the southern Caribbean, near Venezuela.
A dual-island nation consisting of Trinidad (4,768 sq. km) and Tobago (300 sq. km).
Total land area: 5,128 sq. km.
Climate: Tropical, with a dry season from January to May and a rainy season from June to December.
Population:
Approximately 1.5 million people.
Ethnic Composition: African (36.3%), Indian (35.4%), Mixed (22.8%), European, Chinese, and others.
Religions: Christianity (64%), Hinduism (18%), Islam (5%), and others.
Capital and Cities:
Capital: Port of Spain (Trinidad).
Other key cities: San Fernando, Chaguanas, and Scarborough (Tobago).
Political System:
Government Type: Parliamentary democracy under a constitutional republic.
Member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Gained independence from the UK on August 31, 1962, and became a republic in 1976.
Infrastructure:
Ports: Port of Spain, Point Lisas, and Scarborough are critical for trade.
Airports: Piarco International Airport (Trinidad) and A.N.R. Robinson International Airport (Tobago).
Culture and Heritage:
Known for the Carnival, one of the world’s largest pre-Lenten celebrations.
Birthplace of Calypso music, Soca, and the Steelpan (the only acoustic musical instrument invented in the 20th century).
Geo-Political Significance
T&T is a major exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petrochemicals (methanol and ammonia), supplying markets in the U.S., Europe, and Latin America.
It is positioned at the crossroads of the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, serving as a gateway between North and South America.
It is a founding member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) advocating for regional economic integration, disaster response, and collective security.
It is a active member of the Commonwealth and the United Nations, pushing for climate change resilience and sustainable development initiatives.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline;
Mains level: Geopolitical tension in Europe;
Why in the News?
For over 40 years, Russian gas has been transported to Europe through Ukraine, but these supplies are set to cease on January 1, following Ukraine’s Naftogaz decision not to renew its most recent five-year transit agreement with Russia’s Gazprom.
Note:Student you can use this content in Prelims for facts related to map and mains exam for substantiate the argument related to geopolitical tension in Europe.
Do you know about the Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline?
The Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline, also known as the Brotherhood pipeline, is a significant natural gas export route from Russia to Europe, primarily traversing Ukraine. The pipeline starts at the Urengoy gas field in northwest Siberia and extends southwest to Uzhhorod, Ukraine, near the Slovakian border.
It spans approximately 4,500 kilometers (2,800 miles), with about 1,160 kilometers (720 miles) located in Ukraine.
The pipeline was commissioned in 1984 and has been a crucial part of Russia’s gas export strategy to Europe.
What is the volume of gas supplied through Ukraine?
Historical Context: At its peak, the pipeline system, including the Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline, delivered approximately 201 billion cubic meters (bcm) of gas to Europe in 2018. However, this volume has drastically decreased over the years due to geopolitical tensions and the ongoing conflict in Ukraine.
Recent Figures: In 2023, only about 15 bcm of gas was shipped through Ukraine, a significant drop from 65 bcm when the last five-year contract began in 2020.
What are the Possible Impacts?
Economic Consequences for Ukraine: Ukraine is expected to lose up to $1 billion annually in transit fees due to the cessation of gas flows. To mitigate this loss, it plans to quadruple gas transmission tariffs for domestic consumers, which could burden its industry with additional costs exceeding $38.2 million per year.
Impact on Gazprom: Russia’s Gazprom is projected to lose around $5 billion in gas sales as a result of this halted transit.
European Energy Security: The European Union has prepared for this transition and does not anticipate immediate impacts on consumer prices.
Countries like Slovakia and Austria have secured alternative gas supplies from sources such as Norway and LNG imports from the U.S. and Qatar.
Hungary will continue receiving Russian gas through the TurkStream pipeline under the Black Sea.
TurkStream pipeline
Energy Crisis in Moldova: The cessation has led to an energy emergency in Transdniestria, a breakaway region of Moldova that relies on these transit flows, resulting in cutoffs of heating and hot water supplies for residents
Way forward:
Enhanced Energy Diversification: Europe and Ukraine should continue to strengthen alternative energy supply routes, including LNG imports and renewable energy projects, to reduce reliance on Russian gas and ensure long-term energy security.
Support for Affected Regions: Provide immediate humanitarian and financial assistance to regions like Transdniestria and Moldova for energy infrastructure upgrades, while encouraging energy-efficient solutions to mitigate the crisis.
Mains PYQ:
Q What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (UPSC IAS/2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nicaragua and its location
Why in the News?
Indian and Nicaragua has signed an umbrella agreement on Quick Impact Projects (QIPs).
The agreement aims at socio-economic development by implementing QIPs in Nicaragua, which will directly benefit local communities.
About Nicaragua: Quick Facts
Nicaragua is located in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, Costa Rica to the south, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east.
The capital of Nicaragua is Managua; official language spoken in Nicaragua is Spanish; currency is the Nicaraguan córdoba (NIO).
Nicaragua operates as a unitary presidential republic.
The country’s economy is primarily based on agriculture, including coffee, bananas, and sugar, along with manufacturing and mining.
Geographical Features:
Nicaragua’s topography is predominantly mountainous in the interior, with lowland plains along its Pacific and Caribbean coasts.
The country is home to over 20 volcanoes, with active ones such as Masaya and San Cristóbal.
The largest lake in Nicaragua is Lake Cocibolca, also known as Lake Nicaragua, which is one of the largest lakes in Latin America.
Nicaragua is also known for its significant rivers, including the San Juan River, which flows into the Caribbean Sea, and the Río Coco, the longest river in Central America.
India- Nicaragua Relations:
Diplomatic relations were established in March 1983, and the Indian Embassy in Panama is concurrently accredited to Nicaragua.
Nicaragua’s embassy in India was closed in 1990, and currently, Nicaragua is represented in India through its Embassy in Tokyo.
What are Quick Impact Projects (QIPs)?
QIPs are initiatives designed to deliver rapid and visible benefits to local communities, especially in areas with critical infrastructure and social development needs.
These projects are often implemented in a short time frame.
They are focused on addressing urgent and immediate issues that can have a significant positive impact on the community.
The term is commonly used by organizations like the UNHCR to describe such initiatives in crisis or displacement situations.
Examples of QIPs may include:
Building roads in remote areas to improve connectivity.
Establishing community centers that serve as hubs for local services.
Improving healthcare facilities with basic medical equipment and services.
Upgrading educational infrastructure by building schools or providing learning materials.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jordan River and its Valley
Why in the News?
Extremist groups held drone strikes on Israeli territory in the Jordan Valley (which forms Jordan’s border with Israel and the West Bank).
About Jordan Valley:
Details
Geography
• Part of the Great Rift Valley, extending from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea.
• Forms a natural border between Jordan, Israel, and the West Bank.
• Low-lying, with parts below sea level, especially near the Dead Sea.
Climate
• Semi-arid to arid, with hot summers and mild winters.
• Limited rainfall, necessitating irrigation for agriculture.
Significance
• An essential agricultural region, growing citrus, dates, and vegetables.
• The Jordan River is a vital water source for agriculture and drinking water.
• Ecological corridor for migratory birds.
History
• Rich in biblical and historical significance, including Jesus’ baptism in the Jordan River.
• Archaeological sites from ancient civilizations like the Canaanites and Romans.
Geopolitical Aspects
• Critical in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, with strategic importance for security and border control.
• Vital for Palestinian economic development and a future state.
• Shared water resources create tensions between Israel, Jordan, and Syria.
Economic Activities
• Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy.
• Tourism is also significant due to religious and historical sites.
Environmental Concerns
• Water scarcity and the shrinking Dead Sea due to river diversion are major issues.
• Pollution and overuse of the Jordan River affect water quality and ecosystem health.
PYQ:
[2015] Which one of the following countries of South-West Asia does not open out to the Mediterranean Sea?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Neom Megacity Project
Why in the News?
The Wall Street Journal has highlighted controversies surrounding the Neom Megacity Project, a key project of Saudi Arabia and world’s largest construction real-estate project.
AboutNeom Megacity Project:
Details
Location
Northwestern Tabuk Province, Saudi Arabia, along the Red Sea
Launched
2017 by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman
Part of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030.
Objective
To diversify Saudi Arabia’s economy and reduce its reliance on oil.
Size
26,500 sq km
Initially $500 billion, now estimated at $1.5 trillion
Completion Year
Expected by 2039
Key Projects
The Line: 170-km long linear city for 9 million residents
Oxagon: Octagonal industrial city
Trojena: Mountain resort for 2029 Asian Winter Games
Magna: Luxury coastal city
Sindalah: Luxury island, opening in 2024
Technological Focus
Renewable energy (solar, wind)
AI and robotics
Green hydrogen production
Environmental Goals
Powered by 95% renewable energy
Focus on sustainable development
Controversies surrounding the Project:
Displacement of Indigenous Tribes: The Huwaitat tribe has been forcibly displaced, leading to human rights concerns.
Slow Progress: Construction is behind schedule, with only 1.4 km of The Line expected to be completed by 2030.
Workplace Misconduct: Reports of toxic culture and unethical leadership, including neglect of worker safety.
Surveillance Concerns: Critics worry about the project’s use of real-time monitoring, raising privacy concerns.
Cost Overruns: The project’s budget has ballooned from $500 billion to $1.5 trillion, leading to scaled-down plans.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: St Martin’s Island
Why in the News?
The ousted Bangladeshi PM Sheikh Hasina claimed she could have stayed in power if she had given up St. Martin’s Island and parts of the Bay of Bengal to the United States.
About St Martin’s Island
St. Martin’s Island is located in the northeastern region of the Bay of Bengal, near the maritime boundary betweenBangladesh and Myanmar.
It lies about 9 kilometerssouth of the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf peninsula in Bangladesh.
The island is approximately 7.3 km long and is mostly flat, with an elevation of about 3.6 meters above mean sea level.
It is Bangladesh’s only coral island and is surrounded by coral reefs that extend 10-15 km to the west-northwest of the island.
Historical Background:
The island was originally part of the Teknaf peninsula but gradually submerged into the sea around 5,000 years ago.
It resurfaced approximately 450 years ago.
Arab merchants were among the first settlers in the 18th century. They named it “Jazira” and later “Narikel Jinjira” (Coconut Island).
In 1900, British India annexed the island, and it became known as St. Martin’s Island, named after a Deputy Commissioner of Chittagong.
Strategic importance:
Near the Strait of Malacca: Close to one of the world’s busiest maritime routes, making it strategically important for military oversight.It offers potential for monitoring maritime activities, including strategic interests of global powers.
Border with Myanmar: Proximity to Myanmar adds significance in regional security dynamics.
Other significance for Bangladesh:
It is part of Bangladesh’s EEZ, rich in marine resources like fish, oil, and gas. Also a key tourist destination.
It is important for biodiversity, with coral reefs and diverse marine life.
PYQ:
[2023] Consider the following pairs:
Area of conflict mentioned in news: Country where it is located
1.Donbas: Syria
2.Kachin: Ethiopia
3.Tigray: North Yemen
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mapping of these locations.
Why in the News?
Details
Niger
Turkish delegation visited to strengthen military cooperation with the junta, shifting alliances to Turkey and Russia.
Geography: Landlocked in West Africa, bordered by Algeria, Libya, Chad, Nigeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Mali. Population ~26.3 million; capital Niamey.
Key Points:
Gained independence from France in 1960.
Political instability with coups and a military junta in 2023.
It faces significant challenges including desertification, water scarcity, and economic development issues.
It is one of the world’s poorest nations despite having large uranium reserves.
Ivory Coast
Recent discoveries have revealed substantial oil reserves estimated at six billion barrels, potentially making Ivory Coast a net oil exporter by the end of the decade.
The Baleine field, operated by Eni, aims to reach significant production levels by 2026.
Geography: Located on the southern coast of West Africa; bordered by Liberia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, and the Gulf of Guinea. Population ~30.9 million; capital Yamoussoukro.
Key Points:
Gained independence from France in 1960.
Experienced political instability, now relatively stable since 2016.
Fast-growing economy dependent on cocoa, coffee, and expanding into gold mining and oil refining.
Abidjan is a major hub for West African economic activities.
Pacific Island States
Participated in a summit with Japan expressing concerns over military build-ups and the need for regional peace and security.
Geography: Vast region in the Pacific Ocean, categorized into Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; diverse climates and ecosystems.
They face challenges such as climate change impacts, biodiversity loss, and varying levels of development.
Economic activities include tourism, agriculture (especially coconut and palm oil), and fishing.
These islands play a crucial role in global biodiversity and climate resilience efforts.
PYQ:
[2022] Consider the following pairs:
Region often mentioned in the news: Country
Anatolia: Turkey
Amhara: Ethiopia
Cabo Delgado: Spain
Catalonia: Italy
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) Only one pair
(b) Only two pairs
(c) Only three pairs
(d) All four pairs
[2018] Consider the following pairs:
Towns sometimes mentioned in news: Country
1. Aleppo: Syria
2. Kirkuk: Yemen
3. Mosul: Palestine
4. Mazar-i-Sharif: Afghanistan
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MND and its causes; NIMHANS.
Why in the News?
The annual conference on Motor Neuron Disease (MND) ‘Awareness, Care and Management’ was held at NIMHANS.
What is Motor Neuron Disease (MND)?
MND is a condition that affects the nerves in the brain and spinal cord, which are responsible for controlling your muscles.
Over time, these nerves (called motor neurons) stop working properly, leading to muscle weakness and wasting away.
Types of MND:
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): The most common type. It affects both upper and lower motor neurons, leading to weakness in various body parts.
Progressive Bulbar Palsy (PBP): Affects the nerves in the brainstem, leading to problems with speaking and swallowing.
Progressive Muscular Atrophy (PMA): Affects only the lower motor neurons, causing muscle weakness and wasting.
Primary Lateral Sclerosis (PLS): Affects only the upper motor neurons, causing stiffness and movement difficulties.
Causes of MND:
Genetic Factors: In some families, MND can be inherited due to specific gene mutations.
Environmental Factors: Exposure to certain toxins, viruses, or physical injuries might contribute, but this is less clear.
Age and Gender: It usually affects people between the ages of 50 and 70 and is slightly more common in men.
Symptoms:
Muscle Weakness: Starts in one part of the body, like an arm or leg, and gradually spreads.
Muscle Cramps and Twitching: Small, involuntary muscle movements.
Difficulty Speaking and Swallowing: Due to weakness in the muscles used for these functions.
Breathing Problems: In advanced stages, muscles that control breathing can be affected.
Emotional Changes: Some people might experience changes in behavior or thinking.
Diagnosis:
Clinical Examination: A doctor examines your symptoms and medical history.
Electromyography (EMG): Tests the electrical activity of your muscles.
Nerve Conduction Studies (NCS): Checks how well your nerves send signals.
MRI: Scans to rule out other conditions.
Genetic Testing: To check for inherited forms of MND.
Treatment:
There is no cure for MND, but treatments can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.
Medications:
Riluzole: Can slow down the progression of ALS.
Edaravone: Another drug that may slow down the decline in daily activities.
Symptomatic Treatments: For muscle cramps, excess saliva, and emotional symptoms.
Therapies:
Physical Therapy: Helps maintain muscle strength and mobility.
Occupational Therapy: Aids in performing daily activities.
Speech Therapy: Assists with speech and swallowing difficulties.
Respiratory Therapy: Supports breathing issues.
Back2Basics: National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences (NIMHANS)
Details
Location
Bangalore, India
Affiliation
Autonomous institute under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India
Ranking
Ranked 4th best medical institute in India by the “National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF)”
History
Founded in 1847 as the Bangalore Lunatic Asylum.
Renamed as the Mental Hospital in 1925.
Amalgamated with the All India Institute of Mental Health (AIIMH) in 1974 to form NIMHANS.
Conferred with deemed university status by the University Grants Commission in 1994.
Declared an Institute of National Importance by an act of parliament in 2012.
Governance
Operates with academic autonomy under the “Societies Registration Act, 1860”.
Prioritises service, manpower development, and research in mental health and neurosciences.
A multidisciplinary integrated approach was adopted for translating research results into practice.
Funding
Receives resources for academic and research activities from national and international funding organisations.
Outreach
Engages in mental health outreach initiatives including critiquing mental health reports and collaborating with government agencies for training and counseling.
Known for diagnosing and treating various mental health conditions including depression and neurobiological disorders.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mount Canlaon, Cold Lava Mudflows
Why in the News?
After Mount Canlaon erupted in the Philippines, cold lava started flowing through streets and rivers.
It was followed by ashfall, and dangers like floods and mudflows downstream.
What is Cold Lava?
Cold lava, also known as “lahar,” is a mixture of water and rock fragments that flows rapidly down the slopes of a volcano, often triggered by heavy rainfall or volcanic eruptions.
The mixture forms a concrete-like substance that destroys everything in its path.
This can also include smooth, glassy textures or rough and jagged textures.
Another example of cold Lava in the world
Mount Merapi, Indonesia (2023): An eruption of Mount Merapi resulted in the deaths of at least 23 climbers and spewed ash up to 3,000 meters into the air, covering towns and villages
How harmful is Cold Lava?
Rain can carry cold lava down the slopes of a volcano during an eruption and into the path of nearby towns or villages.
According to the United States Geological Survey, cold lava has the power to crush and bury things in its path.
It also moves quickly like wet concrete and is considered more destructive than hot lava.
About Mount Canlaon
Mount Canlaon, located in the Philippines, is an active stratovolcano known for its frequent eruptions and volcanic activity.
It is situated on the island of Negros in the Visayas region of the Philippines.
It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, known for its high volcanic activity.
It poses hazards such as ash fall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (mudflows) that can endanger nearby communities and agriculture.
PYQ:
[2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mapping of New Caledonia
Why in the News?
New Caledonia, France’s Pacific island territory, is under a state of emergency due to deadly riots.
About New Caledonia
New Caledonia is a French overseas territory in the Pacific.
It enjoys a large degree of autonomy but depends heavily on France for matters like defence and education.
It includes the island of New Caledonia where the capital, Noumea, is located, the Loyalty Islands; the Belep Islands; and the Ile des Pins.
New Caledonia’s lagoons were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2008.
The Crisis: A Quick Recap
New Law: The French government passed a law that has upset people in New Caledonia.
Vote Reforms: Now, French citizens who lived on the island for 10 years or more can vote. The government says it’s fairer this way.
Resistance from Indigenous people: The locals, especially the Kanak community, feel this gives too much power to French settlers and stops them from gaining independence.
How did France occupy this territory?
Exploration: British explorer James Cook named the island New Caledonia in 1774 after the Latin name for Scotland.
French Annexation: France annexed it in 1853 and New Caledonia became a French overseas territory in 1946.
Fewer Locals: France brought in lots of French people. Now, the original Kanak people are only 40% of the population, while others, like the Caldoches and newer French arrivals, make up the rest.
Why are the people protesting?
There were similar fights in the 1990s, leading to promises of more power for locals.
In 2018, 2020, and 2021, they voted on whether to be independent from France. But many boycotted the last vote, saying it wasn’t fair because of the pandemic.
Why is it significant for France?
France sees New Caledonia as important for keeping power in the region.
It wants to stay strong in the Pacific to stand up to other big powers, like China.
PYQ:
[2014] Explain how the foundations of the modern world were laid by the American and French revolutions.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About CITES;
Mains level: The Kaza Summit and its objectives;
Why in the news?
At the KAZA 2024 Summit in Livingstone, Zambia, delegates reiterated the urge for member states to withdraw from CITES because they seek approval to trade their plentiful ivory and wildlife items.
About the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES):
It is an international agreement adopted in 1973 (entered into force in 1975) between governments.
Aim: To ensure that international trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties – in other words, they have to implement the Convention–it does not take the place of national laws.
Representatives of CITES nations meet every two to three years at a Conference of the Parties (COP) to review progress and adjust the lists of protected species, which are grouped into three categories with different levels of protection:
Appendix I: Includes the world’s most endangered plants and animals, such as tigers and gorillas. International commercial trade in these species, or even parts of them, is completely banned, except in rare cases such as scientific research.
Appendix II: Contains species like corals that are not yet threatened with extinction, but which could become threatened if unlimited trade were allowed. Also included are “look-alike” species that closely resemble those already on the list for conservation reasons. Plants and animals in this category can be traded internationally, but there are strict rules.
Appendix III: Species whose trade is only regulated within a specific country can be placed on Appendix III if that country requires cooperation from other nations to help prevent exploitation.
What is Kavango-Zambezi Trans-Frontier Conservation Area (KAZA-TFCA)?
The Kavango-Zambezi Trans-Frontier Conservation Area (KAZA-TFCA) spans 520,000 square kilometers. It covers parts of five southern African nations. These nations are Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
The area is centered around the Okavango and Zambezi river basins. The combined elephant population in these nations represents over two-thirds of Africa’s total, estimated at around 450,000.
Botswana has the largest elephant population within the region, with 132,000 elephants. Zimbabwe follows with 100,000 elephants.
Key Objectives of KAZA 2024 Summit :
Conservation: Promote the sustainable management and conservation of wildlife across the five member states: Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Economic Benefit: To explore ways to monetize abundant wildlife resources, particularly elephants, to fund conservation efforts and benefit local economies.
Dominant Issues:
At the 19th meeting of the CITES conference in Panama in 2022, KAZA states and five other southern African countries advocated for opening up trade in ivory and elephant products.
Southern African countries, including those in the KAZA region, argue that their large elephant populations contribute to habitat loss and human-wildlife conflict.
Despite repeated requests, CITES delegates rejected the proposal, leading to frustration among African countries.
Ten countries, including KAZA states and others like Eswatini, Lesotho, Mozambique, South Africa, and Tanzania, declared a dispute with CITES. They criticized CITES for straying from its founding principles and adopting ideologies over science-based conservation strategies.
Way forward:
Lobbying for Change: Advocacy for a more equitable and science-based approach to wildlife trade regulations within international frameworks like CITES.
Regional Cooperation: Enhance collaboration among member states to develop joint conservation strategies and share best practices for managing human-wildlife conflicts.
Diversification of Revenue Streams: Explore alternative sources of funding for conservation efforts, such as ecotourism, carbon credits, and sustainable agriculture.
Mains PYQ:
Q How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in the conservation of flora and fauna? (250 Words, 15 Marks) (UPSC IAS/2018)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Orangutan and its natural habitat
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
An orangutan was observed treating a wound with medicine from a tropical plant, showcasing how some animals employ natural remedies to alleviate their ailments.
This behavior, documented in a recent study published in Scientific Reports, represents a novel instance of self-medication among wild animals.
About Orangutans
Orangutans, are distinguished by their vivid red fur, are the largest arboreal mammals and spend the majority of their time in trees and forests.
The name “orangutan” translates to “man of the forest” in Malay.
They possess long, powerful arms and grasping hands and feet that facilitate movement through the branches.
Highly intelligent, these great apes share 96.4% of genetic makeup of modern man.
Orangutans primarily inhabit the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia, specifically on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra.
Conservation Status:Critically Endangered(IUCN Red list)
These apes lead mostly solitary lives in the lowland forests, dining on wild fruits such as lychees, mangosteens, and figs, and drinking water collected in tree cavities.
Orangutans are mainly frugivorous, they primarily eat fruits, and consume leaves, bark, insects, and occasionally small animals.
They construct nests in trees with vegetation for sleeping at night and resting during the day.
And, now they are found treating a wound with medicine from a Tropical plant.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bordering countries of Sudan;
Mains level: Important issues in the Global world;
Why in the News?
The inability of successive governments to articulate a shared vision has resulted in the unfair distribution of wealth and resources in Sudan.
ANKARA, TURKIYE – NOVEMBER 3: An infographic titled ”Sudanese civil war intensifies in the western cities” is created in Ankara, Turkiye on November 3, 2023. Since mid-April, the intensity of the conflicts between the army and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in Sudan, which have resulted in nearly 10,000 casualties, shifted from the capital Khartoum and its surroundings to the western cities. (Photo by Yasin Demirci/Anadolu via Getty Images)
Historical background of Conflict:
In 1956: The government that came to power in 1956 emphasized an Arab and Islamic identity based on Mahdist principles. It was not representative of diverse communities and demanded compliance, leading to widespread resistance.
In 1989: In 1989, a new government seized control under the National Islamic Front, an alliance between army officers and the Muslim Brotherhood. Omar al-Bashir came to power, supported by Islamist leader Hassan al-Turabi, aiming to establish an Islamic state.
In 1991: The government set up an internal security apparatus, arresting and torturing dissenters. It introduced a new penal code in 1991 to impose an Islamization agenda.
In 2003: The al-Bashir (in 2003) regime enlisted Janjaweed militias to quell an insurgency in Darfur. These militias were later designated as the Rapid Support Forces in 2013.
In 2018-19: After protests in 2018 and al-Bashir’s removal in 2019, a transitional military government was established. Despite challenges and a failed coup attempt, a power-sharing agreement was reached, but another coup led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan derailed the democratic transition.
Causes of the present conflict in Sudan:
Deep-rooted Crisis in Governance: The conflict reflects a longstanding crisis within Sudan’s governing structure since gaining independence in 1956, characterized by power struggles and frequent coups.
Identity Crisis and Rebellion: Sudan has experienced numerous rebellions fueled by an identity crisis, with marginalized populations seeking autonomy and fair representation within the state.
Ethnic and Regional Disparities: Sudan comprises of 19 major ethnic groups and about 597 ethnic sub-groups. Since independence, the Sudanese have experienced 35 coups and attempted coups, more than any other African country.
Religious and Political Ideologies: Shifts in government ideologies, such as the establishment of an Islamic state in 1989, have exacerbated tensions and led to further marginalization of certain groups.
Role of Militias: The emergence of paramilitary forces, such as the Rapid Support Forces, has complicated the conflict dynamics, with militias vying for power and control over resources.
Other country’s involvement: External influences, including support from foreign entities like Russia, have played a role in shaping the conflict landscape, particularly in resource-rich regions like Darfur.
Economic Interests: Economic factors, such as control over lucrative industries like gold mining, have contributed to the entrenchment of certain groups in power and fueled conflict dynamics.
Way Forward:
Establish a Civilian-Led Government: Sudan needs to prioritize the establishment of a transparent, civilian-led government that represents the diverse Sudanese populace. This government should ensure inclusivity and participation in decision-making processes.
Disarm and Demobilize Militias: Urgent action is needed to disarm and demobilize militias like the Rapid Support Forces. This will prevent militia dominance over the state and reduce the risk of armed confrontations and conflicts.
International Support for Reconstruction: Sudan requires collaborative efforts from the international community to aid in post-conflict reconstruction. This support can include financial assistance, capacity-building programs, and technical expertise to rebuild infrastructure, institutions, and communities affected by conflict.
Mains PYQ
Q Africa was chopped into states artificially created by accident of European competition. Analyse. (UPSC IAS/2013)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hopen Island, Barents Sea.
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Researchers disclosed that one of Norway’s Hopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago witnessed its first walrus death due to Bird Flu (H5N1).
AboutHopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago
Hopen Island is situated in the southern part of the Svalbard Archipelago, between the Barents Sea and the Greenland Sea.
The island covers an area of about 47 square km, making it one of the smaller islands in the Svalbard group.
The landscape mainly consists of low-lying tundra, rocky outcrops, and coastal cliffs.
Like the rest of Svalbard, Hopen Island experiences a harsh Arctic climate. Winters are long, dark, and extremely cold, while summers are short and cool.
It serves as an important breeding groundfor seabirds such as guillemots, puffins, and kittiwakes. Polar bears are also occasionally spotted on the island, along with walruses, seals, and Arctic foxes.
It is uninhabited and largely inaccessible to humans due to its remote location and extreme weather conditions.
Historically, Hopen Island has been of strategic importance due to its location between the Barents Sea and the Greenland Sea.
H5N1 Bird Flu: Details
H5N1 originated from a virus outbreak on a goose farm in China in 1996 and has since evolved into a highly pathogenic strain.
The virus quickly spread from Europe to Africa, Asia, North America, and South America, and most recently, it reached mainland Antarctica.
H5N1 is a subtype of the influenza A virus that causes severe respiratory disease in birds, known as avian influenza or “bird flu”.
Influenza A viruses are classified by subtypes based on the properties of their surface proteins, with H5N1 being one subtype.
How widespread is it?
The virus has affected birds in over 80 countries, resulting in mass culling of poultry and wild birds.
Furthermore, it has now begun infecting mammals, including seals, sea lions, and marine mammals.
While humans rarely contract bird flu, those at risk are typically individuals who have extensive contact with infected birds at poultry farms.
Bird flu first broke out in Maharashtra in 2006.
The H5N1 virus led to the culling of millions of poultry so as to contain the virus. But it has resurfaced from time to time.
PYQ:
[2014] Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Antarctica Region
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Antarctic Treaty has sparked debates among policymakers, scientists, and the public, as they weigh the balance between environmental conservation, economic interests, and geopolitical concerns in Antarctica.
About Antarctica
Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, covering an area of approximately 14 million square km.
It is situated entirely within the Antarctic Circle, with its geographic center near the South Pole.
It is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on Earth.
The interior of Antarctica is a polar desert, receiving very little precipitation, mostly in the form of snow.
The Antarctic Ice Sheet is the largest single mass of ice on Earth, containing approximately 70% of the world’s freshwater.
Geographical Features:
Description
Mountains
The continent is home to several mountain ranges, including the Transantarctic Mountains.
Vinson Massif is the highest peak at 4,892 meters (16,050 feet) above sea level.
Ice Shelves
Large floating ice shelves extend along the coast, formed by glaciers flowing from the interior, crucial for stabilizing the Antarctic ice sheet.
Glaciers
Numerous glaciers flow from the high interior to the coast, including Pine Island Glacier and Thwaites Glacier, among the largest and fastest-moving in the world.
Icebergs
Glaciers calve off large chunks of ice, forming icebergs of various sizes.
Antarctic Iceberg A-68, which broke off from the Larsen C Ice Shelf in 2017, was one of the largest recorded.
Plateaus
Much of Antarctica’s interior consists of high, flat plateaus covered by ice, reaching elevations over 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) above sea level.
Ice-Free Areas
Despite being predominantly ice-covered, some ice-free areas exist along the coastlines and in the Antarctic Peninsula region, supporting limited vegetation and wildlife.
Territorial Claims on Antarctica:
The countries with territorial claims in Antarctica are:
Argentina: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Argentine Antarctica.
Australia: Claims the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Chile: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Chilean Antarctic Territory.
France: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Adélie Land.
New Zealand: Claims the Ross Dependency.
Norway: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land.
United Kingdom: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as the British Antarctic Territory.
United States: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as the Marie Byrd Land.
India’s Antarctic Outreach
Initiated in 1981, India’s Antarctic Program, managed by National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, encompasses multi-disciplinary research expeditions.
With the establishment of research bases like Dakshin Gangotri (1983) (now decommissioned), Maitri (1989), and Bharati (2012), India contributes significantly to Antarctic exploration.
Notably, India’s presence in Antarctica includes a Post Office established in 1984, facilitating communication and research logistics.
PYQ:
[2011] The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic region has been a cause of concern. What could be the reason for the formation of this hole?
(a) Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons
(b) Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric’: Clouds; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons
(c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds; and inflow of methane and chlorofluorocarbons
(d) Increased temperature at polar region due to global warming.
