Urbanisation is important in UPSC CSE Mains due to its impact on economic growth, social dynamics, and governance challenges. It underscores the need for sustainable urban planning, infrastructure development, and equitable resource distribution to manage its complex implications effectively.
Questions in UPSC CSE (Mains) from this theme
- Does urbanisation lead to more segregation and/or marginalisation of the poor in Indian metropolises? (2023)
- How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an emphasis on the culture of consumption? (2022)
- Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration. (2015)
- Discuss the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of urbanisation in India. (2013)
- How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of India? (2019)
- With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart City Programme’. (2016)
Sub-themes
In line with the trends of the exam, we have prepared this study material with the following subthemes:
- Urban poverty
- Urbanisation and middle class
- Smart Cities
- Urban- Rural linkages
- Rapid urbanisation in india
- Urban heat islands
Definition Of Urbanisation
Urbanisation is the process of transformation that occurs as a society evolves from predominantly rural to predominantly urban areas. Urbanisation encompasses social, economic, and cultural transformations. It is driven by the migration of individuals from rural to urban areas in pursuit of employment opportunities, improved living standards, access to better education and healthcare facilities.
Growth Trends
| Period | Cities with Population >1 Million | Share of Urban Population |
|---|---|---|
| 2001 | 35 | 37% |
| 2011 | 53 | 42.6% |
Future Projections
By 2031, nearly 41% of people will reside in urban India, with significant prosperity in metros and boom towns. States like Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, and West Bengal are witnessing faster middle-class growth, driven by multiple urban centres.
Challenges faced by Urban Middle Class
| Challenge | Solution |
|---|---|
| Urban Congestion | Develop infrastructure to accommodate growth. Example: Metro rail projects in major cities |
| Rising Living Costs | Implement affordable housing policies. Example: Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHCs) |
| Job Market Saturation | Promote skill development and diversified job opportunities. Example: Skill India Mission |
| Healthcare and Education | Enhance public healthcare and educational facilities. Example: Ayushman Bharat Yojana, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan |
| Environmental Impact | Invest in sustainable urban development practices. Example: AMRUT Mission |
Smart Cities Mission
One hundred cities were selected for five years under the mission, aimed at driving economic growth and improving the quality of life of people by enabling local development and harnessing technology.
| SCM Strategy | Details |
|---|---|
| Pan-City Initiative | At least one smart solution applied city-wide. |
| Area-Based Development | Area-Based Development Retrofitting (city improvement), Redevelopment (city renewal), Greenfield projects (city extension). |
| Core Infrastructure Elements | Adequate water supply, Assured electricity supply, Sanitation, Efficient urban mobility and public transport, Affordable housing, Robust IT connectivity and digitalisation, Good governance, Sustainable environment, Safety and security, Health and education. |
Funding and Implementation
The mission, initially planned for five years (FY 2015-16 to FY 2019-20), was extended until June 2024. It operates as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with Rs 48,000 crores of financial support from the Central Government over five years. States and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) contribute matching funds, bringing the total to nearly Rs 1 lakh crore for Smart Cities development.
A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) led by a bureaucrat or MNC representative, and other major stakeholders was created, bypassing traditional city governance models.
| Current Status and Challenges | Details |
|---|---|
| Projects sanctioned | 8,033 |
| Total outlay reduced | ₹1,67,875 crore |
| Projects completed | 5533 |
| Ongoing projects | 1921 |
Convergence with Other Government Schemes
Comprehensive development is achieved by integrating the SCM with other sectoral schemes like AMRUT, Swachh Bharat Mission, Digital India, Skill Development, and Housing for All.
| Challenges | Solutions |
|---|---|
| Funding Shortfalls: Securing adequate funding is a significant challenge due to the ambitious scope of the Smart Cities Mission. Relying solely on government funds is insufficient. | Increase private sector participation and develop innovative financing models. Example: Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in infrastructure projects. |
| Exclusion of Areas: The mission often focuses on specific areas within a city, leading to the exclusion of other regions that also need development. | Ensure inclusive development across entire cities. Example: Integrated development planning with AMRUT Mission. |
| Governance Issues: Effective governance is crucial but can be hindered by bureaucratic inefficiencies, lack of coordination, and insufficient capacity of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). | Strengthen governance frameworks and SPV structures. Example: Training and capacity building programs for ULBs. |
| Displacement of Communities: Urban development projects can lead to the displacement of poorer communities, with residents being forced out without adequate compensation or relocation plans. | Implement policies to protect vulnerable populations. Example: Rajiv Awas Yojana. |
| Infrastructure Disruptions: Large-scale infrastructure projects can disrupt urban environments, causing issues like urban flooding, traffic congestion, and environmental degradation. | Use sustainable urban planning to avoid infrastructure issues like flooding. Example: Nature-based solutions and green infrastructure. |
Urban-Rural Linkages
Urban-Rural Linkages touch on a broad variety of thematic areas ranging from urban and territorial planning, strengthening small and intermediate towns, enabling spatial flows of people, products, services and information to fostering food security systems.
They also involve addressing mobility and migration, reducing the environmental impact in urban-rural convergences, developing legislation and governance structures, and promoting inclusive financial investments.
| Importance of Urban-Rural Linkages |
|---|
| Mutual Dependence: Urban and rural areas rely on each other for economic and social stability. Balanced development ensures mutual growth. |
| Reducing Rural Poverty: Strengthening linkages helps reduce rural poverty by enhancing access to markets, services, and opportunities. |
| Integrated Planning: Essential for achieving sustainable development goals by promoting cohesive planning and resource management. |
| Economic Growth: Urban areas provide markets for rural products, while rural areas supply food and raw materials. |
| Cultural Exchange: Facilitates the exchange of social and cultural practices, enriching both communities. |
| Infrastructure and Services: Integrated planning improves the delivery of transportation, healthcare, and education. |
| Environmental Sustainability: Balanced development helps manage natural resources more sustainably, reducing environmental degradation. |
| Managing Migration: Better linkages can manage migration flows, reducing pressure on urban areas and providing rural opportunities. |
| Food Security: Strengthening linkages improves agricultural supply chains and reduces post-harvest losses. |
| Effective Governance: Integrated governance ensures coherent development strategies for both urban and rural areas. |
Challenges and Solutions for Urban-Rural Linkages
| Challenges | Solutions |
|---|---|
| Development Gaps: Significant development gaps exist between urban and rural areas, leading to unequal access to resources and opportunities. | Implement integrated urban and territorial planning. Example: Integrated Rural Urban Linkages (IRUL) framework by UN-Habitat. |
| Infrastructure Deficit: Rural areas often suffer from a lack of essential infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and communication networks, hindering connectivity with urban areas. | Invest in infrastructure to support rural-urban connectivity. Example: Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). |
| Economic Disparities: Economic disparities between urban and rural areas lead to uneven development and limited economic opportunities for rural populations. | Promote balanced economic development and inclusive investments. Example: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM). |
| Governance Issues: Fragmented governance and lack of coordination between different administrative levels and sectors hinder effective implementation of development policies. | Strengthen multi-sectoral, multi-level governance frameworks. Example: Convergence initiatives in Andhra Pradesh. |
| Environmental Impact: Urban expansion and rural development can lead to environmental degradation, affecting biodiversity and natural resources. | Implement environmentally sensitive policies. Example: National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). |
Rapid Urbanisation in India
One of the most complex challenges India faces today is the pace and pattern of urbanisation. By 2036, its towns and cities will be home to 600 million people, or 40% of the population, up from 31% in 2011. Urban areas are expected to contribute almost 70% to GDP. Managing this urban transformation effectively will be crucial for India’s ambition of becoming a developed country by 2047.
Key Statistics
| Period | Urban Population (%) | Urban Population (millions) |
|---|---|---|
| 2011 | 31% | ~377 |
| 2036 | 40% | ~600 |
| 2050 | 50% | ~820 |
Investment Needs
India will need to invest $840 billion in infrastructure by 2036, averaging $55 billion or 1.2% of GDP annually. However, between 2011 and 2018, India’s total capital expenditure on urban infrastructure averaged only 0.6% of GDP.
| Funding Sources | Percentage |
|---|---|
| Central and State Governments | 72% |
| Commercial Financing | 5% |
| Private Financing | High potential but underutilised |
Key Strategies for Urban Transformation
| Strategy | Example |
|---|---|
| Set up Smart New Cities | Develop new urban areas with modern infrastructure and facilities. Implement public-private partnership models. Example: Dholera Smart City Project. |
| Develop Transport Corridors | Leverage transport corridors for new city locations. Establish corridor development agencies to tie up with city planning. Example: Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC). |
| Revitalise Manufacturing Sector | Incentivise the location of manufacturing units in new cities. Use specially empowered governance structures to streamline approvals. Example: Make in India initiative. |
| Build Capacity of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) | Execute bankable projects to attract private investment. Develop municipal bond markets and innovative financing structures. Example: Capacity building programs under AMRUT Mission. |
| Invest in Public Services | Improve access to healthcare and education. Enhance public transportation systems. Example: Ayushman Bharat Yojana, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan. |
| Promote Water Security | Develop infrastructure for efficient water use and recycling. Example: Jal Jeevan Mission. |
Examples of Urban Transformation
| City/Town | Initiative |
|---|---|
| Chennai | Holistic approach to transportation, establishing a nodal body. |
| Surat | Large-scale wastewater recycling. |
| Dharampuri | Integrated approach to water supply, recycling wastewater. |
Challenges and Solutions for Rapid Urbanisation
| Challenge | Solution with Example |
|---|---|
| Infrastructure Deficit | Increase investment in urban infrastructure development. Example: AMRUT Mission. |
| Environmental Sustainability | Implement sustainable urban planning and green technologies. Example: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). |
| Economic Disparities | Promote inclusive economic growth and employment opportunities. Example: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM). |
| Governance and Planning | Strengthen urban governance frameworks and planning processes. Example: Smart Cities Mission. |
| Housing Shortages | Develop affordable housing policies and programs. Example: Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban). |
Urban Heat Islands
Urban heat islands (UHIs) are local and temporary phenomena where certain pockets within a city experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas due to trapped heat.
Causes of Urban Heat Islands
| Cause | Details |
|---|---|
| Construction Activities | Increased use of asphalt and concrete trapping heat. |
| Dark Surfaces | Buildings with dark surfaces absorb more heat. |
| Air Conditioning | Increased energy use and local heating from air conditioners. |
| Urban Architecture | Tall buildings and narrow streets reduce air circulation. |
| Transportation Systems | Use of fossil fuels adds warmth. |
| Lack of Green Areas | Reduces cooling effects from evapotranspiration and shade. |
Mitigation Strategies for Urban Heat Islands
| Strategy | Example |
|---|---|
| Increase Area Under Green Cover | Plant trees and increase green spaces. Example: Green Delhi Campaign. |
| Passive Cooling Technologies | Use naturally ventilated building designs. Example: Traditional architecture in Jodhpur. |
| Appropriate Construction Materials | Use materials with higher reflectivity. Example: Cool roofs in Ahmedabad. |
| Roof and Terrace Treatments | Paint roofs and terraces with white or light colours. Example: White roofs initiative in Jaipur. |
| Promote Terrace Plantation | Encourage rooftop gardens and kitchen gardens. Example: Rooftop gardens in Bangalore. |
Government Efforts towards Sustainable Urbanisation
| Initiative | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| AMRUT | A step towards harnessing the agglomeration economies of urban centres. | AMRUT initiatives in Varanasi and Bhopal |
| Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana | Programme for affordable housing with credit-linked subsidy. | Affordable housing projects in Mumbai |
| Smart Cities Mission | Urban development programme to develop 100 cities across the country, making them citizen-friendly and sustainable. | Smart city projects in Pune and Surat |
| National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) | Scheme for the holistic development of heritage cities. | HRIDAY projects in Varanasi and Jaipur |
| Swachh Bharat Mission | Initiative to promote cleanliness and sanitation across urban and rural areas. | |
| Deen Dayal Antodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihood Mission (DAY – NULM) | Aims at creating opportunities for skill development leading to market-based employment and helping the poor set up self-employment ventures. | Skill development programmes |
| Urban Transport | Interventions like Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) and financing of metro rail projects. | BRTS in cities like Ahmedabad |
| Pooled Finance Development Fund Scheme | Facilitates development of bankable urban infrastructure projects and helps Urban Local Bodies access capital and financial markets. | Municipal bonds for urban infrastructure |
| North Eastern Region Urban Development Programme (NERUDP) | Covers priority urban services like water supply, sewerage and sanitation, and solid waste management in the capital cities of five North Eastern states. | Urban development in Agartala and Aizawl |
Measures Needed for Urban Development
| Measure | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Increase Connectivity and Infrastructure | Initiatives like AMRUT, Smart Cities, Digital India, BharatMala, PMGSY to spread the manufacturing sector evenly. | Improved connectivity through BharatMala in remote areas |
| Planning of Peri-Urban Areas | Proper planning and increased connectivity to spread out the population evenly. | RURBAN scheme to develop rural-urban clusters |
| Improve Access to Telecommunication and Post-Secondary Education | Improve access in secondary cities to spread the service sector. | Expansion of telecommunication networks in tier-2 cities |
| Incentivise Setting Up Manufacturing Industries | Encourage setting up industries in underdeveloped areas. | National Industrial Manufacturing Zones |
| Strengthen Allied Activities | Boost food processing through Food Parks to reduce migration. | Establishment of Food Parks in states like Punjab |
| Boost MSMEs in Smaller Cities | Encourage growth of MSMEs responsible for creating jobs. | Support for MSMEs in cities like Coimbatore and Sura |
Urbanisation is a dynamic process that brings both opportunities and challenges. Effective urban planning, inclusive policies, and sustainable development strategies are essential to harness the positive impacts of urbanisation and address its associated problems. By promoting ‘good’ urbanisation, India can achieve higher living standards, economic growth, and social cohesion, ultimately contributing to the nation’s overall development.
